Agarv Ala vish Ala H

Sakala Sakhas of Rigveda

Rigvedi Brahmin communities.

Tamil Nadu

The Aiyar Brahmins of Tamil Nadu recite the Samhita, Padapatha, Kramapatha, Jatapatha and Ghanapatha of the Rigveda Samhita [STAAL 1961:24-25].

Kerala

Nambudiris: According to the most comprehensive studies undertaken, approximately 35% of the Nambudiris are Rigvedins, 50% are Yajurvedins and just about 1/8% are Samavedins. The rest are excluded from Vedic study [STAAL 1961:35-36]. The peculiarities of Rigveda recitations of Nambudiris are discussed by STAAL [1961] in detail, and are beyond the scope of the present article. They do not recite the ghanapatha, and the Samhita, Pada and Krama recitions are collectively termed as Trisandham. Unique to this Brahmin community is the recitation of the vkrti called ‘rathapATha’, which is somewhat different from the standard ratha illustrated in the ‘aSTavikRti’ in printed additions such as those of Satavlekar [ibid 47].

The other significant feature of Nambudiri Rigvedins is that they recite not only the Samhita, but also their Brahmana, Aranyaka and the Upanishads with Vedic accents. Secondly. they are not necessary followers of the Asvalayana Sutra. They might also belong to the Shankhayana Sakha (which they call ‘Kausitaki’) [STAAL 1961:53].

Maharashtra: Maharashtra has numerous communities of Brahmins following the Rigveda as their svashakha.

1. Saraswat Brahmins [KARVE 1968:22] – Epigraphic records show that this community of Brahmins has been occupying the western coastal strip between Malwan (in Gujarat) to Managalore (in Karnataka) from at least the time of the Kadamba dynasty, i.e., the 12^th century AD. Currently however, these Brahmins are found as far south as Cochin (in Kerala) and Mumbai and even in Chennai. The Saraswat Brahmins are known for their particular dietary trait – they eat fish, whereas all the Dravida Brahmins in their vicinity are vegetarians. They are the southernmost group of people speaking an Indo-Aryan dialect, and worship Lord Shiva as Mangesh, and the mother goddess in her various auspicious forms. The Saraswat Brahmins allow the marriage or a man with his mother’s brother’s daughter. They speak a language which is often distinguished from Marathi as a distinct language (and not a dialect of Marathi) by linguists. The Saraswat Brahmins are also called Gaud Saraswats or Shenvis. Per their own traditions, they hail from the banks of the Sarasvati River in north India, from where they were brought by Parshuram for settlement in and around Goa.
2. Karhade Brahmins [KARVE 1968:22-23] – They are a small community of coastal Maharashtrian, and live to the immediate north of the Saraswats, in the districts of Satara, Kolaba and Ratnagiri. The community apparently originated in the Deccan plateau, from where they migrated en masse towards the town of Karhad on the western edge of the plateau. Historical records indicate that they have been present in that area from at least the 12^th century CE, and that they held important revenue offices from the 10^th to the 13^th century CE. The Karhade Brahmins are strict vegetarians, and they worship the mother goddess. They permit the marriage of a man to his sister’s daughter and to his father’s sister’s daughter. According to tradition, these Brahmins were created by Parshuram from a camel’s bone [ibid, 135].
3. Chitpavan Brahmins – They are also known as the Konkanastha Brahmins, are famous for a high incidence (approx. 10%) of occurrence of hazel eyes amongst its members. They are located traditionally north of the Karhade Brahmins, are associated very strongly with certain places in and around the Ratnagiri district north of Goa. Starting sometime around 1650 AD, large members started migrating to the Deccan Plateau, especially to Pune in the time of the Peshwa rule. They worship Lord Shiva in shrines along the coast and river beds on the coastal strip, in conjunction with a goddess [KARVE 1968:23-24]. They are strict vegetarians. Most Chitpavan Brahmins follow the Krishna Yajurveda, but some are Rigvedins as well. This is significant, as all other Maharashtrian Brahmin castes follow only one particular Veda.
4. Deshastha Brahmins: They are a numerous community on the central and western Deccan Plateau, and have been quite exceptional in the preservation of the Rigveda Samhita and its various recitation modes (Padapatha, Ghanapatha, Jatapatha etc.) along with the ancillary texts. They typically follow the Asvalayana Sutra, and till recently, memorized even texts such as the Nirukta, Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, Pingala’s Chhandasutras and so on. The Deshastha Brahmins are scattered all over the Deccan Plateau in Karnataka, Maharashtra, western Andhra Pradhesh along the banks of the Tapi, Godavari and Krishna rivers and are strict vegetarians. A large number of them worship the regional deities of Khandoba and Vithoba. They are strict vegetarians, and permit the marriage of a man to his sister’s daughter, and rarely, to his father’s sister’s daughter.
5. Devrukhe Brahmins: They are the smallest community of coastal Maharashtrian Brahmins, and derive their name from the place Devrukh in the Sangameshwar Taluka of the Ratnagiri district [KARVE 1968:134]. They are often looked down upon by other Brahmin communities and they permit the marriage of a man to his mother’s brother’s daughter.

Shakala Samhita

AMARNATHASHASTRI [1950] has examined several passages of Rigveda where there is a confusion between ‘spandra’ and ‘syandra’ and concludes that in RV 1.180.9; 5.52.3 and 5.52.8 – the traditional reading ‘spandra’ is more acceptable. On the other hand, the reading ‘syandra’ is preferable in RV 5.87.3; 6.12.5 and 10.42.8

Padapatha: The Padapatha surprisingly does not exist on 6 mantras -

**Kramapatha of Rigveda: **According to Mahabharata Shantiparva 342.103-4, Galava, born in the Babhravya Gotra and a native of Panchala, composed the Krama text of Rigveda, together with a treatise in Shiksha. Rikpratisakya 11.65 too states that Galava was the first composer of the Krama text on Rigveda. The same text, a 11.33, quotes Babhravya, and the commentator Uvata designates him as Panchala. According to Kashika, the Sutra 2.4.5 of Ashtadhyai (adhyayanato’apiprakrishtakhyanam) refers to the Krama text of Samhitas as well. On the Kramapatha of the Rigveda, there exists a text called the Upalekha Sutra, which is variously attributed to Katyayana, Saunaka and Bharadvaja (see below for more details). Sankhayana Srautasutra 12.13.6 refers to ‘panchalapadavrttih’, which could indicate the Kramapatha. Recitors of the Kramapatha of Rigveda still exist.

Ghanapatha of Rigveda: Manuscripts of the same are reported to exist/have existed [Ref. 2, pg. 187] and the oral tradition is still alive in peninsular India.

Jatapatha: Short manuscripts containing the Jatapatha of a few selected verses of the Rigveda exist in certain manuscript collections [AITHAL 1991:188].

Oral Traditions

Three types of Rigvedic recitation exist in India: Maharashtrian, Nambudiri and Tamil. The Maharashtrian Rigvedins belong to the Shakala Shakha and the Ashvalayana Sutra [Ref. 7, pg. 21].

Geographical Distribution

The epigraphy dealing with the northern Ashvalayanas is found to the east and the north: 1. At Barrackpur (West Bengal) during the Sena dynasty; 2. Around Jodhpur, Rajasthan, 8^th cent. C.E.; 3. In Mandhata, Malva (Madhya Pradesh), 12^th cent. C.E.; 4. In the Tirunelveli region, Tamilnad, 16^th and 17^th cent. C.E.; 5. In the Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, 15^th cent. C.E.; 6. At Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, 17^th cent. C.E.; 7. At Tanjavur, Tamil Nadu, during Pallava rule; 8. In the North Arcot district, Tamil Nadu, 14^th cent. C.E. [Ref. 7, pg. 22]

Traditional Commentaries of the Sakala Samhita

Skandaswamin:

The date of Skandaswamin can be deduced from the colophon verses in Hariswamin’s commentary on the Madhyandina Satpatha Brahmana. According to a verse in the colophons of the commentary, Hariswamin was the ‘dharmaadhyaksha’ of Emperor Vikramaditya, the ruler of Avanti. Hariswamin also states that he was the pupil of Skandaswamin, a commentator of the Veda. The date on which the commentary on the Satapatha Brahmana was written by Hariswamin is also mentioned in another verse, which is interpreted by SARUP [1937] as “This commentary was written when 3700 and another 40 years of the Kali Age had passed away” [p. 399]. Since the Kali Era commenced in 3102 BCE according to tradition, we arrive 638 CE as the year in which the commentary was composed. This leads to the difficulty that no king by the name Vikramaditya is known to have ruled at Avanti in that year. SARUP therefore amends the text to read ‘3600 and another 40 years’ leading to 538 CE as the date of the composition. Thereafter, he equates Yasodharman, the ruler of Malva, with Vikramaditya, and concludes that Yasodharman was the patron of Hariswamin. If we accept SARUP’s emendation, Skandaswamin becomes a senior contemporary of Hariswamin, and should have lived around the beginning of the sixth century C.E.

He was the son of Bhartrdhurva and belonged to Vallabhi in Saurashtra¹. Apparently, he was a Vaishnava and followed the Sakala Sakha with the Asvalayanasutra².

Narayana

Udgitha: There is much similarity between the commentaries of Udgitha and Sayanacharya, and the latter borrows profusely from the former. However, Sayanacharya does not borrow from Udgitha blindly. Rather, when Udgitha gives multiple interpretations for words in Rigvedic verses, Sayana often accepts/borrows only one of them, which suits the ritual application of the verse. In addition, Sayana also stresses more on the etymological aspects of the verses. [KASHIKAR 1950]

Venkata Madhava

Madhvacharya (13^th cent. C.E.) the famous founder of the Dvaita Vedanta Sampradaya, composed a commentary on first 40 suktas of Rigveda from an Adhyatmic Vaishnava perspective. This commentary has a string of subcommentaries attached to it: The Bhashya of Jayatirtha (14^th cent. C.E.), Mantrarthamanjari of Raghavendra, Rigarthoddhara of Shrinivasa, Prakasha of Satyanatha, Vivritti of Pandurangi Keshavi Bhattaraka and Tippanis of Chalari Ramachandra Bhikshu and Arogya Hari.

Sayanacharya

Ravana

Edward Hall was perhaps the first scholar to mention Ravana’s commentary on Rgveda³. He stated that he had met several Pandits in Gwalior and Ajmer who were not only acquainted with Ravana’s commentary, but also claimed that it extended over the entire Samhitas of Rgveda and Yajurveda. HALL also noted that the existence of Ravana’s commentary on the Rgveda is indicated in Mallaari’s Grahalaaghava. Dayanand Sarasvati (d. 1883 CE), the founder of Arya Samaj, too mentions Ravana as a commentator of the Vedas, in his own Rgvedaadibhaashyabhumikaa. Bhagavad DATTA mentions the existence of a manuscript of Ravana’s Padapaatha on Rgveda Samhita in the Lalchand Library of D. A. V. University in Lahore before 1947. Nothing is known about its current existence.⁴ The Padapaatha does differ from the prevelant Padapaatha of Sakalya on the Rgveda Samhita.

Citations from Ravana’s commentary are found in the Daivajna Pandit Surya’s commentary titled Paramaathaprabha on the Bhagavad Gita⁵. These have been and edited with a Hindi translation by GUPTA [1967]⁶. The following table lists the commented mantras and their location in the commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.

Rgveda Mantra	Verse of Gita	Page number in Gujarati Press Edition
1.22.20	5.28	441
1.22.21	5.28	441
1.164.20	8.4	622
10.71.6	10.11	758
10.71.8	3.18	256
10.71.9	3.18	256
10.71.10	9.33	737
10.81.2	9.10	691
10.107.1	18.18	13.7
10.114.3	7.14	582
10.114.4	7.14	582
10.129.1	9.10	691
10.129.2	9.10	691

On his Gita commentary on verse 11.33, Daivajna Pandit also notes that whereas Sayana’s commentary on the Vedas was primarily Adhidaivika (pertaining to deities and the rites associated with them), Ravana’s own commentary had a distinct aadhyaatmika (spiritual) bent. The summary below is based on this edition. Nothing much can be said about the date of Ravana, except that he must have obviously preceded Daivanja Pandit Surya, who himself wrote his commentary on the Lilavati in the year 1538.⁷

Ravana seems to be a follower of Shankaracharya’s Advaita Vedanta. In his commentary, he quotes Rgveda, Yajurveda, Upanishads, Nirukta, Ashtadhyayi, Agama texts, Hathayoga texts etc. The editor compares and contrasts Ravana’s interpretations with those of these mantras in other Vedic texts (such as the Krsnayajurveda Samhitas and Brahmanas, Kalpasutras, Upanishads) and in later commentaries of Sayana, Skandasvamin etc. Whereas Madhavabhatta uses Brahmana texts quite profusely, Ravana does not seem to derive much from them [page 34]. While Venkatamadhava relies greatly on Pauranic and Akhyana interpretations of mantras, Ravana steers clear of this approach and draws more on Advaita Vedanta [page 38]. Sayana differes a lot from Ravana in interpreting Rgveda 10.129.1.2, but on other mantras, there are strong similarities. It appears that one of the writers is borrowing from the other, but on this basis alone, it is difficult to determine if Sayana preceded Ravana or vice-versa. In some cases (for instance on mantra 10.107.1), Ravana attributes a non-conventional meaning to Sanskrit roots (dhatus). Often, he also resolves the words of mantras in a manner different from that depicted in Sakalhya’s padapaatha.

Mudgala

Sarvidyanidhana Kavindracharya Sarasvati: A fragment of the introductory portion of his Tika on Rgveda, comprising of a mere six folios, exists in the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 228]. The fragment does not even complete Kavindracharya’s introduction to his commentary. The brief passage from the same cited in the manuscript catalog seems to indicate that author considered Dharma as the supreme Purusharthas, even above Moksha.

Nitimanjari of Dyaa Dviveda: An autocommentary on the Nitimanjari too was composed by Dviveda and two manuscripts on the same exist in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 249-251].

Modern Translations of the Sakala Samhita

The list below is obviously partial, and excludes linguistic, philological, anthropological and other secondary studies on the Rigveda. I have tried to include only those works which are intentional translations of (parts) the text.

F. Rosen. His Rigveda-Sanhita, liber primus, published in 1838, is a Latin translation of the first Mandala of the Rigveda. Rosen was a young German scholar, when he published his work

H. H. Wilson translated the text, basing himself on the traditional commentary of Sayana. The translation was completed by E. B. Cowell, and published in several volumes between 1850 and 1866, from London

Theodore Benfey, 1832, Uebersetzung des Rigveda, published from Goettingen.

Martin Haug, 1863, A Contribution towards a Right Understanding of the Rigveda, published from Bombay.

Hermann Grassman, professionally a renowned Mathematician, produced a metrical translation of the Rigveda, and also a ‘Woerterbuch zum Rigveda’ (published in 1873 from Leipzig).

Theodore Aufrect, 1877. Die Hymnen des Rigveda, Bonn

Adolf Kaegi published his Des Rigveda, die aelteste Literature der Inder, from Leipzig in 1881. This is a two volume work.

Hermann Oldenberg wrote several works, in English as well as in German, to expound the text. In 1888, he published the Prolegomenon…

Peter Peterson published in 1888, a selection of Rigvedic hymns, together with their translation, from Bombay. The work was titled Hymns from the Rigveda.

Ralph T. H. Griffith produced a metrical popular translation of the Rigveda Samhita, which was first published in 1889 from Varanasi. The translation has been reprinted several times, in India and abroad, and is very widely used for several reasons. First, it is one of the few available complete translations in English of the text. Secondly, it is conveniently available in a single volume, whereas other translations, whether in English or in Indian vernaculars, are typically available in multi-volume editions. Griffith apparently took into account most of the material produced by western Vedicists on the text, till his time. However, despite the popularity of the translation, competent Vedicists today use the text with extreme caution, or even ignore it completely because of the presence of numerous inaccuracies and errors.

Max Mueller

Dayanada Saraswati: A massive commentary on Rgveda, extending to mantra 7.61.2⁸ was written by the Swami, and the work was unfortunately interrupted by his sudden death⁹. The commentary was first published in monthly installments, for several years after his death¹⁰. Eventually the Paropakarini Sabha of Ajmer consolidated these monthly fascicules into nine volumes and published them separately¹¹. The published editions of this work contain his Sanskrit commentary, and a Hindi translation by his collaborators Pandit Bhimasen and Pt. Jwaladatta [BHARATIYA 1974: 5sqq.]. The work has an extensive preface titled ‘Rgvedaadibhashyabhumika’ (‘An Introduction to the Commentary on Rgveda and other Vedas’) which contains lucidly written chapters on various topics related to Veda, and the Swamis views on various aspects of Vedic interpretation. Swamiji was very insistent that buyers of his commentary on Rgveda must also simultaneously buy this introduction¹². This Bhumika has chapters on forty topics such as revelation of the Vedas, scope of the term ‘Veda’, authoritativeness of various Hindus scriptures, cosmology, responses to certain anticipated objections, criticism of medieval commentaries such as those of Sayana and Mahidhara etc.

Dayanand’s commentaries on Vedic texts conform to the beliefs regarding the Vedas propagated by the Arya Samaj, an organization that he started in the year 1875. First, the Vedas are held to preach pure monotheism and therefore Agni, Indra etc., are held to be merely names of the one God. Swamiji also rejected the notion that various devatas in the mantras were real entities, or that they were the ‘*abhimaani*’ souls of various cosmic bodies. Second, the Vedas are said to encompass the Samhitas only, not the Brahmanas. Third, the Vedas are said to be the eternal word of God revealed at the beginning of creation[^13], and as such, they are devoid completely of historical accounts or proper names. All apparently proper names (such as Divodasa) are there treated as adjectival nouns or as common nouns. Fourth, since the Vedas are divine knowledge, they contain all the branches of knowledge (even modern ones like telegraphy, aeronautics and so on) in the root form. Swamiji rejected a traditional view that the Samhitas dealt merely with Srauta ritual. Accordingly, his commentary endeavors to explain the mantras from a multifaceted ‘practical’ perspective, and tries to illuminate various aspects of sciences, politics, administration and arts through them. This does not mean that Swamiji rejected the ritualistic interpretations of the mantras per se. Rather, he said that Brahmanas, Kalpasutras and Mimamsasutras should be consulted for the same, and that there was no point in repeating them in his own commentary. Fifth, all the modern commentaries on the Vedas are held to be spurious. Only the works composed by sages from Brahma to Jaimini (including the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Sutras and so on) are held to reliable commentaries on the Vedas. Even these are to be rejected in so far as they are in conflict with the intent of the Samhitas. Sixth, even amongst the Samhitas, only the following 4 were revealed by God- Shakala (for Rgveda), Madhyandina (for Yajurveda), Shaunaka (for Atharvaveda) and Kauthuma (for Samaveda). All the other Samhitas are Sakhas that were composed by Sages and are like glosses on these four Samhitas. Seventh, the method of Yaska and Vyakarana are to be relied upon heavily to interpret the Vedas and the later Hindu texts like Puranas etc., must be rejected completely. 

Swaminji also authored a few other tracts and anthologies that incorporate his comments on the mantras of Rgveda. The text ‘Aryaabhivinaya’ gives an expanded devotional commentary on 100 mantras of the Rgveda and another 10 mantras from the Yajurveda (Madhyandina) Samhita¹³.

Before commencing his commentaries on Rgveda and Yajurveda, Swami Dayanand compiled an index of topics of all the mantras in the four major Samhitas accepted by the Arya Samaj. This index is called ‘Chaturveda-Vishaya-Suchi’, and was published for the first time as recently as 1971 by the Paropakarini Sabha of Ajmer. This Index gives the subject-matter or topic, according to Swamiji’s interpretation, for each varga of each adhyaaya or each ashtaka¹⁴. The index extends over the other three Samhitas too, and the printed edition relies on a manuscript of this work, proof-read and corrected by Swamiji to the very end, that was deposited with the Sabha. Here and there, the topics listed for individual sections differ from those indicated by the Swami in his commentary proper, and the discrepancy is taken by Arya Samaj scholars as authoritative alternate interpretations of these sections.

The publication of his commentary on Rgveda was preceded by the publication of a ‘sample’ (Vedabhashya ka Namuna) which an extensive comment on the first few verses of the text. The publication of Swami Dayanand’s commentary on Rgveda generated a prolonged controversy, with contemporary scholars such as Pandit Maheshchandra Nyayaratna of Calcutta Sanskrit College and Raja Shivaprasad. The Swami wrote tracts such as Bhraantinivaarana and Anubhramochhedana to respond to his objectors.

A significant feature of the Bhashya is that in addition to mentioning the Devata, Rishi and Chhanda of each mantra per tradition, Swamiji also mentions the Svara or musical pitch in which the mantra ought to be recited. This additional information is derived from Pingala Chhandasutras.

Pandit Aryamuni: As indicated above, Swami Dayanand Sarasvati passed away before completing his commentary on Rgveda. The Paropakarini Sabha deputed Aryamuni, a scholar of Arya Samaj, to complete this task. The Pandit could complete his commentary only on the remainder of Mandala VII, and on Mandala VIII and IX. The work was published in six volumes from Varanasi between 1974-1980 Vikrami Samvat. The commentary gives the text of the mantra, the padapaatha, followed by a Sanskrit exposition of the various words in the verse, and finally the import. This is followed by word-meanings and translation in Hindi¹⁵.

Pandit Tulsiram Swami (d. 1915): He was the principle disciple of Pandit Bhimasena Sharma. Tulsiram started completing the incomplete commentary of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati on Rgveda, publishing it in his monthly magazine ‘Veda-Prakash’ printed from Meerut. The first issue carrying this commentary appeared in the year 1910. This commentary is also in Sanskrit and Hindi, and could not be completed as well, because of the untimely death of the Pandit. His younger brother Pandit Chhuttanlal Swami started where his Tulsiram left, but could not reach the end of Rgveda as well¹⁶.

Pandit Shivashankar Sharma Kavyatirtha: He is another scholar of the Arya Samaj, known for his massive commentaries on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad and Chhandogya Upanishad. He too attempted to complete Swami Dayanand’s incomplete commentary on Rgveda Samhita, but the work extends only till Rgveda 8.29. It was published in Vikrami Samvat 1980¹⁷.

Pandit Jaidev Sharma (1892-1961): He is the first scholar to have translated all the four Vedas into Hindi (or, as a matter of fact, into any Indian language). The translations were written between May 1925 and 1936, and comprise 7 volumes for Rgveda, 4 for Atharvaveda and 2 each for Yajurveda and Samaveda. Sharma closely follows the views of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati in his own translations. His translations have been reprinted numerous times and are prefaced by an elaborate and erudite note on the respective Veda.

Pandit Buddhadeva Vidyalankar Vidyamartanda wrote an analysis of the Marut hymns of Rgveda, which was published by Gurudatta Bhawan of Lahore¹⁸.

Karl Geldner

Bengali translation¹⁹: The Shiva Sahitya Kutir located in Jalpaiguri (West Bengal) started publishing the Rgveda with a poetical Bengali translation from 1942 onwards. The work was to be accomplished in 64 volumes, with a big essay on a Vedic theme appended to each volume, notes, and a paraphrase of Sayanacharya’s commentary. We have been unable to consult these volumes and cannot confirm whether all of them were eventually published.

Siddheshvara Shastri Chitrav: He published a Marathi translation of the text in 1928 through the Vaidika Vanmaya Prasaraka Mandala in Poona (now Pune)²⁰.

B. Mallaya Sastri published a Telugu translation of Ashtakas 1 and 2 through Vinayashtram in Guntur in 1940.

R. V. Patwardhan: He published the Samhita and Pada texts of Rgveda together with a Marathi translation in three volumes from Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1942.²¹ For a third Marathi translation of Rgveda, see under Satavalekar below. The translation is titled ‘Srutibodha.

Sri Balasvami: A Marathi translation²² of the text with the original mantra and Padapatha, based on Sayanacharya’s commentary, started appearing in several volumes from 1949 onwards. It is unclear if the work was ever completed.

Tatyana Elizarenkova: In Russian

Louis Renou

Sri Aurobindo:

Kapali Shastri: The work is preceded by an introduction of 83 pages which explains the validity of Sri Aurobindo’s mystical approach towards the text.

Brahmarishi Damodara Satavalekar wrote a translation of the entire Samhita in Hindi, Marathi and Gujarati. The work has been published in 4 volumes, covering Mandala 1, 2-5, 6-8 and 9-10 respectively. It contains the accented text of each mantra, with its meter, devata and Seer, a bare-bones translation, and the import of the mantra. The commentary is interspersed with notes and comments on various topics covered in the Samhita, which greatly facilitates the comprehension of the text. Satavakelar also authored numerous short tracts on Rgveda covering its various aspects.

Acharya Visvasrava Vyasa wrote a massive supercommentary titled ‘Anvitaarthapradiipa’ on Swami Dayanand Sarasvati’s commentary on Rgveda. This work has four sections. The first section, titled Padaarthapradiipa, comments on word-meanings in Swamiji’s work. The second section, titled Anvitaarthapradiipa explains the ‘anvaya’ (syntax of the verse) as understood by Swami Dayanand. The third section Bhaavaarthapradiipa comments on the import of the mantra as stated by Swamiji. The last section, titled Visvapradiipa, deals with the Rishi, Devata, Meter, Svara, Padapaatha etc., of the mantra²³. To my knowledge, the work is still in manuscript.

An English translation by Pandit Dharma Deva Vidya Martanda²⁴ of Swami Dayanand’s commentary on Rigveda was commenced in 1978, and two volumes containing hymns 1.1-61 and 1.62-136 came out. No more details are available on the proposed 10 subsequent volumes.

Gopal Prasad Kaushik²⁵ – A Hindi translation was published by Chowkhamba, Varanasi.

Pandit Jayadeva Vidyalankar²⁶ published a Hindi translation of the entire text in 6 volumes through Chowkhamba in Varanasi.

K N V Sastri²⁷ published a Telugu translation of the entire Rigveda through Tirupati Tirumala Devasthanam, Tirupati²⁸.

Ganga Sahay Sharma published a Hindi translation with the text through the Sanskrit Sahitya Prakashan located in New Delhi in 1979.

Paritosa Thakur published the Rigveda with a Bengali translation and notes from Calcutta in 1970. The work encompasses 5 volumes²⁹.

Swami Satya Prakash Saraswati³⁰ and Pandit Satyakam Vidyalankar published a Hindi translation of the first Mandala of Rigveda in three volumes in 1977 through Veda Pratisthan in Delhi. The first volume comprises the introduction and index.

Sri Ram Sharma Acharya: Shri Ram Sharma Acharya published a barebones Hindi translation of Rigveda through Chowkhamba, Varanasi. He was the founder member of the Gayatri Parivar which has reprinted the work with the original text in a more attractive form after his demise.

Wendy Doniger

From the above list, it is clear that the Rgveda has seen numerous translations in European as well as in Indian languages³¹ in the last 150 years.

Commentaries on the Purusha Sukta

1. Varadaraja

Indices of Rigveda

Sarvanukramani

The work is ascribed generally to Katyayana although in some manuscripts (Eg. # 225 in Ref. 1, Pg. 273), it is ascribed to ‘Vararuchi, the disciple of Katyayana’ whereas a few manuscripts even attribute it to Asvalayana. In some manuscripts (#228, ibid, Pg. 275), additional verses with Vedic accents are also found. Does this indicate that the Sarvanukramani verses were originally accented?

Commentaries [AITHAL 1991:225-235]:

1. Vedarthadipika of Shadagurusishya

2. Dipaprabha of Narayana Namputiri of Akkittam family at Vennanadu in Perumpally near Trippunithura. The author was the son of Deva and AryA and is assigned to 16^th cent. C.E. [ref. 6]

3. A manuscript of a commentary by Uvata exists at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute of Pune and at several other libraries [Ref. 2, pg. 190]

4. Kshiprabidhini of Balakrsna – manuscript available at Mysore

5. Bhashya of Kavindracharya – manuscripts observed at Alwar and at Tirupati

6. Padya-vrtti or Sarvanukramani-padya-vrtti – According to RAJA [1940-41], it is an extensive metrical anonymous work.

7. Dipaprabha or Rigveda-paribhasha-vyakhya of Narayana of Kerala – manuscripts exist in Kerala and at Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu).

8. Tika of Raghunatha Chaturvedin, son of Devadatta Chaturvedin – in manuscript

9. Bhashya of Rama-bhatta Gahvara, son of Balam-bhatta –manuscript at Calcutta

10. Bhashya of Vasudeva of Kerala –Manuscripts of this work exist at Baroda and in private collections in Kerala.

11. Commentary by Ganeshabhatta Dokhale.³²

12. Commentary by Jagannatha.³³

13. Kannada Vrtti of Bhairava Bhattopadhyaya, the son of Devanna

14. Tika in Kannada by Appaaji-bhatta

Devatanukramani

Whilst the Brhaddevata of Shaunaka is famous as the Devata index of the Rgveda Samhita, it is apparently a recast of an older Devatanukramani. The Devatanukramani is said to be lost, although AITHAL [1991:188, 310] mentions the existence of a manuscript titled ‘Devatanukramani’ at Trivandrum. Due to its relative geographical isolation, Kerala has produced several unique manuscripts of works which got lost in other parts of India, and this manuscript might represent the original Devata index of the Rigveda, or atleast an older version of the Brhaddevata.

Anuvakanukramani

It is index of the first words (‘pratikas’) of all the 85 Anuvakas (sections) of the Sakalya Samhita of Rigveda. It comprises of 40 verses and towards the end, it states that the Rigveda has 1017 hymns, 10580 verses 153,826 words and 432,000 syllables. Numerous printed editions exist, the best being the one appended to Pundit Satavalekar’s edition of Rigveda

Commentaries on Anuvakanukramani:

a. Shadagurusishya [ref. 2, pg. 91]

Chhando’anukramani

Padavidhana: This text, authored by Saunaka, is also known by the names Rkpada Laksana or Rgveda Pada Lakshana or Rkpadanukramanika Saunakiya [Ref. 2. pg. 165]. It deals with the doubtful cases in the division of Padas in the Rigveda Samhita. The work is in prose and is accompanied with a commentary. It is a very short text in itself, in two sections comprising of seven verses each.

Varganukramani – An index of vargas of the Sakala Samhita. An incomplete manuscript exists at Travancore University [AITHAL 1991:211].

Arshanukramani

A metrical text comprising of 300 verses divided into ten chapters of 30, 5, 10, 5, 32, 8, 4, 47, 48 and 103 verses corresponding to the 10 Mandalas of the Samhita respectively. Shadaguru-Sishya quotes the text 16 times in his Vedartha-dipika. There is a parallel text called the ‘Rsyanukrama’. The Arshanumrakamani was first published in his edition of the Brihaddevata by Rajendralal Mitra, from Calcutta in 1893. The same edition has been reprinted by Sharma with a Hindi commentary [Ref. 8]

Akhyatanukramani of Madhava, son of Venkatarya

General Works on Rigveda Shakalya Samhita

1. Nitimanjari of Dya Dviveda: His father’s name was Lakshmidhara, grandfather’s name was Atri and great-grandfather was Mukund. He composed the Nitimanjari in 200 verses in 8 sections (Ashtakas) with an autocommentary called Vedarthaprakasha. The work rubricates the mantras of Rigveda into parables. According to tradition, Dya Dviveda was so proficient in the Vedas that he could recite them in 11 days.
2. Maharudravidhana of Achala Dviveda: He was one of the 3 sons of Vatsaraja, grandson of Govinda, great grandson of Lakshimadhara and great-great grandson of Ananta. He resided at Anandapura in Gujarat, and lived around 15^th-16^th cent. C.E. since the colophon of another of his works (Nirnayadipika) gives the date of 1518-1519 C.E. He lived at Vrddhapura and belonged to the Mahoda subsection of Nagara Brahmins [ref. 3, pg. 203]. No information is available about this work as such.
3. Pada-gADha: This work is attributed to Saunaka or to Sakalya in manuscripts. It deals with words in the Rigveda Samhita that have peculiarities with regard to accent, endings etc. The text is also known as Rgvediya-bonda-laksana [K. S. Venkatarama SASTRI 1968].

Rigveda Pratisakhya: This work is also known by several other names like Parshada sutra, Rkpratisakhya, Rgveda Pratisakhya Parshada and Saunakiya Pratisakhya. The Rkpratisakhya deal with the Saisiriya Sakha of Sakala Charana of Rigveda but it is equally applicable to both the Sakala and the Bashkala Sakhas. It deals with the Chhanda, the Samhita and the Pada related to the RV text.

Commentaries [AITHAL 203-209]

4. Bhasya of Kumara Vishnumitracharya, son of Devamitracharya
5. Parsadavrtti: An anonymous work, older than Uvatta’s Vrtti [AITHAL 1991:204] existing in manuscript.
6. Parsada Sutravrtti of Uvata: The Vrtti is said to have been written following the Bhashya of Vishnumitracharya. The work is clear and concise.
7. Prakasika of Venkatesiah
8. Vakya-Pradipika of Isvara or Paramesvara – Manuscripts of this work exist at Trivandrum [AITHAL 1991:205]
9. Subodhini – author unknown
10. Dushanabhanga Mimamsa of Karnatka Madhavacharya – this work is restricted to Patala 6
11. Mangaladev Shastri, former Principal of Government Sanskrit College (Varanasi) and Vice-Chancellor or Varanasi Sanskrit University, published an edition of this text in three volumes. The first volume the bare text of the Pratisakhya with a critical introduction. The second volume contains the text of Uvata’s commentary on Rkpratisakhya. The third volume contains a Foreword by A. B. Kieth, Shastri’s annotated translation of the Pratisakhya and numerous indices and appendices.

The Pratisakhya also has a Parisista comprising a list of words from the Rgveda with difficult Samdhis [AITHAL 1991:210].

Works on the Kramapatha of Rigveda

1. Upalekha Sutras: This text comprises of 136 sutras divided into 8 vargas. Saunaka, Bharadvaja and Katyayana are alternately said to be the authors of this text. An excellent edition with a commentary has been published by Abhyankar [Ref. 9]

Aitareya Brahmana

The Brahmana comprises of 40 chapters which are grouped in 8 groups (=pachika) of 5 chapters each.

Commentaries and translations

1.Sukhaprada on Aitreya Brahman [ref. 4]

2. Vedarthaprakasha of Sayanacharya

3. Martin Haug published an English translation of the text

4. Arthur B. Kieth published an English translation of both the Brahmanas of Rgveda in the Harvard Oriental Series.

5. Gangaprasad Upadhyaya (1881-1968) wrote a Hindi translation of the Aitareya Brahmana that was published by Hindi Sahitya Sammelan from Allahabad in 1950³⁴.

The first edition of the Aitareya Brahmana, together with an English translation was published by Martin Haug in two volumes from Bombay in 1863.

Bahvrchabrahmana: A Bahvrchabrahmana Parisishta is quoted by Devan?n?a³⁵.

Aitareya Aranyaka

Commentaries

1. Mokshaprada of Shadagurushishya [ref. 5]
2. The Vedartha Prakasha of Sayanacharya

Printed editions –

Rajendralala Mitra; Aitareya Aranyaka with Sayana’s commentary; Calcutta; 1876

Anandasrama; Pune; 1898. The edition abounds in textual corruptions.

Arthur B. Kieth; Critical Edition with an English translation; London

A new critical edition is being prepared by MUNISVARADEVA [1990: 24-30]

Aitareya Upanisad (Comprising Aranyakas 2-3 of the Aitreya Aranyaka).

Also called Atmashatakopanishad because it is often divided into 6 khandas in traditional commentaries.

1. Shankaracharya: Only the commentary on Aranyaka 3.4-6 is normally printed. A Manuscript at Calcutta however covers the entire Aranyaka 3 [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 267] and the entire commentary has actually been printed.
2. Shadagurushishya: He has written a commentary called ‘Mokshaprada’ on the entire Aitareya Aranyaka. The commentary has been published only partially.
3. Madhvacharya: This Bhashya is on entire Aranyakas 2-3
4. Anandagiri: Tika on the Bhashya of Sri Shankaracharya
5. Anantandagiri: Tika
6. Shankarananda: Advaitic commentary on the entire Aranyakas 2-3
7. Balakrishnananda: Bhashya from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
8. Sayanacharya: Dipika on the Aitareya Upanishad and also ‘Vedartha Prakasha’ on the entire Aitareya Aranyaka. In addition, Sayana wrote a metrical paraphrase of this text, along with 11 other principal Upanishads, in his work titled ‘Anubhuutiprakaasha’.
9. Swami Vidyaranya: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
10. Vyasatirtha : Tika on the Bhashya of Madhvacharya
11. Vedeshatirtha, the disciple of Vyasatirtha: Commentary from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective.
12. Vishveshvara Tirtha, the 14^th Pontiff of Pejawar Matha: Tika on the Upanishad from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
13. Shrinivasathirtha: Khandarthaprakashika on the Upanishad
14. Shrinivasatirtha, son of Vitthala: Ratnamala on the Upanishad
15. Shrinivasatirtha, pupil of Vedesha and Yadavarya: Bhavapradipa on the Upanishad
16. Shrivnivasacharya: Bhashyartha Vichara on the Upanishad from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
17. Narasimhabhikshu, pupil of Vidyatirtha: Khandarthaprakashika on the Upanishad from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
18. Krishnacharya, pupil of Raghavendrayati: Khandarthasamgraha, from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
19. Pupil of Venkatavarahacharya: Khandartha, from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
20. Gopala Yati: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
21. Bhaskarananda Saraswati: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
22. Jnanamrta Yati, the disciple of Uttamamrta (mansuscript RAS, Calcutta # 212 and 213): Tippana on Bhashya of Shankaracharya
23. Ramanuja, son of Jagannatha: Vivarana on Aitareya Upanishad
24. Narsimhacharya: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
25. Abhinava Narayanendra Saravati, the disciple of Jnanendra Sarasvati and grand disciple of Kaivalyendra Sarasvati (Manuscript at RAS, Calcutta #214): Vivarana on Shankaracharya’s Bhashya from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
26. Appaya Dikshita: Vivarana on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
27. Narayana: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
28. Bhagavantaraja: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
29. A Disciple of Tirtharaja: Tippani on Aitareya Upanishad
30. Vasudeva: Prameyavyakhyasamgraha on Aitareya Upanishad
31. Nrsimhacharya: Bhashya on the Upanishad
32. Damodara Sastri: Manuscript of ‘Nigudarthaprakashanam’ at RAS, Calcutta (#216)
33. Amaradasa Udasin: Commentary called Maniprabha
34. Arthur B. Kieth: English translation, a part of the entire translation of the Aitareya Aranyaka (1905)
35. Damodara Satavalekara: Commentary in Hindi
36. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan: English translation with notes from various traditiona commentaries
37. Swami Gambhirananda: Translation and notes in English based on the commentary of Shankaracharya. The Swami belongs to the Ramakrishna Mission
38. Swami Chinmayananda: Text and word for word translation and commentary in English
39. Patrick Olivelle: Text and English translation, with notes on and a mention of the relevant Indological publications on various passages of the Upanishad.

Ashvalayana Srauta Sutra

The Sutra was first published by Ramanarayan Vidyaratna from Calcutta in the year 1874.

Commentaries

1. Vyakhya of Devatraata alias Varaahadeva: Manuscript containing this commentary on the third chapter of the Srautasutra exists in Calcutta, whereas another manuscript containing the commentary on the first three chapters exists in Bikaner [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 326-327].

2. Siddhantin Bhashya, published by Mangaladev Shastri.

3. Abhudayaprada of Shadagurushishya: Manuscript in the Trivandrum Oriental Manuscripts Library

4. Prayogavrtti by Taalavrntanivasin, who followed Devatraata.³⁶

5. Samgrahadipika of Tippu Bhatta, son of Rama Bhatta: Manuscript exists at Calcutta in the Calcutta Sanskrit College³⁷ as well as in the Asiatic Society of Bengal collections.

6. Bhashya by Tryambaka, son of Krishna Bhatta: Manuscripts containing this commentary on the third chapter of the Srautasutra exists in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 309]. Its extent is 350 slokas.

7. Bhashya by Narayana

8. Commentary by Narayanagarga

9. Commentary by Kalyanji

10. Prayogadipika by Manchanabhatta

11. Commentary by Dayaashankara

12. Commentary by Nilakantha

13. Commentary by Mahadeva

14. Commentary by Sukla Mathuranatha

15. Commentary by Yallabhattasuta

16. Paddhati by Vishnugudha covering the last six chapters of the sutra³⁸.

Gryha Texts

1. Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra: The text makes a distinction between the Rishis of the mantras of the Rigveda and the Acharyas or the Sages who compiled the Brahmana texts. Amongst the latter, it counts the following in its ‘tarpana vidhi’: Kahola, Kausitaka, Mahakausitaka, Paingya, Mahapaingya, Sujayna, Shankhayana, Aitreya, Mahaitereya, Shakala, Bashkala and Ashvalayana. The sutra has a Parisishta which comprises of 3 or 4 chapters in some manuscripts, or 5 chapters in anushtubh verses in another manuscript³⁹. Commentaries:

Commentary by Devaswavmin

Commentary by Devatrata

Karika attributed to Kumarila Bhatta

Vimalodayamaala by Jayanta Bhatta

Bhashya of Narayana

Anaavilaa: A Bhashya on the text by Haradatta.⁴⁰

Commentary by Gadaadhara

Commentary by Anandaraaya Vajapeyin

Commentary by Vishnygudhaswamin

Asvalayana Grhyakarika by Raghunatha Diksita

Asvalayana Grhyakarikapaddhati by Challari Narayana

Asvalayana Grhyaparisishta

2. Saunaka Karika: A manuscript exists at Calcutta (Ref. 1, Pg. 412, No. 424) and deals with various domestic rites like Upanayana, Chaula, Upakarma etc. The work may also be called Saunakiyam.
3. Bahvrchagryhakarika: Ascribed to Sakala. The extant manuscript (Ref. 1, Pg. 416, No. 425) seems to be a late redaction of an older work by Sakala Acharya.
4. Saunakiyam: Several versions of this text are available, some of which are mentioned above.
5. Rigvidhana of Saunaka

Laksana Granthas

The purpose of these texts is to preserve the exact text of Rigveda, free from all corruptions by way of oral transmissions. There are literally 100’s of such texts, most of which are quite modern. Some are however ancient. A detailed discussion of these texts is beyond the scope of this work since it has already been done by Pt. Aithal (Ref. 2)

Jatapatala: The work is ascribed to Hayagriva and describes the vikritis of Rigvedic text.. The work has a commentary called ‘Dipika’ by Dayasankara, son of Dharanidhara Vyavaharuka. There are several other versions of the Jatapatala as well, including one alternately called the Vikrtivalli and attributed to Vyadi. This latter work has 19 verses and has a commentary on it by Anantacharya [AITHAL 1991:320-321]. Another version of Vyadi’s text has 11 verses, divided into two patalas of 6 and 5 verses respectively. The following commentaries exist on Jataapatala:⁴¹

1. Vikrtikaumudi by Gangadharacharya

2. Commentary by Dayaashankar

3. Commentary by Sukla Mathuraanaatha

4. Jataadyashtavikrti by Madhusudana

5. Commentary by Sivaraama

Ashtavikriti Laksana: A versified work that describes the 8 Vikritis of Rigveda’s Sakala Saisiriya Samhita. The work is the composition of Sage Vyadi

Saisiriya Siksa – This is a work of 175 verses, largely identical with the Saunakiya Siksa. Certain verses are repeated and many verses are also found in the metrical Paniniya Siksa and in Yajnavalkyaisiksa.

Upalekhasutra of Bharadvaja: The text deals with the Kramapatha of Rgveda. It has two commentaries – one titled Upalekhapanjika by Bharadvaja, and the second titled Upalekhavrtti attributed to Saunaka.

References

1. Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad Shastri; A descriptive catalog of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923

2. K. Parameswara Aithal; Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1991

3. P. H. Joshi; Contribution of Gujarat to the Dharmashastra Literature; in Gautam Patel et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998

Trivandrum Sanskrit Series No. 149, 167, 176

5. Trivandrum Sanskrit Series No. 221

6. S. Venkitsubramonia; The Contribution of Kerala to Sanskrit Shastras; International Sanskrit Conference (1972), vol. 1. part 1; pg. 16-24

Howard, Wayne; Veda Recitation in Varanasi; Motilal Banarsidass; Delhi; 1986

Sharma, Umesh Chandra; Arshanumkramani

Abhyankar, Kashinatha Vasudeva; Upalekha Sutra Kashikar, C. G. A Comparative Study of Udgitha’s Bhashya on the Rgveda. pp. 150-155 in Vishva Bandhu (editor). 1950. Siddha-Bharati or a Rosary of Indology – Presenting 108 original Papers on Indological subjects in honour of the 60^th Birthday of Dr. Siddheshwar Varma (Part I). Vishveshvaranand Indological Series – 1. V. V. R. Institute Press. Hoshiarpur.

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat

AMARNATHASHASTRI. “Spandra-Syandra-patha-vimarshah”. pp. 164-168 in Vishva Bandhu (editor). 1950. Siddha-Bharati or a Rosary of Indology – Presenting 108 original Papers on Indological subjects in honour of the 60^th Birthday of Dr. Siddheshwar Varma (Part I). Vishveshvaranand Indological Series – 1. V. V. R. Institute Press. Hoshiarpur.

Gupta, Sudhirkumar. 1967. Ravanabhashyam. Bharati Mandir Anusamdhana Shala: Jaipur

KARVE, Irawati Karmarkar. 1968. Hindu Society – An Interpretation. Deshmukh Prakashan: Poona

MUNISVARADEVA. Aitareya Aranyakam; Pg. 24-30 in** **Dharmadhikari, T. N.; R. S. Shastri; N. P. Jain; Vedic Texts: A Revision- Prof. C. G. Kashikar Felicitation Volume; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi; 1990

NANAVATI, Rajendra. 2001. Sarvanukramani-Katyayana Viracita. Delhi

RAJA C. Kunhan. 1940-41. “Sarvanukramani-padya-vrtti – A New Commentary on the Rgvedasarvanukramani of Katyayana”, in: Annals of Oriental Research, University of Madras, vol. V.2, Sanskrit Section pages 1-4

SARUP, Lakshman. 1937. Date of Skandasvamin. In Jha Commemoration Volume – Essays on Oriental Subjects presented to Vidyasagar Mahamahopadhyaya Pandita Ganganatha Jha, Oriental Book Agency: Poona, pp. 399-410

SASTRI K. S. Venkatarama. 1968. Rgvediya-bonda-laksana, Pada-ratna, Svarankusa and Rgvarna-krama-laksana. Sri Vani Vilas Press: Srirangam

STAAL, J. F. 1961. Nambudiri Veda Recitation. Mouten & Co.: ‘S-Gravehage

Shankhayana Shakhas of Rigveda

Brahmin Communities

Nambudiris: According to the most comprehensive studies undertaken, approximately 35% of the Nambudiris are Rigvedins, 50% are Yajurvedins and just about 1/8% are Samavedins. The rest are excluded from Vedic study [STAAL 1961:35-36]. The peculiarities of Rigveda recitations of Nambudiris are discussed by STAAL [1961:40-54] in detail, and are beyond the scope of the present article. They do not recite the ghanapatha, and the Samhita, Pada and Krama recitions are collectively termed as Trisandham. Unique to this Brahmin community is the recitation of the vkrti called ‘rathapATha’, which is somewhat different from the standard ratha illustrated in the ‘aSTavikRti’ in printed additions such as those of Satavlekar [ibid 47].

The other significant feature of Nambudiri Rigvedins is that they recite not only the Samhita, but also their Brahmana, Aranyaka and the Upanishads with Vedic accents. Secondly. they are not necessary followers of the Asvalayana Sutra. They might also belong to the Shankhayana Sakha (which they call ‘Kausitaki’) [STAAL 1961:53].

The only printed edition of the Kausitaki Brahmin, based partly on oral recitations by a Nambudiri Brahmin, is however unaccented. The editor has not discussed any accent in the text as well.

Manuscripts of Shankhayana Rigveda: Max Mueller utilized 72 manuscripts to bring out his edition of the Rigveda. Unfortunately, these manuscripts, housed in Japan are said to have got destroyed during World War II. However, there is no paucity of Rigveda manuscripts (in addition to the very alive oral tradition of the text). The Wai Prajnapathasala (Satara, Maharashtra) alone possesses more than 200 manuscripts of the Samhitapatha alone, all belonging to the Sakala Rigveda.

The oldest manuscript reported for Rigveda dates to 1362 C.E. (Ref. 1, Preface) whereas the oldest manuscripts used by Max Mueller did not go beyond 17th Cent. C.E.. Not that it really matters, since the text has been preserved extraordinarily well without alteration of a single letter over several millenia orally.

Alberuni records a tradition that fearing the destruction of the Vedas, a native of Kashmir by the name ‘Vasukra’, committed all the four Vedas to writing for the first time–and just 50 years before Alberuni visited India.

Samkhayana Sakhas of Rigveda

Samhita manuscripts

1. No. 120 (Ref. 1) in the Collection of the Royal Asiatic Society of Calcutta: This manuscript of Rigveda comprises of 12 different batches of leaves. The 12 batches are of different hand and cover different parts of the Rigveda. At least one scribe/owner is a Gujarati, leading us to presume that some of the batches might belong to the Samkhayana Sakha. This is also clear from the contents of the manuscripts. For instance, batch VIII, which comprises of Rigveda 7.1.1 - 7.2.23 (Ashtaka-Adhyaya-Varga), has 5 additional vargas after varga 18 as an integral portion of the Samhita. Vargas 19-21 are the Khila 17 of Max Mueller’s Rigveda edition while the vargas 22 and 23 are Khilas 19 and 20 respectively of Max Mueller’s edition. Then, in batch IX, which comprises of Rigveda 7.2.25-7.5.2, there are the same 3 vargas in the second Adhyaya compared to Mueller’s edition. In bundle VII, which comprises of Rigveda 7.6.24 to the end of the 8th Ashtaka, the text is the same as the Max Mueller’s edition till Rigveda Ashtaka 8, Adhyaya 2. At the end of the 3rd Adhyaya, there is added as Khila the Khila 22 of Mueller’s 2nd edition. The 4th Adhyaya agrees with the vulgate till varga 25, after which the manuscript breaks off. The text then commences from the end of the 28th varga of the 8th Adhyaya, which does not agree with the 28th Varga of the 8th Adhyaya of the vulgate. The text is considerably different after the 28th varga of Adhyaya 8 (the last Adhyaya of the Samhita). The Sakala has 49 vargas in the last Adhyaya but this manuscript has 64. The distribution of vargas 29 onwards is as below:

Varga 29: Starts with ‘Gobhirjushtee dhanena..” not found in Mueller’s or Satavalekara’s editiom

Varga 30 is Sukta 167 of varga 25 of vulgate

Varga 31 is Sukta 168 of varga 26

Varga 32 is Sukta 169 of varga 27

Varga 33 is Sukta 170 of varga 28

Varga 34 is Sukta 171 of varga 29

Varga 35 is Sukta 172 of varga 30

Varga 36 is Sukta 173 of varga 31

Varga 37 is Sukta 174 of varga 32

Varga 38 is Sukta 175 of varga 33

Varga 39 is Sukta 176 of varga 34

Varga 40 is Sukta 177 of varga 35

Varga 41 is Sukta 178 of varga 36

Varga 42 is Sukta 179 of varga 27

Varga 43 is Suktas 180 and 181 of vargas 38 and 39 respectively of vulgate

Varga 44 is Sukta 182 of varga 40

Varga 45 is Sukta 183 of varga 41

Varga 46 is Sukta 184 of varga 42

Varga 47 is Khila 34 of Satavaleka’s Rigveda (Khila 30 of Mueller’s Rigveda)

Varga 48 is Sukta 185 of varga 43

Varga 49 is Sukta 186 of varga 44

Varga 50 is Sukta 187 of varga 45

Varga 51 is Sukta 188 of varga 46

Varga 52 is Sukta 189 of varga 47

Varga 53 is Sukta 190 of varga 48

Varga 54 is Sukta 191 of varga 49

The manuscript has 10 more vargas, none of which occurs in the Vulgate (Sakala) Rigveda

Varga 55 is Khila 32 of Max Mueller’s edition

Varga 56 is verses 5-7 of Khila 36 of Satavaleka’s edition (or 5.2 in the Kashmir Khila samhita)

Varga 57 is verses 1-4 (?) of Khila 5.3 of Kashmir Khila Samhita

Varga 58 is verses 5-7 (?) of Khila 5.3 of Kashmir Khila Samhita

Varga 59 is verses 1-5 (?) of Khila 5.4 of Kashmir Khila Samhita

Varga 60 is verses 6-8 (?) of Khila 5.4 of Kashmir Khila Samhita

Varga 61 is verses 9-11 (?) of Khila 5.4 of Kashmir Khila Samhita

At this point, the manuscript ends and the colophon states : “Hereby ends the 64th Adhyaya.” signifying the end of the Samhita.

1. No. 140 (Ref. 1) in the Collection of the Royal Asiatic Society of Calcutta: This composite manuscript consists of 15 batches of leaves belonging to different ages. Batch no. 12 comprises of complete Ashtaka 6 (Mandala 8, Sukta 12 to Mandala 9, Sukta 43). The author of the catalog states- “The MS. is unique, in that it seems to belong to a recension of Rgveda, different from that published by Max Mueller. For instance, in VI.4 (Ashtaka 6, Adhyaya 4), there is one sukta more in Max Mueller’s edition than in the present MS.” We might note that Ashtaka 6, Adhaya 4 corresponds to Mandala 8, Suktas 46 to 67 of the Vulgate. This section includes the Valkhilya mantras as Suktas 49 to 59 of the Vulgate Rigveda Samhita. The extant manuscripts of the Asvalayana and the Samkhayana samhitas are not very different from the Vulgate (Sakala) Sakha and so we can safely surmise that it belongs to the Baskala Sakha. In fact, the description of the Baskala Rigveda Samhita in Satavalekara’s edition (Ref. 2, Pg. 72 of the Prastava/Introduction) clearly shows that this portion of the Baskala Samhita was totally different from the vulgate in the arrangement of Mantras.
2. Manuscript of Samkhayana Praisha Adhyaya at Calcutta (Ref. 1, Pg. 240, entry no. 171): According to the catalog, the text comprises of 72 mantras of which 68 start with the words ‘hota yaksata…’. Hence, this Praishadhyaya is quite different from that of the Kashmir Khila Samhita.
3. Manuscript at the British Museum, London (Ref. 2, Pg. 1-2): The manuscript was hand-copied by the Brahmanas of Jaipur in the 2nd half of the 18th Cent. C.E. for Lieut. Pollier, a employee of the East India Company from 1759-1789, with the authorization of Maharaja Pratap Singh. The manuscript colophons specifically do not state that it belongs to the Samkhayana Sakha of the Rigveda, but the description given in the catalog confirms the same. The catalog states that the arrangement and number of hymns in the 8th Ashtaka is different from the edition of Max Mueller. Specifically, the following features are noticed:

a. In the 8th Ashtaka, the numbering of the Vargas differs considerably from that of the Vulgate owing to insertion of several Khilas as an integral part of the text. Khila 22 of the Max Mueller’s edition (‘Avidhva…’) forms 29th Varga of the 3rd Adhyaya

b. Khilas 25 (1-13 verses only) and 27 of Max Mueller’s edition are included in their normal place as an integral part of the Samhita text. Due to these additions, the number of vargas has become 56 instead of 49 in the vulgate.

c. The 56th Varga comprises of the last Sukta of the Vulgate plus the mantra ‘Tachhanyora Vrinimahey…” which is said to be the last verse of the Baskhala Sakha.

d. Vargas 57-60 are comprised of the first 14 verses of the Samjnana Sukta (since the last or the 15^th verse was included in the previous Varga)

e. The Samhita ends with 3 Vargas of the Mahanamni group. Thus, the 8th Adhyaya of the 8th Ashtaka has 63 vargas in all.

Sarvanukramani

A manuscript of the Sarvanukramani of the Sankhayana Sakha might exist at Alwar [AITHAL 1991:220].

Sankhayana Pratisakhya: A manuscript of the Pratisakhya of the Sankhayana Samhita of Rigveda is listed in the Alwar collection [AITHAL 1991:197]. Varadattasuta Anarttiya, the commentator of Shankhayana Srautasutra, quotes a Pratisakhya a few times in his commentary (e.g. under Sutra 10.6.26) and these references can be traced back to the vulgate Rk-Pratisakya. This indicates that the Sankhayana Pratisakhya might have been very similar to the vulgate version, if not identical to it.

Shankhayana Brahmana

This text was first published by Lindner from Jena in the year 1887.

Kaushitaki Brahmana

Commentaries

1. Sukhada of Udaya of Mukundamangalam illam of Brahmakkulam, son of Narayanayajvan: This work is edited by E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma of Tirupati [ref. 6]

Shankhayana Aranyaka

The Aranyaka was first published by Shridhar Shastri Pathak from Poona in the year 1922. Earlier, Friedlander had published only books I-II from Berlin in 1900.

Kausitaki Aranyaka

This text is still unpublished.

Kausitaki Brahmana Upanishad:

The Kausitaki Upanishad comprises of four chapters and is an integral part of the Shankhayana or the Kausitaki Aranyaka. The text has long been highly esteemed in the Vedantic tradition, and citations from it occur in the works of Shankaracharya. The very first publishers of the text and its commentaries realized from the manuscripts that the Upanishad exists in two distinct recensions or Sakhas⁴². Apparently, Shankaracharya presupposed a text that was slightly different from the one followed in his dipika by Shankarananda. The differences in the two recensions are seldom more than verbal, and occur largely in the last two chapters. Shankarananda’s dipika suffices to explain the text of both the versions. It appears that these minor textual differences stem from the fact that the Aranyaka, of which the Upanishad is a part, itself exists in two or perhaps more different recensions.

In the vulgate text given in all the printed editions of the Shankhayana Aranyaka, the Upanishad

In some manuscripts, the Upanishad apparently constitutes books I-IV of the Aranyaka. In others, it forms books VI-IX, or books III-VI. Some scholars such as Poley even suggest that the Upanishad forms books I, VII, VIII and IX of the Aranyaka⁴³.

Most manuscripts designate the text not as Kausitaki Upanishad, but as Kausitaki-Brahmana-Upanishad. The extant Shankhayana/Kausitaki Brahmanas have 30 chapters, and literature mentions a ‘Mahakausitaki Brahmana’ as well. So it has been conjectured that the Upanishad and portions of the Aranyaka formed part of a larger Kausitaki Brahmana which may not have survived today.

Following are the major translations and commentaries on the Kausitaki Upanishad -

1. Anandagiri: Tika

2. Vidyaranya: A work titled Sarvopanishaarthaanubhutiprakasha, attributed to Vidyaranya, contains an analysis on the major Upanishads in twenty chapters. In this work, chapters 8-9 deal with chapters 3 and 4 of the Upanishad (Pratardana Vidya and Ajatasatru Vidya respectively).

3. Sayanacharya: He wrote a metrical paraphrase of this text, along with 11 other principal Upanishads, in his work titled ‘Anubhuutiprakaasha’.

4. Dipika of Shankarananda: The text was first published by E. B. Cowell with a translation of the Upanishad proper⁴⁴.

5. Rangaramanuja

6. Prakashika of Rangaramanujadasa: Manuscript exists at the library of erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir in Jammu⁴⁵.

7. Rangacharya

8. Vasudeva Yati: Bhashya

9. Narayana: Dipika

10. Appaya Dikshit: Bhashya

11. Nagara Narayana, pupil of Ramendra Saraswati: Jnanamala on the Upanishad

12. Upanishadbrahmayogin: Vivarana

13. Shyamala Goswami: Anvayamukhavyakhyana

14. Sitanatha Tattvabhushana: Shankarakripa

15. E. B. Cowell

16. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan

17. Patrick Olivelle

**Kausitaki Samhita Upanishad: **In the Shankhayana Aranyanka, the Kausitaki Upanishad in four chapters is followed by the Samhita Upanishad. This work also has a commentary on it by Shankarananda⁴⁶.

Shankhayana Shrauta Sutra

Commentaries

1. Bhashya of Varadasutta Anartiya: The author hailed from Anarta, which is modern North Gujarat [ref. 4, pg. 84]. We have used the solitary published version of the Bhashya by HILLEBRANDT [1885-1899, reprinted in 1981]. The Bhashya quotes, amongst extant works, some lost texts like Vaijavapa (under sutra 3.18.19) and some text of the Chhagaleya school of Maitrayaniya Yajurveda (under sutra 6.1.17)

2. Bhashya of Govinda – exists only on chapters XVII-XVIII in Hillebrandt’s edition. Govind had six Gurus namely Raama, Hariraama, Halaayudha, Devamaata, Madhusuudana and Vinaayaka.⁴⁷

3. Manuscripts of a Paddhati by Narayana, son of Pashupati, exist in Jammu and other places⁴⁸.

4. Dayaashankar, son of Dharanidhara, grandson of Gangadhara, wrote the Shankhayanasrautasutra-prayogaratnaakara in the year 1767⁴⁹.

5. Kraturatnamaalaa Paddhati by Vishnu, son of Sripati. Manuscript exists at Alwar⁵⁰.

Shankhayana Grhya Sutra

Commentaries

1. Acala Dviveda wrote a ShankhayanAhnika on the Grhyasutra. He was one of the 3 soms of Vatsaraja, grandson of Govinda, great grandson of Lakshimadhara and great-great grandson of Ananta. He resided at Anandapura in Gujarat, and lived around 15^th-16^th cent. C.E. since the colophon of another of his works (Nirnayadipika), gives the date of 1518-1519 C.E. He lived at Vrddhapura and belonged to the Mahoda subsection of Nagara Brahmins [ref. 5, pg. 203]

2. Grhyadipaka (or Grhyapradipabhashya)⁵¹ and Paddhati of Narayana (16^th cent. C.E.): He was the son of Krishnaji Dvivedi, and grandson of Shripati. He was a Nagar Brahmin of PATalpur in Gujarat [ref. 5, pg. 204-205]

3. Paddhati of Vishnukavi [ref. 5, pg. 206]: This Paddhati was named Kraturatnamala. Vishukavi was the son of Dvivedi Shripati, and he calls himself a resicdent of Anarta (Gujarat) in the colophons of his work. According to some scholars, he was a contemporary of Uvata (11^th cent. C.E.), the great commentator on the Madhyandina Samhita of Yajurveda.

4. Grhyasamgraha by Vasudeva, son of IijaTa exists in Jammu⁵².

5. Grhyasutraprayogadipa by Dayaashankara, son of Dharanidhara: Manuscript exists in Jammu⁵³.

6. Athardarpana by Raghunatha: Exists in manuscript⁵⁴.

7. Grhyasutrapaddhati by Ramachandra

8. The text with a Gujarati translation was published from Junagarh by M R Ghoda in 1942.⁵⁵

Kausitaki Grhya Sutra

Commentaries on the text

1. Bhashya of Bhavatrata (~650 C.E.): He is the famous author of Bhashyas on texts of Jaiminiya Shakha of the Samaveda, like the Brahman, Aranyaka, Srauta Sutra and the Grhya Sutra. T. R. Chintamani has published this text [ref. 3]

A Samkhyayanatantra⁵⁶ exists in manuscript in various libraries and it is reasonable to surmise that this work has nothing to do with the Rgvedic Sakha.

References

1. Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad Shastri; A descriptive catalog of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923
2. Cecil Bendall; Catalog of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the British Museum; London; 1902
3. T. R. Chintamani; Madras University Sanskrit Series No. 15; Madras; 1944
4. U. P. Shah; Some Less Known Non Jaina Sanskrit Writers from Gujarat; in Gautam Patel et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998
5. P. H. Joshi; Contribution of Gujarat to the Dharmashastra Literature; in Gautam Patel et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998
6. S. Venkitsubramonia; The Contribution of Kerala to Sanskrit Shastras; International Sanskrit Conference (1972), vol. 1. part 1; pg. 16-24

AITHAL K. Parameswara. 1991. Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography. Franz Steiner Verlag: Stuttgart

Hillebrandt, Alfred. 1885-99. Sankhayana Srauta Sutra together with the commentary of Varadattasuta Anarttiya and Govinda. Published in 4 volumes, Vol. I containing the sutra text and II-IV containing the commentaries, by the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta). Reprinted in two volumes (Vol. I containing the sutra text and II containing the Bhashyas) in 1981 by Meharchand Lachhmandas Publications: New Delhi. I have used the latter edition.

Bashkala Sakhas of Rigveda

Communities of Bashkala Rigvedins: The Bashkala Rigveda was in vogue in some parts of Assam [B. R. SHARMA 1996: 67].

Samhita: In his commentary on Saunakiya Charanavyuha, Mahidasa makes a very significant comment–”The Rigveda comprises of Sakala and Baskala” and then goes on the name the five groups of Sakhas of the Rigveda. The import of this statement can be understood if we realize that the arrangement of the Baskala Samhitas of the Rigveda was significantly different from that of the Samhitas of the 4 other groups.

Anukramani:

Manuscripts of the Anukramani of the Baskala Rigveda Samhita by Jagannatha exists in the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal (Manuscript # 234 and 235 ; Reference 1; Pg.278-281). It is unclear from the catalog if the manuscripts contains the original Anukramani or just a ‘Vivarana’ by Jagannatha. The latter possibility appears to be true. A large fragment of the manuscript is quoted and what strikes one immediately from it is that the author of the original Anukramani was Sage Parasara, the Son of Sage Sakti (and the father of Sage Vedavyasa). Also, Sage Parasara’s Anukramani was at considerable variance from that of Sage Saunaka on the Sakala Samhita of Rigveda. According to the Anukramanika Vivarana of Jagannatha, the Baskala Sakha had 1028 Suktas and 10552 mantras of the chatushpada mantras were counted as dvipadas and if the Valkhilya mantras (numbering 80) were included. But, if the dvipadas were counted as chatushpada, then the number dropped to 10482 mantras. Further, if the Valkhilyas were also excluded, there were 10404 mantras in the Samhita. In addition, the colophon at the end of one of the manuscripts also adds that the Samhita had 2006 Vargas (exclusive of Valkhilya mantras) and another 18 Vargas of the Valkhiya mantras. The colophons do not clarify the provenance of the manuscripts, which are written in Nagara characters

In his monumental anthology, AITHAL [1991:316] has mentions that the same work is listed under different titles like Anuvakanukramani-vivarana, Rgveda-Anukramani-Vivarana, Anukramanika-Vivarana, Sukta-Pratika and Rgveda-Sukta-pratikanukramanika-sara. It is significant that several of these manuscripts are found in Kerala, where some Nambudiris still adhere to the Bashkala Sakha Samhita.

It might be pointed out however, that one manuscript gives the number of Suktas as 1027, which might be explained by the fact that it is incomplete (Ref. 1, Pg. 282, no. 238)

Kalpasutras:

It is uncertain if the Bashkala Rigvedins had an extensive Kalpasutra of their own. There are sufficient indications that they often used the texts of other Rigvedic Sakhas. For instance, the Rigvedins of Kerala claim to follow the Bashkala Sakha and yet follow the Kausitaki Brahmana and the Samkhayana Sutras. Likewise, a mauscript of the Anvadhanakarma of Sakala Rigveda Samhita (Ref. 1, Pg. 407) quotes the ‘Bashkalasamhitayam Samkhyayana Sutram.’

Gargya Narayana states that the Ashvalayana Shrautasutra deals with the Sakala and the Bashkala Samhitas of RV, together with the Aitareya Brahmana, the Valakhilya Hymns, the Nivids, Praishas, Kuntapa hymns, Mahanamni verses and the Purorucs.

References:

1. Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad Shastri; A descriptive catalog of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923
2. Veda Lakshana;

SHARMA, Bellikoth Ramakrishna. 1996. Text Editing and Text-Critical Study. In Some Aspects of Vedic Studies, ed. by Samiran Chandra Chakrabarti, School of Vedic Studies – Rabindra Bharati University: Calcutta; pp. 55-78

STAAL, J. F. 1961. Nambudiri Veda Recitation. Mouten & Co.: ‘S-Gravehage

Asvalayana Sakhas of the Rigveda

Ashvalayana Samhita

Ashvalayana Mantrasamhita

Asvalayana Brahmana

Manuscripts: A manuscript of the Asvalayana Brahmana together with the Samhita) is mentioned in Kavindracarya’s list

In the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta (SHASTRI 1923:256, entry no. 199), a manuscript of the 5th book of the Aitreya Brahmana according the Asvalayana Sakha. The text is identical to the vulgate (attached to the Sakala Samhita). The manuscript is copied at ‘Rampur’, which cannot be identified.

The Ashvalayana Shrautasutra refers to the views of ‘Aitareyins’ two times, which makes it appear that the sutra does not belong exclusively to that recension of the Rigveda to which the Aitareya Brahmana is attached, or it may mean that the sutra belongs to a recension different from the one to which this Brahmana text is attached. Sutra 1.3.12 reads [RANADE 1981:8] – “Between the two (main) havis-offerings the followers of the Aitareya recension utter the expression ‘visnum (avaha)’ in a low voice (both in the Purnamasa and Darsa isti).” At sutras 3.6.3 and 10.1.13, the Aitareya school is quoted again.

Asvalayana Srauta Sutra

Devasvamin, the oldest commentator of the Asvalayana Srautrasutra, states that Saunaka authored the Srautasutra whereas Asvalayana was the author of the Grhyasutra. Gargya Narayana states that the ASS deals with the Sakala and the Bashkala Samhitas of RV, together with the Aitareya Brahmana, the Valakhilya Hymns, the Nivids, Praishas, Kuntapa hymns, Mahanamni verses and the Purorucs.

The only English translation of the text is by RANADE [1981, 1986]. A partial German translation by Klaus Mylius also exists.

The teachers and schools cited by this Shrautasutra are as follows –

Aitareyins: 1.3.12, 3.6.3, 10.1.13

Alekhana: 6.10.29

Ashmarathya: 5.13.18, 6.10.30,

Babhravya: 12.9.16

GaaNagaari: 2.6.16, 3.6.6, 3.11.18, 5.12.14, 5.6.25, 6.7.4, 7.1.21, 8.12.19

Gautama: 1.3.33, 2.6.18, 5.6.23, 7.1.20, 8.5.6

Kautsa: 1.2.5, 1.4.6, 7.1.19

Shatyayani: 1.4.13

Shaunaka: 12.8.34

Shrautarshi Devabhaga: 12.9.16

Taulvali: 2.6.17, 5.6.24

Section 12 of the text seems to be a later addition, or conflated by insertions.

Asvalayana Grhya Sutra

This text has numerous commentaries [JOG 1974]

1. Agnisharman: An author of this name is quoted by Jayantasvamin in his Vimalodayamala on the Sutra (see below). The nature his work is unkown.
2. Vrttikara: The views of a Vrttikara on the Asvalayana Grhya Sutras are often quoted and contrasted with those of others (like Jayanatasvamin) by the Kumarila Karikas (see below) and Narayana (see below). The identity of this author is unknown, but he seems to have lived in great antiquity.
3. The Grhya Karikas of Bhatta Kumarila: It is uncertain if the author is the same as the famous Mimamsaka. At least 2 manuscripts of this work state that the authors are Yellamabhatta and Mallari.
4. Ramabhatta, also called Buppadevasishya, has composed a voluminous commentary on the Karikas of Kumarila. He has quoted Jayantasvaim, Devasvamin, and an anonymous Vrttikara
5. Karikas of Sakalya, Saunaka and Raghunatha: These are metrical works ascribed to these authors. If genuine, the first two would be extremely ancient.
6. Asvalayana Grhyaprayoga Dipika: Attributed to Maharshi Shaunaka
7. The Vimalodayamala of Jayantasvamin: This is a ‘prayoga’ text, published by JOG [1974]. It completes the lacuna in the ritual of Asvalayanas by borrowing the relevant passages from the ritual texts of other Shakhas, and presents the entire ritual of the school in a systematic manner by bringing together all the relevant sutras together wherever necessary. Jayantasvamin apparent wrote any versified work on the Sutra, which was called the Jayanta Karika. Commentaries exist on these Karikas as well. Jog points out however that these Karikas are the work of someone else, possibly Yellamabhatta or Mallari [op. cit., p. xvi] and the title Jayanta Karika is probably a scribal error. Jog also proposes that Jayantasvamin might have been the son of Harisvamin, who lived in Central India in the 7^th-8^th Cent. C.E. Jayantasvamin quotes a wide array of Vedic texts – RV, AV, Brahmanas, VYV and so on.
8. Bhashya of Devasvamin: He is considered a commentator par-excellence in the Asvalayana tradition. There is a considerable controversy about his age. According to Kane, he lived around 1000-1050 C.E., whereas according to Hillebrandt and Kashikar, he might have lived as early as 500 C.E. [op. cit., pg. xii]
9. Vrtti of Narayana, of Naidhruva gotra: Manuscripts containing the entire work exist at Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 330-331].
10. Bhashya of Haradatta: The commentary is concise and very useful. According to Kane, he lived towards the close of the 12^th Cent. C.E.
11. The Abhyudayaprabha of Shadagurusishya: He is the famous commentator of the Rigveda Samhita, the Aitreya Brahman and also the Aitreya Aranyaka. He hailed from Malabar region.
12. Commentary by Gadadhara
13. Tatparyavyakhya by Damodara Bhatta
14. Bhashya of Siddhantin
15. Anonymous commentary in manuscript
16. Prayoga of Kamalakara Bhatta: A late work
17. Prayoga of Gaga Bhatta: A late work
18. Prayoga of Narayana: A late work
19. Prayoga of Ranganatha: A late work
20. Prayoga of Sambasiva: A late work

References:

JOG, K. P. Jog. 1974. Vimalodayamala of Jayantasvamin. University of Poona: Pune

RANADE, H. G. 1981, 1986. Asvalayana Srauta-Sutram, Part I and II. Published privately: Poona (2 vols.)

SHASTRI, Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad. 1923. A descriptive catalog of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts. Asiatic Society of Bengal: Calcutta

Mandukeya Sakhas of the Rigveda

Manuscripts

1. Manuscript of the Suparana Adhyaya: In the Kashmir Khila Samhita, the Suparna Adhyaya comprises of the whole of Adhyaya 1 of 11 Suktas (79 mantras in all). However, a manuscript of the Suparana Adhyaya having an extent of 214 slokas (i.e. 214 x 32 syllables) exists in the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal (Ref. 1, Pg. 240, entry 172). Unfortunately, this manuscript has not been utilized in preparing the various editions of the Rigveda Khilas.

Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad Shastri; A descriptive catalog of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923

Rigveda Khila Mantra Samhita

Khilas are generally placed at the end of the end of Mandalas and Anuvakas, not Ashtakas and Adhyayas.

Concordance between the Khilas of Prevelant Editions

Abbreviations:

S= Khilas given in Satavalekar’s edition

M= Khilas in Max Mueller’s Edition

V=  Khilas in Vaidik Samshodan Mandala’s Edition

With the Kashmir Khila Samhita as the basis: In the Kashmir Khila collection, the Khilas are arranged in 5 chapters

Khila 1 of S is same as Khila 1 of M

Khila 2 of S is same as Khila 2 of M except that mantra 7 of S occurs at the end in M

Khila 3 of S is absent in M

Khila 4 of S is same as Khila 3 of M

Khila 5 of S is same as Khila 4 of M

Khila 6 of S is same as Khila 5 of M

Khila 7 of S is same as Khila 6 of M

Khila 8 of S is same as Khila 7 of M

Khila 9 and 10 of S are absent in M

Khila 11 of S (Sri Suktani) is same as Khila 8 of M

Khila 12 of S is Khila 11 of M

Khilas 9 and 10 of M are late mantras, and are absent in S

Khila 13 of S is absent in M

Khila 12 of M is clearly a late mantra and is absent in S

Khila 14 of S is Khila 13 of M

Khila 15 of S is Khila 14 of M except that mantra 9 is former is absent in latter

Khila 16 of S is Khila 15 of M

Khila 17 of S is Khila 16 of M

Khila 18 of S is Khila 17 of M except that former has 1 extra mantra

Khila 19 of S is Khila 18 of M

Khila 20 of S is Khila 19 of M except that last mantra of former is absent in latter

Khilas 21-25 of S are Khilas 20-24 respectively of M

Khila 26 (Ratri Sukta) of S is Khila is Khila 25 of M but former is much longer

Khila 28 of S is Khila 26 of M

Khila 27 S is Khila 27 of M

Khila 29 (Yamkalpayanti Sukta) of S is absent in M

Khila 30 of S is Khila 28 of M but former has 3 additional mantras

Khila 31 of S (Medha Sukta) is Khila 29 of M but former has 2 additional mantras

Khilas 32-33 of S are absent in M

Khila 34 of S is Khila 30 of M

Khila 34 of S is Khila 30 of M

Khila 35 of S is Khila 31 of M

Khila 36 of S is different from Khila 32 of M. Mantras 1-4 and 15 alone of former are present in M

Khila 37 of S is absent in M

References:

1. Max Mueller (Ed.); Rigveda Samhita together with the Commentary of Sayanacharya; The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Work No. 99, Vol. IV; Varanasi; 1966

Madhyandina Shakha

Brahmin Communities

Samhita

Padapatha

Kramapatha

Other Vikritis

Commentatorial Tradition

Brahmana

Commentatorial Tradition

Aranyaka and Upanishad

Commentatorial Tradition

Kalpasutras

Katyayana Parisishtas

Laksana Texts

Other Ancillary Texts

Brahmin Communities

The Madhyandina Sukla-Yajurveda Sakha is the predominant Sakha of any of the four Vedas, across the length and breadth of northern India. Communities are, or were found till a century back, in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and also in Sindh and in Nepal. The Sukla Yajurveda as such is not as popular as the Krsna Yajurveda south of the Vindhya mountains, and most Sukla Yajurvedins in peninsular India adhere to the Kanva Sakha of Sukla Yajurveda. The Madhyandinas are found today, however, as far as south as Mysore city [STAAL 1961:19].

Haryana: In Kanvagram, near Kurukshetra in Haryana, and in some places in the Himachal Pradesh and Panjab, the Sarasvata Brahmins who followed the Kanva Yajurveda Sakha originally, now study the Madhyandina recension because of the non-availability of their own recension [B. R. SHARMA 1996: 67-68].

Rajasthan: Of the 12 Gotras of the Dahima Brahmins of Rajasthan, the following adhere to Sukla-Yajurveda’s Madhyandina Sakha, together with the Katyayana Sutra – Gautama, Bharadvaja, Bhargava, Atreya, Parasara, Kapila, Garga [ASOPA 1988:23-29]. These Yajurvedin Brahmins worship Lord Shiva and tie their top knot of hair on the right side of their heads.

Maharashtra: The Maharashtrian Madhyandina Brahmins along the banks of Godavari, in northern eastern and eastern Maharashtra and a little beyond up to the Krishna river, are the southernmost community of Brahmins following the Madhyandina Shakha of Sukla Yajurveda. They are strict vegetarians, and have a strong presence in and around Nashik. Unlike many other castes of Maharashtrian Brahmins, they avoid all sagotra marriages on the mother’s side, and also do not permit any kin-marriages. According to KARVE [1968:25], this indicates that the community had migrated from somewhere further north in India, and not necessarily from Gujarat [op. cit., 137]. The Madhyandina Brahmins in eastern Maharashtra often worship devi Renuka of Mahurgad. They are considered a section of the Maharashtrian Deshastha Brahmins. They often act as priests to the Sudras, a practice that is traditionally shunned by other Maharashtrian Brahmins castes.

Samhita

Also called Vajasaneyi Samhita, it comprises of 40 chapters of unequal length. It is a widespread belief amongst north Indian Vaidiks that the Madhyandina Samhita represents the original Vajasneyi Samhita. For instance. Mimamsaka points out [ref. 5; pg, 10-11] that in a manuscript of an anonymous work titled “Madhyandina Shakhavishaya” that is preserved at Chennai, it is mentioned that the Madhyandina Shakha is the chief recension among the 15 recensions of Sukla Yajurveda. In the Holaribhashya on the Sarvanukrama sutras of Katyayana on the Shukla Yajurveda too it is stated that the Madhyandina Samhita represents the Ur-text of Shukla Yajurveda. Commenting on Sutra 1.3 of the Pratijnasutra-Parishishta, Anantadeva also quotes Vasishtha to the effect that the Madhyandina Samhita is ‘Sarvasadharani’ i.e., it is of a general nature and applicable to all the schools of Shukla Yajurveda. To demonstrate the Ur nature of the Madhyandina Samhita, the followers of Arya Samaj typically adduce an additional proof based on the internal testimony of the Yajurveda Samhita. They point out that Madhyandina Samhita 9.14 reads “Esha vo’ami raja” wherein the word ‘ami’ is a general pronoun that can be substituted with the name of any ruler. In contrast, in place of the pronoun ‘ami’, the Kanva Samhita 11.1 specifically mentions the rulers of Kuru-Panchala, Taittiriya Samhita 1.8.90 mentions Bharata, where Kathaka Samhita 15.7 and Maitrayani Samhita 2.6.94 mention the people as the ruler. This is taken as an indication of the fact that while the other Samhitas substituted the word ‘ami’ with specific names depending on their provenance, the Madhyandina Samhita preserved the original text.

The first edition of the Madhyandina Samhita was published by Albrecht Weber in the year 1852 from London/Berlin.

Padapatha

Mimamsaka [1971] has published an authoritative edition of the Madhyandina Samhita Padapatha after collating manuscripts from various parts of India. The edition has a very useful general essay on the characteristics of the Padapatha of various Vedic Samhitas prefixed to it.

The author of the Padapatha of the Madhyandina Samhita is not known definitely, although the colophons of some manuscripts name him as Sakalya, to whom the famous Padapatha of Rigveda Samhita is also attributed [Mimamsaka 1971:2]. One manuscript at Calcutta even mentions Saunaka as its author [p. 29]

Curiously, tradition is not so uniform with regard to this text, and four variations of the text, differing in a few minor details, are seen in the manuscripts. The technical details of the four versions are difficult to explain in this essay, but nevertheless I will list some general information regarding these [p.42 - 51]:

Version 1: This represents the text followed by the followers of the Madhyandina Sakha in North India. Numerous manuscripts found in Varanasi and elsewhere in India conform to this version.

Version 2: It is identical to the first version, except that for a few differences in the accentuation (and accent symbols) assigned to the resolved words. The edition of the Padapatha published from Varanasi (by Gaurish Yantralaya) could be considered a representative of this version.

Version 3 and 4 largely follow version 1 but differ from the same and amongst each other in minor respects. Version 3 is represented by the edition of the Samhita and Padapatha published from Mumbai (by the ‘Tattvavivechaka Press’). Mimamsaka suspects that the fourth version might represent a subdivision of the Madhyandinas [p. 49]

Kramapatha

The Samhita text forms the basis of the Pada text. The Pada text forms the basis of the Krama text while the Krama text forms the basis of all the remaining Vikriti texts. The Krama of Yajurveda was published on the basis of a solitary manuscript provided by Pt. Madan Mohan Vyasa to Pt. Mimamsaka (ref. 5; pg. 16). Unfortunately, the published volume covers only chaps. 1-20 of the Samhita and so far I have not yet seen the Krama of the remaining chapters. Mimamsaka points out that the Krama of the Samhita is of 2 or more varieties owing to the fact that the Padapatha on which it is based itself is of several types. The manuscript of the first 20 chapters was copied in Shaka 1792 whereas that of chapters 21-40 was copied in Shaka 1724.

The kramapatha of the entire text has also been written by Pandit Virasen Vedashrami of Gurukul Kangri, and it still lies in manuscript⁵⁷.

Other Vikriti Pathas of Madhyandina Samhita

The Samhita text forms the basis of the Pada text. The Pada text forms the basis of the Krama text while the Krama text forms the basis of all the remaining Vikriti texts. Kramapatha manuscripts are found all over India [AITHAL 1991:524-525]. Pandit Virasena Vedashrami has written down various Vikrti Pathas (Jata, Ghana etc.) for chapters 31-40 of the Samhita, but this work is still in manuscript⁵⁸.

Oral Traditions and Geographical Distribution

According to information provided by V. Raghavan and W. Howard, Madhyandinas are found at Varanasi, Ambala, Jallandhar, Indore, Ujjain, Nagpur, Nashik, Jammu. Historically, they have remained confined to Northern India. In fact, the Madhyandinas are often said to have the maximum number of followers of any Vedic school alive, and can recite not only the Samhita, Pada and Ghana pathas but also the other vikritis [Ref. 7. pg. 119]. Accentuation of the Madhyandina recension of the Vajasneyi Samhita is in no way connected with the accentuation of the text [Ref. 4, pg. 163].

Commentaries on Madhyandina Samhita

1. Mantra Bhasya of Uvata: According to the colophons of this work, Uvata hailed from Anandapura in Gujarat, but wrote his commentary while living in Avanti during the reign of Raja Bhoja (996-1051 C.E.). According to some, Uvata and Kaiyata were brothers of the Kashmirian scholar Mammata, and were therefore Kashmiri Pandits. However, this view is untenable because the colophons clearly state that he was the son of Vajrata, who was from Gujarat [ref. 2, pg. 21]. At the commencement of his commentary, Uvata lists the exegetical principles (vyakhya dharmas) that he will employ. The commentary is brief and precise.

2. Vedadipa of Mahidhara

3. Anantacharya, son of Nagadeva

4. Bhashya of Udaya Prakash Deva: This is a recent work [ref. 2, pg. 130]

5. Misrabhashya (Published from Venkatesvara Mudranalaya) [ref. 6; pg. gha]

6. Dipikabhashya: Not published [ref. 6; pg. gha]

7. Devayajnika: Not published [ref. 6; pg. gha]

8. Anandabhashya (published only chaps 31-40 in Sarasvati Sushama magazine) [ref. 6; pg. gha]

9. Bhashya of Maharshi Dayanand Sarasvati: A massive commentary on the Samhita was commenced by the Swami in Vikrami Samvat 1934, and was completed in five years⁵⁹. Like his commentary on Rgveda Samhita, the Sanskrit text is directly authored by the Swami, and the Hindi translation is done by two collaborators Pandit Bhimasena Sharma and Pandit Jwaladutta Sharma. The commentary was published in four volumes by the Vaidik Yantraalaya of Ajmer. The translation is not in a very polished language, and is often at variance with the Sanskrit text. Therefore, the Arsha Sahitya Prachar Trust retranslated the Sanskrit portion into Hindi and republished the entire work in four attractive volumes. Another notable edition of this work was published by Ramalal Kapoor Trust (Sonepat, Haryana). This edition extends only to the first 15 adhyaayas of the Samhita, and contains a very extensive annotation or super-commentary by Pandit Brahmadatta Jijnasu. An attempt has been made in the Sonepat edition to justify grammatical objections raised against Swamiji’s commentary by other Sanskrit scholars. For the first two chapters, the Jijnasu has also attempted to explain each mantra in a three-fold manner (adhidaivika, aadhyaatima and adhibhautika).

10. M R Jambunathan published a Tamil translation of all the mantra portion of the Taittiriya Sakha, and also of the entire Sukla Yajurveda from Bombay in 1938, through the J. Book Depot. The work is titled ‘Yajurvedam’.⁶⁰

11. Pandit Chamupati wrote an English translation of the first ten chapters of the Samhita from Arya Samaj perspective. This translation was published in several installments in the monthly periodical named ‘Vedic Magazine’, and was also eventually published in book form⁶¹.

12. Shridhar Shastri Pathak: He published a Marathi text and translation of the Madhyandina Samhita through the Manohar Grantha Mala, Poona, in 1942

13. Swami Bhumanand: He was originally a Catholic priest in south India, but converted to the Arya Samaj sect of Hinduism. He wrote an English commentary on Madhyandina Samhita 1.1-16 titled ‘The Divine Book of work and Worship’, which was published from Ajmer by the Arya Sahitya Mandala in 1937. Subsequently, he also published an English translation and commentary on the entire Samhita⁶².

14. Devichand (1880-1965) translated Dayanand Sarasvati’s commentary of Yajurveda into English. The translation does not include Swami Dayanand’s word-meanings, extensive comments on mantras or their import and is basically a bare-bones translation of the Samhita based on the Swami’s massive commentary. This translation is widely available in numerous printed editions today.

15. Pandit Jaidev Sharma (1892-1961): He is the first scholar to have translated all the four Vedas into Hindi (or, as a matter of fact, into any Indian language). The translations were written between May 1925 and 1936, and comprise 7 volumes for Rgveda, 4 for Atharvaveda and 2 each for Yajurveda and Samaveda. Sharma closely follows the views of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati in his own translations. His translations have been reprinted numerous times⁶³ and are prefaced by an elaborate and erudite note on the respective Veda.

16. Vivarana of Pt. Brahmadatta Jijnasu (1892-1964), a Sarasvata Brahmin of Pathak gotra, was born in Jallandhar district of Punjab. He was a renowned scholar of Paninian grammar. His supercommentary on the first 15 chapters of the Bhasya of Maharshi Dayanand Sarasvati is discussed above. Apparently, the supercommentary extended over the entire Yajurveda, but so far the remainder has not been published.

17. Damodar Satavalekara

18. Commentary on chapter III by Swami Gangesvaranand Sarasvati [ref. 2, pg. 139]. In this commentary, Swamiji reads the story of Lord Krishna in the mantras.

19. Hindi translation by Shriram Sharma

20. Swami Vidyanand Videha wrote a Hindi commentary on the first 14 chapters of Madhyandina Samhita in 14 volumes⁶⁴.

21. Ashuram Arya⁶⁵ translated the Madhyandina Yajurveda Samhita into Urdu. The translation, comprising the first four chapters of the text alone, was published by Arya Prakashan from Chandigarh in 1984. I have no information if any subsequent volumes were published.

Satapatha Brahmana

The rituals in the Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana occur in the same order as the Samhita with the slight difference that the Pinda-pitr-yajna appears after Darshapurnamasa in the Samhita but after the adhana in the Brahmana. The Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana is divided into 14 Kandas containing 100 adhyayas, 68 prapathakas, 436 Brahmanas and 7179 Kandikas

Commentaries on Satapatha Brahmana

1. Harisvamin: He is the oldest commentator of the text. According to a verse in the colophons of the commentary, Hariswamin was the ‘dharmaadhyaksha’ of Emperor Vikramaditya, the ruler of Avanti. The date on which the commentary was completed is also mentioned in another colophon verse, which is interpreted by SARUP [1937] as “This commentary was written when 3700 and another 40 years of the Kali Age had passed away” [p. 399]. Since the Kali Era commenced in 3102 BCE according to tradition, we arrive 638 CE as the year in which the commentary was composed. This leads to the difficulty that no king by the name Vikramaditya is known to have ruled at Avanti in that year. SARUP therefore amends the text to read ‘3600 and another 40 years’ leading to 538 CE as the date of the composition. Thereafter, he equates Yasodharman, the ruler of Malva, with Vikramaditya, and concludes that Yasodharman was the patron of Hariswamin.

2. Vedartha Prakasa of Sayanacharya

3. Motilal Sarma published the Vijanaamrita Bhashya of the text in Hindi in five volumes from 1933 onwards through the Vedic Tattvasodha Samsthana in Jaipur.⁶⁶

4. Gangaprasad Upadhyaya (1881-1968) wrote a Hindi translation of the entire Satapatha Brahmana in its Madhyandina recension, which was published posthumously in three volumes. Prefaced to the first volume is a massive English introduction to the Brahmana text authored by Swami Satyaprakash Sarasvati, who was the son of Upadhyaya.

5. Pandit Buddhadeva Vidyalankar Vidyamartanda (d. 1964) wrote a commentary on the first five chapters in 264 pages⁶⁷. He was a follower of the Arya Samaj.

The first edition of the Satapatha Brahmana was published from Albrecht Weber from London/Berlin in the year 1855.

Commentaries of Isavasya Upanishad

1. Bhartrprapanca (Bhedabheda Vedanta): Was probably on Madhyandina recension of Yajurveda. No longer extant. Extensive quotations are found in the Bhasyas of Sri Samkaracharya, Sri Suresvacharya, Anandagiri and Anandapurna Muni

2. Samkaracarya (Advaita Vedanta): This is on Kanva recension of Yajurveda

3. Uvata (Vaidik commentary): This is a part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyandina recension)

4. Kuranarayana (Visistadvaita Vedanta)

5. Madhvacarya (Dvaita Vedanta)

6. Anandagiri: Sub-commentary on # 2 above

7. Venkatanatha (Visistadvaita Vedanta)

8. Sayanacarya (Advaita Vedanta): Manuscript at Central Library at Baroda

9. Vijnanabhiksu (Samkhya-Vedanta)

10. Jayatirtha: Sub-commentary on # 5 above

11. Mahidhara: Vaidik commentary. This is a part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyandina Sakha) Samhita.

12. Dipika of Raghavendra Yati (Dvaita Vedanta)

13. Dipika of Samkarananda on #2 above

14. Upanisadbrahmayogin (Paramadvaita Vedanta): Manuscript at Central Library, Baroda

15. Dayanand Saraswati: Vaidik commentary. Part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyanadina Sakha) Samhita

16. Pandit Gurudatta Vidyarthi: He published a lucid translation cum commentary on this text following Arya Samaj’s principles in June 1888. The work was published by the Virajanand Press of Lahore⁶⁸. A Hindi translation of this commentary by Pandit Atmaram Amritsari, was also published later by Anglo-Sanskrit Yantraalaya.

17. Gangaprasad Upadhyaya (1881-1968) published a lucid commentary of Isavasya Upanishad in 1940⁶⁹.

18. Damodara Satavalekara: Vaidik commentary. In Hindi

Brhadaranyaka Upanisad (Madhyandina)

1. Bhartrprapancha
2. Disciples of Bhartraprapancha: In his Varttika, Suresvara refers to interpretations of # 1 by disciples of Bhartrprapanca
3. Hariswami: Portion of a commentary on the entire Satapatha Brahman. The relevant portion is lost
4. Mukhyartha Prakasika of Dviveda Ganga (Ref. 1, Pg. 714, no. 860), the son of Narayana
5. Vasudeva Brahma (Ref. 1, Pg. 714, no. 857), the pupil of Hrishikesha. This work extends to 7^th Brahmana of the 5^th Prapathaka. The extant manuscrip has 128 folia and its extent is 4500 shlokas.
6. Nilakantha (Ref. 1, Pg. 713, no. 858): The author Nilakantha was the son of Ranganatha Saiva and Laksmi. His teachers were Kasinatha and Sridhara. He referred to the previous commentaries by Sri Samkaracharya and Sri Suresvaracharya on the Kanva version but omitted to comment on the first two Brahmanas although they were commented upon by Sri Samkaracharya. Nilakantha gives a reason for this omission and states that these two Brahmanas strictly belong to Asvamedha Karmakanda and are dealt with in the 10th prapathaka of Madhyandina Satapatha Brahmana. Therefore, they should not be dealt with in a commentary on the Upanisad.
7. Mitaksara of Nityanandasrama, the disciple of Purusottamasrama
8. Pandit Shivashankar Sharma Kavyatirtha: He composed a massive Sanskrit-Hindi commentary on the text, which was published by the Paropakarini Sabha of Ajmer in 1911. Numerous reprints have appeared⁷⁰.

Commentaries of Isavasya Upanishad

1. Bhartrprapanca (Bhedabheda Vedanta: Was probably on Madhyandina recension of Yajurveda.
2. Uvata (Vaidik commentary): This is a part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyandina recension)
3. Mahidhara: Vaidik commentary. This is a part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyandina Sakha) Samhita.
4. Dayanand Saraswati: Vaidik commentary. Part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyanadina Sakha) Samhita
5. Pandit Jaideva Sharma, who also authored a Hindi translation of all the four Vedas, authored a Hindu translation of this Upanishad.
6. Damodara Satavalekara: Vaidik commentary. In Hindi

Sarvanukrama sutras of Katyayana

Commentatorial tradition:

1. Bhasya of Holira

Vajasneyi Pratisakhya Sutras of Katyayana

It is the eighth Parisishta of Katyayana. VARMA [1984:184] points to the fact that the Vajasneya Pratisakhya mentions the Madhyandina (8.45) and Kanva (1.149) separately, indicating that the Pratisakhya as such belongs to a recension different from these two. Varma also opines that the text is not the composition of the grammarian Katyayana, and is instead pre-Paninean.

Commentary

1. Matrmoda or Matrmodaka commentary of Uvata: The commentary is large in extent, and starts with the exegetical principles that Uvata will follow in his work. The work is interspersed with discussions on grammar, phonetics and specifically mentions those aphorisms that are not very relevant to the context, and those that describe rules that are exceptional.
2. Padarthaprakasa of Ananta Bhatta, son of Nagadeva Bhatta and Bhagirathi
3. Jyotsna by Ramachandra, son of Siddhesvara.
4. Dipika by Rama Agnihotri, son of Sadasiva Agnihotri (Ref. 1, Pg. 744, no. 905)
5. Vaidikaabharana of Gopalamishra. Manuscript in Government Oriental Library, Madras⁷¹. Jatapatala ascribed to Anantacharya, son of Nagadeva

Katyayana Srauta Sutra

Commentaries

1. Bhartyajna’s Bhashya: He is said [ref.3, pg. 97] to have** **been a ‘Nagara Brahmin’ and is mentioned in Skanda Purana (Naagara Khanda 113-117). According to these 4 chapters, he belonged to the Samkrtya Gotra and was the son of Nimi. His other name was Prabhavadatta. He was believed to have supernatural powers and earned the name ‘Bhartryajna’. He was the leader of the Nagara Brahmins and re-established 64 families of Nagara Brahmins in Chamatkarapura (modern Vadanagara) [ref. 2, pg. 85]. From the list of his works also, he appears to have been a Shukla Yajurvediya Brahmana of Madhyanandina Shakha (which is prevelant in Gujarat, the home of Naagara brahmins). Since he is quoted in the ‘Trikandamandana’ and Karka’s commentary on the same text, he has to be prior to 1150 A.D. Bhartryajna is mentioned by Medhatithi (9th Cent. C.E.) in his commentary on the Manusmrti [ref. 3, pg. 309]. An incomplete manuscript of this commentary, covering only the first chapter of the Srauta Sutra exists in Baroda.
2. Acharya Pitribhuti: He calls himself a resident of Anarta (Gujarat) in the colophons. He is quoted by Karka. [ref. 4, pg. 206]
3. Bhasya of Karka
4. Subcommentary titled Bhaavavishodhini by Aatmaraama on Karka’s Bhashya
5. Padaprayojana: Sub-commentary on Karka’s Bhasya
6. Vyakhyana of Yajnikadeva, son of Prajapati Yajnika. The work is called Srautasutrapaddhati or Srautasmaaranakarmapaddhati or Yaajnikavallabhaa.
7. Bhashya of Mahadeva: He was an Atharvavedic Brahmin of the Audichyasahasra subcaste [ref. 4, pg. 206]
8. Bhasya of Anantadeva, son of Vacaspati. The colphons of the manuscripts state that he performed 81 Somayagas
9. Bhashya by Kalyanji
10. Commentary by Gadaadhara
11. Commentary by Garga
12. Commentary by Gangaadhara
13. Katyayanasutra Paddhati or Srautapaddhati by Padmanabha
14. Commentary by Pitrbhuti
15. Commentary by Mahadeva, which relies on the work of Yajnikadeva listed above.
16. Commentary by Sridhara
17. Commentary by Mishraagnihotri
18. Jyotishtomabhashya by Kaashidiikshita: Manuscript exists at Alwar.
19. Anonymous commentaries: Numerous other commentaries and paddhatis on the entire sutra or on portions of the same exist in various manuscript libraries.⁷² The first edition of the Katyayana Srautrasutra was edited by Albrecht Weber from Berlin in 1859.

Pratijna Sutra of Katyayana

Comentaries

1. Bhasya of Ananta Yajnika

Commentaries on Katyayana Grhya Sutra

20. Bhartyajna’s Bhashya:
21. Katyayana Smartta Mantrartha Dipika of Anantacarya, the sone of Nagadeva (Ref. 1)

Commentaries on Paraskara Grhya Sutra

1. Paraskaragrhyaprakaasa by Vedamishra

2. Paraskara Mantra Bhasya by Murari Misra (Ref. 1, Pg. 697, no. 844). This work comments on the Mantras cited in the Grhyasutra, relying on the Bhashya on Grhya ritual of Vedamishra, who was Murari’s father.

3. Bhasya of Bhartryajna (fragments extant): Only the portion of his commentary on chapter 1 and 3 are extant in manuscripts.

4. Vivarana of Karka

5. Bhashya of Halayudha: He was a judge in the court of King Lakshmanasena of Bengal

6. Prayogapaddhati of Harihara

7. Bhasya of Jayarama: The name of the commentary is ‘Sajjana Vallabhaa’. According the colophons, Jayarama belonged to the Bharadvaja gotra and was the disciple of Damodara

8. Arthabhaskara, by Bhaskara the pupil of Raghavendraaranya

9. Paraskaragrhyapaddhati by Bhaskara Diksita, pupil of Raghavendraaranya (he is the same person listed above, and he wrote this second work on the same sutra).

10. Bhasya of Gadadhara, son of Vamana

11. Prakasika of Visvanatha (15^th – 16^th cent. C.E.) son of Nrsimha and Ganga Devi and grandson of Ashadhara: He hailed from Nandapura (Nandoda in Gujarat) and was the son of Narasimha and grandson of Ashdhara. He was a Nagar Brahmin. Apparently, he left his work incomplete, and that it was eventually completed by a Lakshimadhara who hailed from Cambay (in Gujarat) but resided at Varanasi [ref. 4, pg. 206]

12. Bhasya of Visvesvara

13. Commentary by Vaagiisvaradatta

14. Paraskaragrhyakarika by Renukacharya⁷³

15. Smaarttollaasa: This is a treatise on Grhya rites based on the precepts of Katyayana. The work is attributed to Shivaprasada Pathaka who resided in Pushkaravalli or Yevanda-vallipura. A manuscript exists in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 940-941].

16. Paraskaragrhyapaddhati by Vasudeva Diksita: Manuscript at Alwar⁷⁴.

17. Paraskaragrhyasutrapaddhati by Kaamadeva, the work being also called Karmapradiipika

Sulva Sutras of Katyayana

Commentaries

18. Karka Upadhyaya

19. Sulbavaarttikatika by Ramachandra Vajapeyin, son of Suryadasa⁷⁵. Manuscript exists in Jammu in the collection of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.

20. Bhasya of Gangadhara Pathaka, the son of Ramachandra Pathaka: His father was a great scholar of Dharmashastra, Vedas and Vedic sacrifices. His brother’s name was Yajnika Narayana. Gangadhara was a Nagar Brahmin and a resident of Cambay in Gujarat, and he left the Bhashya incomplete. The work was completed by his son Ramakrishna, who lived at Varanasi. According to the colophons of his work ‘PravAskrtya’, it was completed in 1606-1607 C.E., which gives us an idea of the date of the author. Only two manuscripts of the work are known- one at Darbhanga (in Bihar) and the other at Calcutta [ref. 4, pg. 210]. Gangadhara wrote

21. Vivarana by Mahidhara: He is the same as the commentator on the Madhyandina samhita and bases his work on the earlier Bhasya of Karka and Vrtti of Rama

A Marathi translation of Manava, Katyayana, Apastamba and Baudhayana Sulvasutras was published in 1978 from Mumbai by R. P. Kulkarni [KASHIKAR 1996: 4].

Parisistas

22. Yajurvidhana - Yajurvidhana – This texts exists in two recensions: The longer (or Brhad) version in 7 chapters, and the laghu (or shorter) version in 5 chapters. It has been published in the Siksa Samgraha [Benares Sanskrit Series vol. 10, 1889]. It has a commentary called Yajurmanjari by kAlanAtha vAghare, which has been published by WARE [1943]. The version in five chapters is attributed to Yajnvalkya in the colophons [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 736-737].
23. Charanavyuha:

Commentaries

1. Mahidasa Bhasya
2. Padyavrtti- anonymous
3. Other anonymous commentaries
4. Sraddha Sutra:

Bhasyas by

a. Karka

b. Halayudha

c. Gadaadhara who is the son of Kaisvara Daivajna (called Sutrartha Manjari) wrote a Sraddhasutraarthamanjari, whose commentary exists at Alwar⁷⁶.

d. Changa Bhatta

e. Krshna Misra (son of Vishnu Misra, grandson of Atisukha and great grandson of Nityananda). The work is known as Sraaddhakaasikaa

f. Sraddhasamgraha and Sraddha Ganapati of Konda Bhata, son of Prayaga Bhatta, grandson of Ananta Sarma of Bharadvaja lineage

g. Commentary by Niilaasura, son of Samkarshana. Commentary exists at Alwar⁷⁷.

5. Ishtakapuranam: This is the 10th Parisishta of Katyayana

Commentaries:

1. Bhasya of Karka

2. Bhashya by Kesvacharya exists in manuscript.⁷⁸

3. Bhasya of Yajnikadeva, the son of Prajapati Yajnika

4. Hautraprayoga/Hautrikaparisishta: This is the 16th Parisista of Katyayana.

Commentaries:

4. Bhasya of Karka

5. Muladhaya of Katyayana

Commentaries:

5. Vivarana of Gopala (Ref. 1, Pg. 812, no. 1000). He was the Guru of Ganapati and Nrsimha, and is quoted by Sayanacharya. He appears to be an Advaitin Samnyasin, as his complete name Gopala Paramahamsa Parivrajakacharya indicates. In another of his work titled Baudhayana Yajnaprayaschitta Vivarana, Gopala quotes Bhavaswamin.⁷⁹

6. Vivarana of Vaidyanatha Payagundi

7. Snanasutra of Katyayana: It is also titled Trikandikaasutra.

Commentaries

7. Bhasya of Changa Chintamani

8. Bhasya of Agnihotri Harihara Misra

9. Snanasutrabhashyavyaakhyaa by Harihara

10. Snanasutrapaddati by Harijiivana Mishra: Manuscripts at Oxford and Bikaner.⁸⁰

11. Vyakhya by Chandesvara Thakkur

12. Bhasya by Gangadhara Yajnika

13. Vivarana of Karka⁸¹

14. Commentary by Gopinatha, son of Madhava. Manuscript at Alwar⁸².

15. Subcommentary by Krshnanaatha on Gopinatha’s work

16. Commentary by Mahadeva Dvivedin. Manuscript at Alwar⁸³.

17. Snanavidhipaddhati by Yajnikadeva. Manuscript at Alwar⁸⁴.

18. Anuvaka Samkhya Sutra or Anuvakadhyaya: It is the 4^th of the 18 Parisisthas of Katyayana and is an index (anukramani) if the Rishis, Devatas, Chhandas of the mantras of the Madhyandina Samhita.

19. Pratijnasutra Parisishta – this is the third of the 18 appendices attributed to Katyayana, and is a supplement to the Vajasneyi Pratisakhya. The text is divided into three Kandikas – Svara Prakriya, Uccharana-vidhi and Anusvara-visarga-svara-vikara, containing 10, 8 and 5 sutras respectively. However, the division of the sutras and their number in each kandika varies in different manuscripts. The text has a Bhashya on it by Anantadeva Yajnika, a Vrtti by Kesavacharya, a bhashya called Pradipa of Gauridatta, a bhashya by Madhusudabna, a Tippana of Vardhamana-Misra, a Vrtti called Jyotsna by Ramasarman and a bhashya by Mahidhara. Printed editions include those by Yugal Kishore MISRA [1989] with the Jyotsna of Ramasarman, and of Jagdish Lal SHASTRI [1971] containing the commentaries of Uvata and Mahidhara.

20. RgYajuh Parisishta or Rgyajumsi: This is the 9^th or 8^th in the collection of 18 Parisishtas of Katyayana [Ref. 8. pg. 172-173]. An edition of this text has been brought out by Sridhara Anna Sastri Ware of Nasik

21. Pravaraadhyaya of Katyayana: This is the eleventh Parisishta attributed to Katyayana. Numerous recension exists for this text. In one version existing in manuscript of 10 folio in Calcutta [HARAPRSAD SHASTRI 1923: 802-803], it discusses the founders of the families of Bhrgu, Gautama, Jamadagni, Atri, Vasishtha, Kasyapa, Agastya, Bharadvaja and Visvamitra. The text discusses in detail the prohibtion of marriage in the same gotra and even in the same pravara under the same gotra.

22. Bhojanasutra: A commentary by Ananta exists⁸⁵.

23. Dharmajijnaasaa: A manuscript of this Parisishta attributed to Katyayana exists at Oxford.⁸⁶ It is unclear what the text deals with and what Veda it belongs to (if at all).

Other Ancillary Tests of Madhyandina Sakha

1. Katyayana Siksa [AITHAL 1991:259-260] – This text is different from the famous Yajnavalkya Siksa. It comprises of 13 verses dealing with the accentuation of the detached words (pada-s) and also of the words in the Samhita text. Most of the rules in this text are a metrical exposition of those mentioned in the Vajasneyi Pratisakhya. The text along with its commentary by Jayanta Swami are published in the ‘Siksa Samgraha’ collection from Varanasi [Benares Sanskrit Series, vol. 10, 1889]. Another version of the Katyayana Siksha comprising of 11 verses also exists in manuscript [AITHAL 1991:261].
2. Bhashika Sutras: A work by Sage Katyayana dealing with the accentuation of Brahmana texts, and the Satapatha Brahmana in particular. It has a commentary on it by Anantacharya, also called Anantadeva Bhatta who followed Kanva Yajurveda and lived at Varanasi around 1626 C.E. He was the son of Bhagirathi and Nagadeva [AITHAL 1991:73, 463-466]. Another commentary by Mahasvamin also exists. The critical text, with both the commentaries have been published by CHAUBEY [1975]. The Bhashika sutra extends over 3 kandikas, comprising 22, 22, 29 sutras respectively according this edition.
3. ParibhashAnka Sutra [AITHAL 1991:411] – A short text of 9 sutras attributed to Sage Madhyandina. Sometimes accompanied by a commentary and a summary in 6 verses, both of whom are authored by Kesavarama Daivayajna. The Sutras together with the commentary and the 6 summary verses constitute the ‘Kesavi Siksa’.
4. Parasari Siksa [AITHAL 1991:428-429] – It is a text of 160 verses giving the number of letters in each Kandika of the Sukla Yajurveda, and also discusses the method of their pronounciation. It also gives some euphonic rules, but not in any well defined order. The text has been published in the ‘Siksa-Samgraha’ collection of Varanasi.
5. **Mandavya Siksa – **It enumerates the ‘b’ letter occurring in each chapter of the Sukla-Yajurveda Samhita. Published in the ‘Siksa-Samgraha’ from Varanasi.
6. Yajnavalkya Siksa: Also known as Vajasneyi Siksa, the work is almost a running commentary on the Sukla-Yajupratisakhya of Katyayana. Numerous printed editions of the text area available, and it has been published with a Hindi translation cum commentary by Vidyadhara PANDEYA [1978] from Varanasi. Uvata and Mahidhara have written commentaries on this text.
7. Vasishthi Siksa: There are several texts belonging to the Vajasneyi Samhita bearing this name. The most common version differentiates between verses (Rks) and prose sentences (Yajus proper) from each other in each chapter of the Samhita. The total verses are said to be 1467 while there are 2833 Yajus, bringing the total to 4300. Due to this reason, the colophons name the text as ‘Rgyajusor vibhaga’. The Siksa follows the Katyayaniya Vajasneyi Pratisakhya very closely. The text is included in the ‘Siksa Samgraha’ collection published from Varanasi.

References

1. Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad Shastri; A descriptive catalog of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923
2. Gautam Patel et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998
3. Kundanlal Sharma; Kalpasutra- Vaidika Vanmaya ka Vivechanatmaka Brihad Itihas, Saptam Khanda; Vishveshvaranand Indological Series-74; Hoshiarpur, Punjab; 1981
4. P. H. Joshi; Contribution of Gujarat to the Dharmashastra Literature; in Gautam Patel et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998
5. Yudhishthira Mimamsaka (Ed.); Madhyandinakramapathah (purvavimsati); Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthana; Delhi; 1993
6. Cintamani Misra Sarma (Ed.), Divakaradas Sarma (Jt. Ed.), Gopala Candra Misra (Asst. Ed.). Suklayajurveda Kanva Samhita with Sayana Bhasya (Uttara Vimsati); Sarasvatibhavana-Granthamala (vol. 114); Varanasi; 1978
7. Howard, Wayne; Veda Recitation in Varanasi; Motilal Banarsidass; Delhi; 1986
8. K. Parameswara Aithal; Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1991

ASOPA, Jai Narayan. 1988. The Brahmanas, Dadhichi and Dahimas. Shri Dadhimati Sahitya Shodha evam Prakashan Samiiti: Jaipur

**CHAUBEY Braj Bihari. **1975. Bhasikasutra of Maharsi Katyayana, with the commentaries of Mahasvamin and Ananda-Bhatta. Vishveshvaranand Vishva Bandhu Institute of Sanskrit and Indological Studies: Hoshiarpur

KARVE, Irawati Karmarkar. 1968. Hindu Society – An Interpretation. Deshmukh Prakashan: Poona

MIMAMSAKA Yudhishthira. . Madhyandina Samhitayaah padapathah. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat (Haryana)

MISRA Yugal Kishore. 1989. Pratijna-Sutra with the commentary Jyotsna-vrtti of Ramasarman on Vajasneyi-Pratisakhya. Sampurnanand Sanskrit University: Varanasi

PANDEYA Vidyadhar. 1978. Yajnavalkya Siksa with a Hindi commentary called Prakasika. Naya Samsar Press: Varanasi

SARUP, Lakshman. 1937. Date of Skandasvamin. In Jha Commemoration Volume – Essays on Oriental Subjects presented to Vidyasagar Mahamahopadhyaya Pandita Ganganatha Jha, Oriental Book Agency: Poona, pp. 399-410

SHARMA, Bellikoth Ramakrishna. 1996. Text Editing and Text-Critical Study. In Some Aspects of Vedic Studies, ed. by Samiran Chandra Chakrabarti, School of Vedic Studies – Rabindra Bharati University: Calcutta; pp. 55-78

SHASTRI Jagdish Lal. 1971. Pratijna Sutra with the commentaries of Uvata and Mahidhara. Motilal Banarsidass: Delhi

**STAAL, J. F. **1961. Nambudiri Veda Recitation. Mouten & Co.: ‘S-Gravehage

VARMA, Satyakam. 1984. Vedic Studies. Bharatiya Prakashan: New Delhi

WARE Anna Sastri. 1943. Suklayajurvidhana-sutra. Nirnaya Sagar Press: Bombay

Kanva Sakha of Sukla Yajurveda

Area of Prevelance and Brahmin Communities: Kanva Sakha is prevalent current in

1. Haryana: In Kanvagram, near Kurukshetra in Haryana, and in some places in the Himachal Pradesh and Panjab, the Sarasvata Brahmins who followed the Kanva Yajurveda Sakha originally, now study the Madhyandina recension because of the non-availability of their own recension [B. R. SHARMA 1996: 67-68].

2. Maharashtra: Kanva Yajurvedin Brahmins are a section of Deshastha Brahmins in Maharashtra, found mostly at Pandharpur (where they preside as priests of the Vithoba temple) and further south. They are the southernmost branch of Sukla Yajurvedin Brahmins [KARVE 1968:136].

3. Tamil Nadu: A few villages in and around the towns of Trichinopoly and Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu [STAAL 1961:19]

Samhita: Exists in two versions–the well known Vulgate, and the slightly different Orissan version.

Padapatha: Manuscripts are extant. The Padapatha of the first 20 chapters is published in Sharma’s edition [ref. 1] on the basis of 3 manuscripts. To my knowledge, the Padapatha of the remaining 20 chapters is yet unpublished even though manuscripts of the entire Padapatha are also extant at various places..

Kramapatha: Manuscripts are extant [e.g., HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 681] though it is unclear if the oral tradition still survives.

Jatapatha: A manuscript of the jatapatha extending up to the 17^th chapter exists [AITHAL 1991:253, 257].

Oral Traditions and Geographical Distribution:

Epigraphic and literary evidence [Ref. 4, pg. 119-120] attests to the presence of Kanvas over large parts of South Asia: Nepal, Vishakhapatnam (Coastal Andhra Pradesh), Orissa, on the Godavari River, Bangladesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Nagpur and even at Jaipur and Varanasi (of course)

Accentuation of the Madhyandina recension of the Vajasneyi Samhita is in no way connected with the accentuation of the text. It need not be inferred that Kanva White Yajurveda and Saunaka Atharvaveda (both of which are recited with accent) are earlier than the Madhyandina Yajurveda, for adherents of these two schools seem to model their recitals after Rigveda recitation in the Maharashtrian style [Ref. 4, pg. 163].

Therefore Kanva Yajurveda is closely allied with Maharashtrian Rigveda and hence also with the Atharvaveda from the same general region. From the facts before us, we are prone to assume that an independent Kanva style does not exist and that an independent Kanva style does not exist and that at least as far as music is concerned, propagators of the Shakha are little more than Rgvedis in disguise. The texts of the White Yajurveda support the contention that the Kanvas are under greater Rigveda influence. Renou has noticed that where the two Shakhas: Madhyandina and Kanva, disagree, the disagreement is not always an innovation on the part on the part of one school of the other, but rather an attempt to approximate a reading of another Samhita. The Kanva recension ordinarily imitates the Rgveda or the Taittiriya branch of the Black Yajurveda, whereas the Madhyandina Shakha approaches the Maitrayani and Kathaka Samhitas of the Black Yajus [Ref. 4, pg. 198].

Lakshana Texts on the Samhita:

AITHAL [1991] lists numerous Lakshana texts on the Kanva Sakha but I will restrict myself to a description of only those texts that are either ancient, or those that are attributed to ancient authorities (e.g. Katyayana).

1. Laghu Pratisakhya – This work is attributed to Katyayana and exists in manuscript [AITHAL 1991:253].

Indices of Kanva Samhita

1. Sarvanukramani or the Kanvanukramani – Exists in manuscript [AITHAL 1991:257]. Its relationship with the Madhyandina Sarvanukramani of Katyayana is unclear.

Kanva Shatpatha Brahman

The first seven Kandas of the Kanva version of the Vajasneya Brahmana was published by Wilhelm Caland. However, because of inadequate manuscript material, he had to resort to the better preserved text of the Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana and had to amend the text at several places. Caland printed only the first seven Kandas because it is here that the text of the two versions differs considerably. For the remaining portions, he was content with listing the main differences.

Starting recently, a critical edition of the Kanva text is being printed anew by C. R. Swaminathan [1994-]. So far, 3 volumes comprising 5 kandas of the text, with a lucid English translation have appeared. Swaminathan made use of a Telugu edition that was based on oral tradition. In addition, he was able to make use of additional manuscripts that were prepared by a Kanva scholar who could recite the text with accent from memory. As is well know, oral traditions of Vedic texts are typically purer than the written manuscripts. Finally, whereas Caland used transcripts of manuscripts preserved in Indian libraries for his edition, Swaminathan was able to access the actual manuscripts themselves, thereby circumventing any scribal errors that might have crept into the transcripts. The translation by Swaminathan is indebted to Eggeling’s English translation of the Madhyandina Shatapatha, a fact acknowledged by the former in the introduction of his edition. It appears, that the manuscript of the entire Kanva Shatapatha Brahmana was complete when the first volume was published, and it is hoped that the entire text too would be printed soon.

In the Kanva sakha, the Samhita commences with the Darshapurnamasa rite but the Brahmana deals with the adhana at the beginning. Consequently, the order of the first and the second kandas in the Kanva is inverse of that in the Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana. The text as such is divided into 17 Kandas, 104 adhyayas, 435 Brahmanas and 6806 Kandikas. Note that unlike the Madhyandina version, there is no division into Prapathakas.

Comparison of the contents of Madhyandina and Kanva Shatapatha Brahmanas

Name of the Kanda	Serial number in SBK	Serial number in SBM
Ekapat Kanda	1	2
Haviryajna Kanda	2	1
Udhari Kanda	3	-
Adhvara Kanda	4	3
Graha Kanda	5	4
Vajapeya Kanda	6	-
Sava Kanda	-	5
Rajasuya Kanda	7	-
Ukhasambharana Kanda	8	6
Hastighata Kanda	9	7
Citi Kanda	10	8
Sagnitciti (Saciti) Kanda	11	-
Sanciti Kanda	-	9
Agnirahasya Kanda	12	10
Astadhyayi Kanda	13	11
Madhyama Kanda	14	12
Asvamedha Kanda	15	13
Pravargya Kanda	16	-
Brihadaranyaka Kanda	17	14

The division of the text into Kandikas is more rational in the Kanva version, and the division into Adhyayas less erratic.

Swaminathan [1994:xviii] has suggested that only the first 9 Kandas of the Madhyandina Shatapatha (= first 11 Kandas of Kanva Shatapatha) were transmitted orally with great fidelity because the rituals contained in the remaining portion of the texts were not performed with great frequency.

Commentaries

1. Sayanacharya’s Commentary: Traditionally, it extends only upto the first 20 chapters of the text. Like his other commmentaries on Vedic texts, this one too is encyclopedic, and very well planned and systematic. Sayana quotes the Katyayana Srauta Sutras and the relevant portions of the Shatapatha Brahman as he comments on the mantras of the Samhita. He goes beyond the texts of the Kanva Shakha and quotes the Apastamba and Baudhayana texts as well as the Taittiriya Samhita/ Brahmana/ Aranyaka to impart more clarity to the ritual formula being explained. A drawback of Sayana’s commentary, although it demonstrates his sound knowledge of Vedic accentuation, prosody etc., is that he restricts himself only to the ritualistic meaning of the mantra as established by tradition, even when the natural meaning of the mantra is not ritualistic. A few years ago, ‘Sayana’s’ commentary on the last 20 chapters of the Kanva Samhita was also published [ref. 3]. The commentary was published on the basis of a solitary palm-leaf manuscript in the Oriya script preserved in the collection established by ancestors of Pandit Mahesvaracharya in the village named ‘Athagarha’ in the district of Ganjam in Orissa.
2. Anandabodha: He was a native of Andhra Pradesh, and his commentary shows the influence of the Orissan version of the Kanva Samhita. Anandabodha begins the commentary of each verse by listing the Devata, meter and the Seer. He does not restrict himself to the ritualistic meaning of the mantras like Sayana, but tries to extract the deeper, spiritual meanings wherever possible. At times, he even hints at the . His commentary, called the Bhasyasangraha, extends over all the 40 chapters of the Samhita. Apparently, the author was also called Anandabhatta Chaturvedin.
3. Anantacharya: His commentary covers only the final 20 chapters of the Samhita.

Commentaries on Kanva Brhadaranyaka Upanishad

1. Samkaracarya (Advaita): This and all others subsequently are on the Kanva version of the text
2. Suresvaracharya: A voluminous commentary in approximately 12,000 verses. It is a Varttika
3. Bhasya of Madhvacharya
4. Anandagiri’s commentary on the Varttika of Sri Suresvaracharya
5. Anandagiri’s independent commentary on the Upanishad called ‘Nyayamrita’
6. Tippana on # 3 by Jayatirtha
7. Aloka of Sri Vijnana Bhiksu
8. Bhasya of Rangaramanuja Muni
9. Bhasya of Upanishad Brahmayogin
10. Hindi Bhasya by Pt. Satavalekara

Commentaries of Isavasya Upanishad** ** (Kanva Sakha)

11. Samkaracarya (Advaita Vedanta): This is on Kanva recension of Yajurveda
12. Kuranarayana (Visistadvaita Vedanta)
13. Madhvacarya (Dvaita Vedanta)
14. Anandagiri: Sub-commentary on # 2 above
15. Venkatanatha (Visistadvaita Vedanta)
16. Sayanacarya (Advaita Vedanta): Manuscript at Central Library at Baroda
17. Vijnanabhiksu (Samkhya-Vedanta)
18. Jayatirtha: Sub-commentary on # 5 above
19. Dipika of Raghavendra Yati (Dvaita Vedanta)
20. Dipika of Samkarananda, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma, on #2 above
21. Upanisadbrahmayogin (Paramadvaita Vedanta): Manuscript at Central Library, Baroda
22. Damodara Satavalekara: Vaidik commentary. In Hindi

Katyayana Srauta Sutra

Kanva Gryha Sutra

Kanva Smriti

References

4. B. R. Sharma; Kanva Samhita with the Padapatha and the commentaries of Sayanacarya and Anandabodha (2 vols.); Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala; Pune; 1988
5. K. Parameswara Aithal; Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1991
6. Cintamani Misra Sarma (Ed.), Divakaradas Sarma (Jt. Ed.), Gopala Candra Misra (Asst. Ed.). Suklayajurveda Kanva Samhita with Sayana Bhasya (Uttara Vimsati); Sarasvatibhavana-Granthamala (vol. 114); Varanasi; 1978
7. Howard, Wayne; Veda Recitation in Varanasi; Motilal Banarsidass; Delhi; 1986

KARVE, Irawati Karmarkar. 1968. Hindu Society – An Interpretation. Deshmukh Prakashan: Poona

SHARMA, Bellikoth Ramakrishna. 1996. Text Editing and Text-Critical Study. In Some Aspects of Vedic Studies, ed. by Samiran Chandra Chakrabarti, School of Vedic Studies – Rabindra Bharati University: Calcutta; pp. 55-78

STAAL, J. F. 1961. Nambudiri Veda Recitation. Mouten & Co.: ‘S-Gravehage

OTHER SHAKHAS OF SUKLA YAJURVEDA

Baijavapa Grhyasutras

Fragments exist in the collection of Caland [WITZEL 1990:xxxiii]

**Galava Shakha: **KRISHNAMUTY [1984] cites a text called ‘Galava Satapatha’ in his biography on Sage Yajnavalkya (pp. 1, 53, 55 etc.). From these meager quotations, it is impossible to say whether this Galava Satapatha is a Brahmana text at all or not. It might be merely a traditional biography of Sage Yajnavalkya.

Jabala Shakha

The Sukla Yajurvedin Deshastha Brahmins have an endogamous subcaste named Jabala, who were presumably the followers of the Jabala Sakha of this Veda [KARVE 1968:136].

A manuscript of the Rudraprakasha or Rudrapaddhati or Rudrakailasa attributed to Bhaskara Diksita (son of Ramakrshna Diksitam and disciple of Achala Diksita) exists in Calcutta. A folio of the same indicates that the text and the accents of the Rudradhyaya of the Jabala recension are identical to the Kanva and Madhyandina versions [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 649]. The author evidently had access to the Jabala texts because he cites them in his work.

Katyayana Shakha

Rudraksopanishad of Katyayana Sakha: A manuscript of this text exists in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1425-1426]. The text consists of Sanatkumara’s questions addressed to Bhagavana Katyayana on the origin of Rudraksa, method of wearing Rudraksha beads accompanied by recitation of mantras, and the criteria of determining who can wear them and who cannot wear them. The extent of the text is 50 shlokas. The colophons of the manuscript indicate that the text belongs to the Katyayana Sakha, and the manuscript is written by an Aghori Saivite monk.

Subala Upanishad

1. Bhasya by Sri Sudarsana Suri on only first 5 sections

References:

KARVE Irawati. 1968. Hindu Society – An Interpretation. Deshmukh Prakashan: Poona

KRISHNAMURTY, E. R. 1984. Yogeeswara Yajnavalkya. Premier Press: Madras

WITZEL Michael. 1990. Kliene Schriften: Willem Caland. Franz Steiner Verlag: Stuttgart

Taittiriya Sakha of Krshna Yajurveda

Brahmin Communities

Nambudiris: According to the most comprehensive studies undertaken, approximately 35% of the Nambudiris are Rigvedins, 50% are Yajurvedins and just about 1/8% are Samavedins. The rest are excluded from Vedic study [STAAL 1961:35-36]. All Nambudiri Yajurvedins are Taittiriyas. About 90% of them follow the Baudhayana Kalpa, while the remainder follow the Vadhula sutras.

The Nambudiris recited the Samhita and Padapatha, and not any other Vikrtis [ibid 55], while the Tamil Brahmins recite the Ghana, Jata and Kramapathas as well.

The Udayendirm plates mention the grant of land grant in favor of one Kulasarman of Kausikagotra, who was an adherent of the Taittiriya Sakha and the Pravacanasutra (Epigraphica Indica, volume III, page 146).

Panini mentions Sage Tittiri in Ashtadhyayi 4.3.102

Some manuscripts of Charanavyuha give the names of the five divisions of Kandikeya section of Taittiriya Recension as: Kaleyas (Kaletas), Satyayanins, Hiranyakesins, Bharadvajins and Apastambins. Other manuscripts of Charanavyuha state clearly that all the 5 branches of the Khandikeya school viz. Apastambi, Baudhayani, Satyashadha, Hirnayakesi and Aukheyi, possess the same Amnaya comprising of 7 Kandas, 44 Prasnas, 65 Anuvakas, 19290 Padas and 253868 syllables.

Colophons of some manuscripts of the Taittiriya Samhita and Taittiriya Brahman call the text as Apastamba Samhita and Apastamba Brahman respectively, but it merely denotes that these manuscripts belonged to Taittiriya Brahmins who belonged to the Apastamba Charana.

Commentaries in the Taittiriya Samhita

1. Bhatta Bhaskara

2. Sayana: This was the first Vedic text on which Sayanacharya presumably commented, because he himself belonged to the Baudhayana sutra of the Taittiriya Shakha. Sayana’s commentary on this text possesses the well features of his commentaries on the other Vedic texts as well. In commenting on each verse or passage, he reproduces the relevant portions of the Kalpasutra and the Brahmana. Since all the details pertaining to the verse might not be found in the

3. M R Jambunathan published a Tamil translation of all the mantra portion of the Taittiriya Sakha, and also of the entire Sukla Yajurveda from Bombay in 1938, through the J. Book Depot. The work is titled ‘Yajurvedam’.⁸⁷

4. Kandas 1 and 2 of the Tattiriya Samhita have been translated into Marathi by V V Bhude and published by the CASS (Centre for Advanced Sanskrit Studies) at Poona University in 1987.

Rudradhyaya

This is the most common section of the Yajurveda and is said to be present in all the 101 Sakhas of the Yajurveda according to the phalasruti in Sayanbhashya on the same⁸⁸. Literally dozens of commentaries of this text in different versions are extant. Here, we shall ennumerate only the commentaries of the Taittiriya Rudradhyaya. For commentaries of the Rudradhyaya of other Sakhas, refer to the relevant sections.

1. Bhatta Bhaskara

2. Sayanacarya

3. Ahovala

Chamaka Prasna

Commentaries

1. Bhatta Bhaskara
2. Bhashya of Somanatha on the Namaka Chamaka Prashna (13^th cent. C.E.): He hailed from Andhra Pradesh [ref. 4]
3. Sayanacharya
4. Ahobala (Ref. 1, Pg. 429-430, no. 446-447). From the colophons, it is clear that Ahobala belonged the Bhaskara lineage and was the son of Ramasraya Devi and Nrsimha Bhatta Mahopadhyaya and that he lived in modern Uttar Pradesh.

Manuscripts of Kashmiri Vedic literature always spell Apastamba as ‘Apastambha’. Several Hiranyakesin Brahmins regard their school as a sub-school of Apastambins (Buhler, xxiv).

The Taittiriya Samhita of the Nambudiris: Significantly, as noted by STAAL [1961:56-57], the Taittiriya text recited by Nambudiris has a slightly different internal arrangement than the printed versions, as well as from the arrangement discussed by the Baudhayana Grhyasutra and the Kandanukramani. The Nambudiris recite the Samhita, along with the ‘shaakhaa’ – which includes the Brahmana, Aranyaka and the Upanishad. STAAL [page. 57] also points out that the designation ‘shaakhaa’ seems quote old, and has been referred to by the European missionary De Nobili before 1615 C.E.

The Samhita of the Namudiris is divided into 7 kaandas, each of which is subdivided into more than 1 prapaaThakas. Within each kanda, the prapaaThakas are numbered starting with 1. There are 44 prapaaThakas overall, and they are also numbered continuously from 1 to 44 over the entire text – except that the prapaaThakas, when numbered thus, are called ‘prashnas’. The correspondence between prashnas and prapaaThakas is as follows-

Kanda I.1-8 = prashnas 1-8

Kanda II.1-6 = prashnas 9-14

Kanda III.1-5 = prashnas 15-19

Kanda IV.1-7 = prashnas 20-26

Kanda V.1-7 = prashnas 27-33

Kanda VI.1-6 = prashnas 34-39

Kanda VII.1-5 = prashnas 40-44

The shaakhaa portion of the recited text consists of 39 prashnas, most of which are called by specific names by the Nambudiris. The table below is adapated from STAAL [p. 56] and gives the correspondence between the Nambudiri shaakhaa text, the printed versions of TB/TA/TU, the division as indicated by the Kandanukramani of the Atreyi shaakhaa, and the divisions as indicated in the Baudhayana Grhyasutra.

Nambudiri shaakhaa	Printed TB/TA/TU	Kandanumkrama of Atreyi shakhaa	BGS
1-13	TB i.1 – 2.5
14. Sautramani	TB 2.6.1-20	31	36
15. Savam	TB 2.7.1-18	32	13
16. Suktam	TB 2.8.1-9	33	31
17. Naksrateshti	TB 3.1.1-6	34	26
18. Purodasham	TB 3.1.1-6	35
19. id.	TB 3.3.1-11	id.
20. Purushamedham	TB 3.4.1-19	36 Nrmedha	35
21. Pitrmedha	TA 6.1-12	37	5
22. Ishtihotram	TB 3.5.1-13	38	4
23. Pashuhotram	TB 3.6.1-15	39	38
24. Acchidram	TB 3.7.1-14	40	37
25. Asvamdeham	TB 3.8.1-23	24	34
26. id.	TB 3.9.1-23	id.	Id.
27. Kathakam	TB 3.10.1-11	45	28
28. id.	TB 3.11.1-10	46	29
29. id.	TB 3.12.1-4	50-51	27-28
30. Sesham	TB 3.12.5	47	20
31. Arunam	TA 1.1-32	49	22
32. Swadhyayam	TA 2.1-20	52	40
33. Hotaram	TA 3.1-21	28	3
34. Mantram	TA 4.1	25	12
35. Visikha	TA 4.12	id.	Id.
36. Sukriyam	TA 5.1-12	26	Id.
37. Srinarayanam	TA 10.1	43	39
38. Upanishad	TA 7 = TU 1	42	Id.
39. Valli	TA 8-9 = TU 2-3	44	Id.

STAAL [page 37] further notes –

“The relation between sakha 34 and 25 is uncertain (TA 4.1-42 is the mantra section of the Pravargya, the position of which is floating). The mantras of the Pitrmedha are placed inbetweenTB 3.4 and 5, in the same order as Atreyi (Kieth assigned to the Pitrmedha a loose place in the tradition) The Narayana Up is placed before the TU. It should be noted, that nowhere does the Namudiri sakha follow the order as given by Baudhayana whilst differing from the order of Atreyi and/or of the present day edition.”

Taittiriya Brahmana

The Brahmana comprises of 3 kandas, which are divided into 8, 8 and 12 adhyayas respectively. The Brahmana is also sometimes divided into 8 ashtakas, in the style of Rigveda. These adhyayas are further divided into anuvakas or sections, which contain sentences on a particular topic. There are a total of 17480 sentences in the Brahmana. The first kanda of the text deals with the Agnyadhana, Gavamayana, Vajapeya, Soma, Nakshatreshti and Rajasuya. The 2^nd kanda deals with Agnihotra, Upahomas, Sautramani, Vaisysava and others. The last kanda gives some additional details on the Nakshatreshti, the Ashvamedha and some parables like that of Bharadvaja, together with the Purushamedha Yajna.

The first edition of the text was published in 3 volumes by Rajendralal Mitra in the years 1855-1870 from Calcutta.

Taittiriya Aranyaka

The first edition of the Taittiriya Aranyaka was published from Calcutta by Rajendralal Mitra in the year 1871.

Taittiriya Upanisad

1. Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya
2. Varttika of Sri Suresvaracharya (on # 1)
3. Bhatta Bhaskara’s Jnanayajna Bhasya: Portion of commentary on the entire Taittiriya Yajurveda
4. Bhasya of Sri Madhvacharya
5. Tika of Anandagiri (on # 1)
6. Tika of Jayatirtha (on # 4)
7. Sayanacharya’s Bhasya (part of commentary on the entire Taittiriya Aranyaka)
8. Taittiriya Upanishad Aloka of Vijnana Bhikshu
9. Dipika of Samkarananda, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma
10. Commentary by Damodara Sastri
11. Hindi translation by Pt. Satavalekara

Mahanarayana Upanishad

1. Bhatta Bhaskara
2. Sayanacharya
3. Bhasya of Kesava, a disciple of Sri Madhvacharya: It follows the Andhrapatha of the text.
4. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

Indices on the Taittiriya Samhita, Brahmana, Arayanaka, and Upanishad

1. Taittiriya Sarvanukramani of Yaska

2. Taittiriya Sarvanukramani of Yadavaprakasa – Four manuscripts of this work exist [AITHAL 1991:484]

3. Taittiriya Kandukramani – This is the Anukramani of the Atreyi Sakha of the Taittiriya Samhita. The first edition of this work was published by WEBER [1855]. Karuppattur Venkatarama (Krisna) Sarma has authored a metrical epitome and a commentary on the Kandanukramani, and this has been published by K. V. Anantanarayana Sastri in ABORI. Vol. 39 (1959), page 266-299

The Atreyi Samhita differs from the vulgate Sarasvati paatha in the following respects

4. Taittiriya Samhitanukramani – this is the title of a manuscript at Mysore, listed by AITHAL [1991:359]. No further information is available.

Siksha and Lakshana Texts

**Kalanirnaya Siksa [**AITHAL 1991:262-264] – This treatise of 27 verses deals with the time measurement of letters, accents and stops. The work is quoted in the Tribhashya ratna commentary on Taittiriya Pratisakhya 18.1, in the commentary on Vyasa Siksa of SuryanarayanavadhAnin and in the commentary on the Siddhanta Siksa. It has a commentary named Dipika, authored by Muktisvara or Muktisvaracharya. Both the Siksa and the commentary are still unpublished although manuscripts are listed in several catalogues.

Kaundinya Siksa [AITHAL 1991:269-270] – This text exists in two versions. The first consists of 100 verses and was first published by ABHYANKAR and DEVASTHALI [1978] from a solitary manuscript discovered in a private collection at Hyderabad. The second version comprises of 86 verses and deals with various topics related to the Taittiriya Samhita. In the colophons, the latter text is also called ‘Sarva-sammata-siksa’ or ‘Kaundinya Siksa Sadasiti’ and still exists in manuscript form alone.

Sambhu Siksa: This is a work of about 50 verses and explains the names of the various kandas and anuvakas of the Taittiriya Samhita. It classifies the letters of the alphabet and deals with accent, quantity, hiatus, doubling of consonants etc. It is evidently an old text, being quoted the Tribhashya Ratna on Taittiriya Pratisakhya 1.1, 21.15 and in Vaidikabharana on Taittiriya Pratisakhya I.40 [AITHAL 1991:572]. The work is still in manuscript.

Taittiriya Pratisakhya

According to VARMA [1984:191], the text is pre-Paninean.

Commentaries on Taittiriya Pratisakhya:

1. Atreya Bhashya: Mentioned at the beginning of the Tribhashya Ratna. A defective manuscript of the work might exist at Adyar [ref. 3, pg. 124]
2. Tribhashya Ratna or Paratisakhya-vivarana of Somayarya – This is the most popular commentary on the Paratisakhya, and has been published by K. RANGACHARYA [1906] and WHITNEY [1871].
3. Lakshanachandirka of Mahadeva Ramachandra Gadre – Manuscripts in Maharashra [AITHAL 1991:350]
4. Vivarana, called Vaidika Bhushana or Bhushana Ratna Vrtti – Manuscript at Adyar [AITHAL 1991:351].
5. Vaidikabharana of Gargya Gopal Yajvan (-suri or Misra) [AITHAL 1991:351-353] –This work has been published by K. RANGACHARYA et al [1906].
6. Mukura of P. Ganapati Sastri [AITHAL 1991:353] – This work has been published
7. Vivarana of Padmanabha Yajvan – still in manuscript
8. Chhandobhasa or Pada-krama-sadana of Mahisheya – Published from Madras on the basis of a manuscript obtained from Kerala.
9. Sabda-Brahma-Vilasa of Viraraghava [AITHAL 1991:565]. This is a commentary on the Taittiriya Pratisakhya explaining the apparent contradictions between the Tribhashya-ratna and the Vaidikabharana. The work states that the Pratisakhya was authored by Lord Hanuman, and that the older commentators on the work were Atreya, Mahiseya and Vararuchi.

**Aranya Siksa: **This text, as the name suggests, deals with the accentuation of the Taittiriya Aranyaka. It professes to be based on 9 other Siksa texts and therefore calls itself ‘Aranya-Siksamrta’. Some manuscripts of the text also give its name as ‘Aruna Siksa’ or the ‘Aruna’ [ref. 3, pg. 131]

Bharadvaja Siksa: V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar and P. S. Sundaram Ayyar (Eds.); Bharadvajasiksa with Nagesvara’s Commentary; Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute; Poona; 1938

The text does not have the general characteristics of a Siksa text. Rather, its aim seems to be to keep the Taittiriya Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and the Ekagnikanda free of improper readings. However, the text obviously does not deal with all the words occurring in the Taittiriya Veda. It lays down rules to distinguish between and to employ in their proper places words of similar sound or form. For instance, it indicates where to read ‘Vrjana’ and where ‘Vrijina’ and so on. It follows the traditional order of the Taittiriya texts while treating the words occurring therein. It is not possible to date the text or its commentary by Nagesvara, the son of Vrddhagiri.

Taittiriya Siksa – this is the title of a manuscript listed by AITHAL [1991:359]. No further information is available.

Kalpasutras and Related Texts

Baudhayana Sakha

Baudhayana Srauta Sutra

Commentaries

1. Devasvamin’s Bhasya from the Adhana to the Agnishtoma portion of the Srauta Sutra
2. Bhavasvamin’s Bhasya on the entire Srauta Sutra
3. Subodhini Vrtti ascribed to Mahadeva Vajapeyi
4. Sahasrabhojana Sutra Vyakhya by Bhaskara Raya Diksita, son of Gambhira Raya Diksita
5. Vivrana by Gopala Paramahamsaparivrajakacharya: He was the guru of Nrshimha and Ganapati, and is also mentioned by Sayanacharya. In his Yajnaprayaschittavivarana (on the Prayaschitta section of the Baudhayana Srauta Sutra), he mentions Bhavaswamin. In addition to his vivarana, he also wrote a Karika on the sutra. Fragments of his commentary on various sections of the sutra exist in different manuscript collections.⁸⁹ The first edition of the Baudhayana Srauta Sutra was published by Willem Caland from Calcutta in 3 volumes in the years 1904-1913.

**Baudhayana Grhya Sutras **(Ref. 2)

The esteem of the Gryha sutra of Baudhayana (spelt as Bodhayana in South Indian manuscripts) is so great that it is counted as the first amongst the 18 principal grhya sutras. These 18 are enumerated by Agnivesya Grhya sutras as: Bodhayana, Apastamba, Satyashadha, Drahyayana, Agastya, Sandilya, Asvalayana, Sambhava, Katyayana –these are 9 ‘purvasutras.’ Vaikahanasa, Saunakiya, Bharadvaja, Agvivesya, Jaiminiya, Vadhula, Madhyandina, Kaundinya and Kausitaki–these are 9 ‘aparasutras’.

The Baudhayana Grhyasutra comprises of 5 portions which together form 14 prasnas:

1. Grhya in 4 prasnas

2. Grhya Paribhasha in 2 prasnas

3. Grhyasesha in 5 prasnas

4. Pitrmedha in 2 prasnas

5. Pitrmedha-sesa in 1 prasna

The Grhya sutra largely relies in the Taittiriya Yajurveda texts (samhita, brahmana and aranyaka) and on the Rigveda Samhita.

A critical edition of the text, together with all its appendices/supplements, is being prepared by Brian K. Smith of Chicago [KASHIKAR 1996: 5].

Baudhayana Yajnaprayaschitta Sutras

6. Naksatra sutra Bhasya of Balabhadra: Extends only on the sutras pertaining to the Naksatra sacrifices
7. Bhasya of Bhavasvaim
8. Bhasya of Gopala: A fragmentary commentary on the text exists in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 504].

Baudhayana Sulva Sutra

9. Mimamsa by Vyankatesvara Diksita
10. Dipika by Dvarakanatha, the son of Tika Bhatta. This was published by G. Thibaut in The Pandit, vols. IX-X, (1874-1876).
11. Vyakhya called Upacharshodasha Ratnamala by Suresvara Svamin, the son of Raghuramatirtha

A Marathi translation of Manava, Katyayana, Apastamba and Baudhayana Sulvasutras was published in 1978 from Mumbai by R. P. Kulkarni [KASHIKAR 1996: 4].

Apastamba Sakha

Apastamba Kalpa: The Apastamba Kalpa is extremely well preserved comprises of 32 sections called Kalpas. The first 24 Prasnas form the Srauta portion, Prasnas 25-27 form the Gryha section, Prasnas 28-29 form the Dharma Sutra portion, Prasna 30 forms the Sulva portion and the last two viz. Prasnas 31-32 comprise the Pitramedha sutras.

The whole Kalpsutra of Apastamba comprises of 30 sections called Prasnas.

1. The first 24 comprise the Srauta sutra

2. Prasna 25 comprises the Paribhasas (general rules of interpretation that are valid for the whole kalpa, Pravarakhanda (giving lineages of various Brahmin clans) and finally the Hautraka khanda which lists the prayer that ought to be recited by the Hotraka priest

3. Prasna 26 gives the mantras to be recited during the Grhya rites while the section 27 gives the rules for performance for these rites.

4. Prasna 28 and 29 comprise Apastamba Dharmasutra

5. Prasna 30 is the Apastamba Sulbasutra

Apastamba Srauta Sutra

Commentaries

12. Vrtti of Rudradatta

13. Bhasya of Kapardisvamin: A manuscript containing the Paribhasha chapter only exists at Calcutta, though the first two leaves are missing. Likewise, another manuscript containing his commentary on the Naksatreshti also exists in the same city. Another manuscript gives his bhashya on the Saamaanyasutra. [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 484-485]. The section of his commentary on Darshapurnmasa section of the sutra is also reported.⁹⁰ In addition, various Paddhatis and other ritual manual based on the lost work of Kapardiswamin also exist in manuscript, such as the Apta-Vajapeya Prayoga based on Kapardiswamin’s bhashya existing in Calcutta [p. 578]. The portion of his commentary on the Agnichayana section may exist in south India⁹¹.

14. Commentary by Raamaandaara

15. Bhasya of Dhurttasvamin

16. Vrtti of Kausikarama Svamin on Dhurttaswamin’s Bhashya

17. Vedaarthasamgraha by Brahmanandabharati, a subcommentary on Dhurtasvamin’s Bhashya

18. Prayogarantamala on the 6th Prasna by Vishnu Bhatta

19. Apastamba Prayoga Darpana by Narayana Yajvan.

20. Commentary by Somanatha: Manuscript exists in south India⁹².

21. Commentary by Gopala Paramahamsa Parivraajakaacharya: He was the Guru of Ganapati and Nrsimha, and is quoted by Sayanacharya.

22. Apastambasrautasutra-karika by Vasudeva Diksita covering Pasuyaga, darshapurnamasa, Adhana, Somayaga, Chaturmasya, Chayana etc., exists in manuscript in southern India⁹³.

23. Apastambasrautasutra-prayoga by Vasudeva Diksita covering Sautramani, Caturmasya, Vajapeya etc., exist in manuscript in southern India⁹⁴.

24. Prayogavrtti by Taalavrntavasin

25. Commentary by Raamaagnija

26. Commentary by Kaundappaacharya

27. Pandit Bhimasena Sharma published a Hindi translation and commentary of the Apastamba Yajna Paribhasha sutras in May 1888 issue of his magazine ‘Arya-siddhanta’⁹⁵.

28. Yajnikasarvasva of Abohala Suri, extending up to the darshapurnamasa section only: Manuscript in collection in south India⁹⁶.

29. German translation by W. Caland

30. English translation

The Apastamba Srauta Sutra was first published by Richard Garbe from Calcutta in 3 volumes in the years 1882-1902.

Apastamba Grhya Sutras

Commentaries and translations

31. Bhashya of Kapardiswamin: A text called Kapardikarika exists, which purports to summarize the lost commentary of Kapardiswamin on the Grhyasutra. Portions of the commentary apparently still exist in manuscript though. For instance, his Bhashya on the Aparasutra of Apastamba Grhya apparently exists in south India⁹⁷.

32. Bhashya of Guhadevasvamin

33. Anaakulaa of Haradatta Mishra

34. Bhashya of Sudarshanacharya

35. Vivarana of Karka: He is the same person who is credited with commentaries on numerous texts of Sukla Yajurveda⁹⁸.

36. Tatparya Vivarana of Gopinatha Mauni

37. Prayogavrtti by Taalavrntanivasin

38. Pandit Bhimasena Sharma (d. 1917): He was the principal disciple of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati, the founder of Arya Samaj. Sharma authored a Hindi commentary on the Grhyasutra, which was published in Vikrami Samvat 1861 from Vedaprakash Yantraalaya located in district Etawah, Uttar Pradesh⁹⁹.

Apastamba Dharmasutra

The Apastamba Dharmasutra quotes the ‘Bhavishyat Purana’ at 2.9.24.6, but the verse quoted does not occur in the printed editions of the Purana of that name.

Commentary:

The most notable commentary on Apastamba Dharmasutra is the ‘Ujjvala’ by Hardatta (16th Cent. C.E.)

Apastamba Sulba Sutra

Commentary

39. Kapardisvamin
40. Sutraksarartha Vibodhini by Karavinda Swamin: A very extensive commentary on the sutra.
41. Sulva-Pradipa Vivarana by Sundararaja, the son of Madhavarya: This abridges the lengthy comment of Karavinda Swamin.
42. Bhasya of Gopala, the son of Gargya Nrsimha Somasut and disciple of Vadhula Rangaraja Misra

Provenance of Taittiriya Apastamba Charana

According to the verses of Maharnava quoted by Mahidasa in his commentary on Shaunakiya Charanavyuha sutras, the Yajurveda of Tittiri and the Apastambiya school are established in the Andhra country and other parts of the south and the south east up to the mouth of Godavari river. Thus, the river marks the northern frontier of the territory occupied by the adherents of the Apastamba charana of Taittiriya shakha.

This holds true even today and the Apastambin Brahmins of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra can accurately recite the Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka of the Taittirya Shakha accurately from memory. Scholars of this shakha are so proficient in their learning that they can recite the texts from beginning to end, the reverse direction, or from any particular word onwards if that particular word in the text is pointed out to them. Approximately 98% of Vedic Brahmins of Andhra Pradesh belong to the Yajurveda and they are predominantly Apastambins. A saying in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh goes- “Even a domestic cat can recite the Taittiriya Shakha.” The Taittiriya Apastambins found in Varanasi and other parts of India are originally immigrants from the traditional homeland of adherents of this shakha.

Bharadvaja Sakha

Bharadvaja Srautasutra:

Commentary by Gopalabhatta

Bharadvaja Grhyasutra:

A short commentary accompanied by directions for ritual, given along with the sutras exists in manuscript in Calcutta. The commentary is authored by BopaNa [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 497]

A manuscript of a commentary on the text b Kapardiswamin is also reported.¹⁰⁰

A manuscript of a Grhyaprayogavrtti by Bhatta Ranga exists in Berlin.¹⁰¹

Bharadvaja Pitrmedha Sutra

Commentaries

43. Bhasya of Maunabhatta: A commentary is extant at Calcutta (Ref. 1, Pg. 463, no. 495)
44. Anonymous Vyakhya: A commentary is extant at Calcutta (Ref. 1, Pg. 464, no. 496)

Bharadvaja Paribhasha Sutra

Hiranyakesin Sakha

According to Jaidev Sharma [Samvat 2019:25], a ‘Hiranyakeshin Mantrasamhita’ comprising of a small collection of ritualistic mantras, is still extant.

####### Hiranyakesin Kalpa

The Hiranyakesin Kalpa is a full fledged Kalpasutra: Srautasutra comprises Prasnas 1-18 and 21-24, Grhyasutra comprises Prasnas 19-20, Sulbasutra is Prasna 25, Dharmasutra is Prasnas 26-27 and the Pitrmedhasutras are Prasnas 28-29

There has been considerable discussion on the correct name of the text: Satyasadha or Hiranyakesin. NAVATHE [1990] has shown that the correct name of the Sutrakara is ‘Satyasadha’ while ‘Hiranyakesin’ is his distinctive epithet, indicative of the fact that he had light or reddish hair. Hence, Satyasadha Sutra and Hiranyakesin sutra are not two different texts and the name ‘Hiranyakesin’ became more popular because of the exclusiveness of the epithet.

Hiranyakesin Srauta Sutra

The entire text has been published in 10 volumes by the Anandasrama-Samskrta Granthavali by Pt. Kasinatha Sastri Agashe et al from 1907-1932 with various commentaries as follows:

10. Commentary of Mahadeva on Prasnas 1-6, 11-18 and 21-29. This work is called Prayoga Vaijayanti.
11. Commentary of Matrdatta on Prasnas 19-20
12. Commentary of Gopinatha Bhatta on Prasna 7-10. This commentary is called Jyotsna.

Other commentaries that exist on the text are

1. Ujjvalaa by Mahaadeva Diksita
2. Prayogaratna by Mahadeva Somayaajin
3. Commentary by Vanchesvara, composed around 1800 CE.¹⁰² Each Prasna is divided into Patalas, which in turn comprise several Khandas. The sutras in individual khandas are not numbered in this edition, which needs considerable improvement. A critical edition of Prasnas 1-6 was prepared by V. V. Bhide by collation of numerous manuscripts. The work could not be completed beyond the sixth Prasna because of the untimely death of Bhide, but has been carried forward by Navathe who is preparing a critical edition of the entire text.

For this critical edition, Navathe is utilizing manuscripts from regions further south of Maharashtra. The existence of such manuscripts also dispels the notion that the Hiranyakesins were confined to Maharashtra. A close comparison with the Apastamba and the Bharadvaja Srautasutra is also being carried out for a better reconstruction of the text.

In his Catalogue of Sanskrit MSS from Gujarat, vol. I, p. 38, Buhler mentions a ‘Hiranyakesisakhiya Brahmana’. WEBER [1878: 92, fn. 95] opines that if at all this is a different work, it would not deviate much from the Apastamba Sakha version of Taittiriya Brahmana since the Kalpasutras of the two Sakhas are so similar.

Hiranyakesiya Grhyasutra

Commentaries \

1. Matrdatta

Hiranyakesiya Dharmasutra: The text is practically identical to Apastamba Dharmasutra.

Commentaries \

1. Ujjvalaa by Mahaadeva

Ancillary Texts

Yajurvidhana of Taittirya Sakha: This work consists of 9 chapters, and presumably still exists in manuscript.

¹⁰³

References

1. Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad Shastri; A descriptive catalogue of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923
2. H. P. Malladevaru; Bodhayana Grhyasutram of Bodhayana Maharsi; University of Mysore Oriental Research Institute Series No. 141; Oriental Research Institute; Mysore; 1983
3. K. Parameswara Aithal; Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1991
4. Siromani K. Lakshmana Sastry; Contribution of Andhras to Sanskrit; International Sanskrit Conference (1972), vol. 1. part 1; pg. 16-24

ABHYABKAR K. V. and DEVASTHALI G. V. 1978. Kaundinya Siksa in ‘Veda-Vikrti-Laksana-Samgraha’. BORI: Poona

KASHIKAR, C.G. 1996. Ritualist Studies: A Retrospect and Prospect. In Some Aspects of Vedic Studies, ed. by Samiran Chandra Chakrabarti, School of Vedic Studies – Rabindra Bharati University: Calcutta; pp. 1-9

NAVATHE P. D. 1990. Satyasadha-Srauta- Sutra. pg. 86-90 in Dharmadhikari, T. N.; R. S. Shastri; N. P. Jain; Vedic Texts: A Revision- Prof. C. G. Kashikar Felicitation Volume; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi; 1990

RANGACHARYA K. and SASTRY R. Sharma. 1906. Taittiriya Pratisakhya with the Tribhasya-ratna of Somayarya and Vaidikabharaba of Gargya Gopala-yajvan. Bibliotheca Sanskritika, Mysore Government Oriental Library Series 33: Mysore

SHARMA, Jaidev. Samvat 2019. Yajurveda-Samhita Bhasha-Bhashya (in Hindi/Sanskrit), 4^th reprint. Arya Sahitya Mandala Limited: Ajmer

STAAL, Frits. 1961. Nambudiri Veda Recitation. Mouten & Co.: ‘S-Gravenhage

WEBER Albrecht. 1855. Fder Kandanukrama der Atreyi-Schule des Taittiriyaveda. Indische Studien, vol. III, pp. 373-401

_______. 1878. The History of Indian Literature (translated from the second German edition of 1875 by Theodor Zachariae and John Mann). Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. :London (reprinted in 1961 as Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Studies Volume VIII, Varanasi).

WHITNEY William D. 1871. Taittiriya Pratisakhya with the Tribhashya-ratna, text, translation and notes. Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 9. New Haven

VARMA, Satyakam. 1984. Vedic Studies. Bharatiya Prakashan: New Delhi

Charaka Shakha of Krsna Yajurveda

Area of Prevelance: Charaka Brahmins are found in the Aurangabad-Nagpur region of Maharashtra. However, when their own texts got lost, they adopted the Maitrayaniya texts a few centuries ago. The Charaka Brahmins thus recited the Maitrayaniya Samhita till recent times, and followed mainly the Varaha Sutra. Some follow the Manava Sutra as well. Manuscript searches in this region have not yielded any manuscripts of the Charka Samhita as of yet and some scholars opine that the Charaka Samhita was the same as the Kathaka Samhita. Such a view is however, refuted by the Charaka Brahmins, who are adamant that theirs was a separate, full-fledged shakha of the Yajurveda [ref. 1, introd.].

The Charaka Brahmins settled in Nashik have also adopted the Maitrayani Samhita, and have lost their own original Sakha [B. R. SHARMA 1996: 68]. They are the smallest community of Brahmins in Maharashtra. In 1960’s, they numbered a mere 4000 strong [KARVE 1968:155, fn.7]. They profess to have followed the the Charak shakha of Krishna Yajurveda, and are concentrated in and around Aurangabad and Nagpur, from whence many members migrated to Nashik a few centuries ago. They permit matrilineal cross-cousin marriages.

Charaka Samhita:

It is unclear if the Charaka Samhita has yet been found, as Sharma’s cryptic statement reads as follows: “I could not trace a single MS of Caraka Samhita, not even in parts or fragments, in the possession of any when I undertook a survey of this region (=Nagpur- Aurangabad region) in 1977 in search of Vedic manuscripts. In Nasik however, we were able to get two collections of MSS preserved in old families which were acquired by the Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, PUNE. These collections contained some rare and precious MSS including those of the Maitrayaniya Samhita” [ref. 1, introd.]. In the same work however, Sharma lists Charaka Samhita as one of the texts of Yajurveda that are extant. Elsewhere too, Sharma states that the Charaka Samhita is extant [ref. 2. pg. ] although he does not give any description of the text.

References:

1. B. R. Sharma; Kanva Samhita with the Padapatha and the commentaries of Sayanacarya and Anandabodha (2 vols.); Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala; Pune; 1988

KARVE, Irawati Karmarkar. 1968. Hindu Society – An Interpretation. Deshmukh Prakashan: Poona

SHARMA, Bellikoth Ramakrishna. 1996. Text Editing and Text-Critical Study. In Some Aspects of Vedic Studies, ed. by Samiran Chandra Chakrabarti, School of Vedic Studies – Rabindra Bharati University: Calcutta; pp. 55-78

Kapishthala Katha Shakha of Yajurveda

Kapishthala Samhita

There is only one edition of the Samhita, published by Raghu Vira from Lahore (now in Pakistan) in 1932.

Geographical Distribution and Oral Traditions

In Buddhasvamin’s Brihatkathashlokasamgraha, a text dated to 500 C.E., the following verse is encountered [Ref. 2, pg. 55]- “In Avanti there is a settlement if Brahmanas, called Kapishthala. Its boundary is inlaid with sacrificial altars and it abounds in wheat and herds of cows”. (Canto 4, Verse 83)

Katha Kapisthala Grhya Sutra: A solitary manuscript of this text exists in the Saraswati Bhawan library of Sanskrit University, Varanasi. The manuscript was copied about 125 years ago and has several lacuna in the middle [ref. 1, pg. 23]

References

1. Vedavani 33.5; Ramalal Kapoor Trust; Bahalagarh, Haryana; 1981
2. Poddar, Ram Prakash and Sinha, Neelima (Ed. and Transl.); Budhasvamin’s Brhatkatha Slokasangraha; Tara Printing Works; Varanasi; 1986

Kathaka Sakhas of the Krsna Yajurveda

Kathaka Samhita

The first edition of this text, based on three closely related manuscripts, was published by von Schroeder in 4 volumes from Leipzig in 1900-1912. Only 1/3 of the text is accented. The colophons of the text state that the Samhita belongs to the Charaka Sakha of the Kathaka Yajurveda.

Carayaniya Mantrarshadhyaya

Carayaniya Siksa [AITHAL 1991:306-307] – This work is also named as Carayaniya Mahasiksa or as Carayaniyakam in the text itself, and is attributed to Sage Carayani. It comprises of 335 verses distributed between 10 chapters and quotes several authorities including Vasistha and Sanatkumara. It has not been published yet, and a few manuscripts all originating from Kashmir, exist in various libraries.

Abrahmana Brahmana

Aditya Sukta

Agastyarga Vedasukta

AghamarshaNa kalpa

AgnigrahaNa Brahmana

Agnisukta

AgniVaruni Sukta

Agniyajuh Sukta

Agnyadheya Brahmana

Ashmana Brahmana

Ashtaka Homa Sukta

Asuri Kalpa

Asyavamiya Sukta Tika

Ayushya Sukta

Bhauma Sukta

Brahmasukta

Brhaspati Sukta

Brhatpurusha Sukta

Budhasukta

Chamasthana

Chamasataka

Chamanuvaka

Chandrasukta

Charanavyuha Sukta

Dashagraha Sukta

Devi Sukta

Dhruva Sukta

Diksharudra Brahmana

Drashtranama Brahmana

Drashtibrahmana

Gayatribrahmana

Gayatrikalpa

Grheshabrahnama

Isetvorje Brahmana

Jivasukta

Kalashabrahamana

Reference:

Handlist of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Sanskrit Manuscript Library; Research and Publications Department. Published by Centre of Central Asian Studies; Srinagar; 1989

(Name of the compiler is lost. As far as I recall, he was a Muslim)

Commentaries on Kathaka Samhita: None exist and none are known to have existed.

Commentaries on the Kathaka Rudradhyaya

The Kathaka Rudradhyaya apparently comprised of 6 anuvakas and comentaries on this text are often titled ‘Shadamgasatarudriya Bhasyam”. Following manuscripts might be listed

1. Commentary by Haridatta Misra: Manuscript at Calcutta (Ref. 1, Pg. 428, no. 445). The manuscript is in Sharada script and has an extent of 500 shlokas.
2. Commentary by Satrrughna: However, although the manuscript is from Kashmir (Ref. 1, Pg. 427, no. 444), it differs from the one above and also from the texts of the Taittiriya and Vajasneyi recensions. It is actually unclear which one belongs to the Kathaka Sakha. Also, it appears that Satrughna wrote a commentary on the entire text of his Sakha, which is not extant now.

Upanishads

Commentators of the Katha Upanisad

1. Bhartrprapanca (Bhedabheda)
2. Samkaracarya (Advaita)
3. Commentary by Anubhutisvarupacharya
4. Anandagiri: Sub-commentary on # 2 above
5. Gopalayatindra or Gopalayogi: Sub-commentary on # 2 above
6. Rangaramanuja (Visistadvaita)
7. Madhvacarya (Dvaita)
8. Commentary by Balakrishnananda
9. Vyasatirtha: Sub-commentary on # 6 above
10. Bhasha by Achyutakrishnananda
11. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
12. Dipika by Shankarananda
13. Nigudhartha Prakasika by Damodara Sastri
14. Bhashya by Narayanendra Saraswati
15. Bhashya by Nrsimha Saraswati
16. Bhashya by Nrsimha Bharati
17. Vivarana by Balagopalendrayogin
18. Bhashya by Vedeshatirtha
19. Bhashya by Varadatirtha
20. Tippana by Shivanandayati
21. Bhashya by a disciple of Shrinivas of the Shrivatsagotra
22. Bhasya of Appaya Dikshit
23. Prakashika (anonymous)
24. Dipika of Narayana
25. Bhashya of Bhasurananda alias Bhaskaracharya
26. Upanisadbrahmayogin -manuscript in Central Library- Baroda (Paramadvaita)
27. Bhashya by Anandachandra Vedantavagisha
28. Prabha by Krishnakavi
29. Nigudartha Prakasha by Damodara Shastri
30. Damodara Satavalekara (Vaidik): In Hindi
31. English translation by Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
32. Hindi Bhashya by Acharya Rajvir Shastri
33. English translation by Patrick Olivelle

**Katha Siksa Upanishad: **Published from the first time recently. It is a part of the Kathaka Upanishad Mantrasamhita.

Kanthasruti

Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

Laksana Texts –

1. Laugaksi Siksa – It still exists in manuscript [AITHAL 1991:505]

**Kathaka Grhyasutra: **The text is also called Laugakshi Grhyasutra. Three commentaries on this work are survive:

1. Kathaka-Grhyapanchika or Kathakagrhyapaddhati of Brahmanabala, son of Madhavacharya. The colophons of the manuscripts of this work state that it is a manual based on the Grhyasutra of Laugakshi that belongs to the Charaka Shakha of the Kathaka Yajurveda.

**2. Charayaniya Grhyaparisishta: **It is quoted by Hemadri in Pariseshakhanda 2.263

References

1. Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad Shastri; A descriptive catalogue of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923

Maitrayaniya Sakhas of Krshna Yajurveda

Area of Prevelance

The Maitrayaniya Samhita is currently prevalent in interior Maharashtra in areas around Nagpur, and in the regions around Nashik, particularly in Bhadgaon. Followers of this shakha invariably followed the Manava Sutra at Bhadgaon, while elsewhere they followed either the Manava Sutra or the Varaha Sutra. The Charaka Brahmins of Nagpur-Aurangabad region adopted the Maitrayaniya Samhita after their own Samhita was lost [ref. 2]. Famous Maitrayaniyas include Sabara [Chinnaswami Shastri 1937] and Bhartrhari.

Historical Perspectives

Discussing the history of the Manava Maitrayani school, Kashikar [1990] states that :

Pg. 105: As the epigraphical records indicate, grants were made to the Maitrayaniya Pandits by Royal families in different regions like Sambalpur (Orissa), Saurashtra, Surparaka etc. One cannot say whether these grants were made to the Pandits by special invitations or whether there were colonies of the Maitrayaniyas in those regions. The manuscripts which were procured for preparing the editions of the Matrayani Samhita and the Manava Srauta and Grhya Sutras belonged to the region known as Baglan. This means that in historical times Maitrayaniyas lived only in this region. In Patanjali’s time, the Kalapakas or Maitrayaniyas lived in Punjab in large numbers. There is no trace of this recension now in that region. Nor do we come across any Maitrayaniya settlement in the region known from epigraphical records. From the fact that the royal family of the Baguls brought with them the Maitrayaniya families from Kanauj to Baglan, it becomes evident that the Maitrayaniyas were originaklly included among the five Gauda sects.

Pg. 106: A verse from the Sahyadrikhanda of the Skandapurana supports this fact. After being settled in Baglan they were enumerated among the five Dravida sects. Ultimately the Maitrayaniyas were confined only to this region. The districts of Gujarat and northern Maharashtra preserved the Maitrayaniya tradition. The credit of preserving on the surface of the earth the tradition and religious practices of the Maitrayaniyas thus goes to the rulers who colonized the Vaidiks in Baglan and patronized them and also to the Vaidiks who came down and maintained the tradition….

The generations of Maitrayaniyas living in Baglan were divided into two branches by reason of the different spoken languages namely, Gujarati and Marathi. Naturally their Maitrayaniya traditions developed along rather different lines. Already during their migration to Baglan which might have taken a long time, the Maitrayaniyas might have suffered from heavy odds resulting in the damage to their religious traditions. During migration and also in Baglan their tradition of domestic rites might have been already preserved. On the other hand, the tradition of sacrificial rituals was declining from the Sutra period itself, hence there is no wonder that the Srautrasutra text had begum to suffer from an insecure tradition. Since the ritual tradition was on a decline, the preservation of Srautrasutra text in a written form must also have suffered. It seems the tradition in northern Maharashtra suffered more than in Gujarat. All the manuscripts, which exist, are copied in fractions. Such a practice might have been responsible for the loose and defective sequence of the Sutra text.

The damage done to the Matrayaniya recension as a whole is quite obvious. The Maitrayani Samhita itselr suffered from insecure tradition. There must have been a Pada text for the Samhita which is now totally lost. A mantra-Samhita serially collecting only the mantra-portions out of the mixed Mantra-Brahmana portions was formulated probably for avoiding the strain on memory of the Vedic students. One is at a loss to know the age of that compilation. In recent times, even a Padapatha was the newly devised for priestly purpose. While the Padapatha in the Gujarat tradition was based in the mantra-portions only, that in the Maharashtra tradition was based on the Samhita-text as it is irrespective of whether it was mantra or brahmana.

Pg. 107 In selecting only the mantra portions for the Padapatha, the Gujarat tradition followed the Sukla Yajurveda tradition in which the mantras form an independent collection. The Maharashtra tradition followed the Krsna Yajurveda Taittiriya tradition in which the Samhita consisting of both the mantras and the brahmana is provided with a Padapatha. Both the Padapathas are defective; the Gujarat Padapatha may be said to be less defective.

Baglan= Gujarat + Northern Maharashtra

Samhita and Padapatha

The Vaidik Samsodhana Mandala has collected numerous manuscripts of the Maitrayani Samhita and its Padapatha from Nashik, Bhadgaon (a village close to Nashik), Nandurbar and Wai (in Satara District). These manuscripts are being collated for a fresh critical edition of the text. The Samhita has a peculiar system of accentuation wherein the Udatta is marked with a vertical line above the syllable, and the various Svaritas are shown with additional distinctive marks. Strangely however, the Padapatha manuscripts do not follow this distinct accentuation, and seem to rather follow the widespread systems stemming from the Rigveda and Taittiriya Yajurveda traditions. Dharmadhikari therefore terms the accent in Maitrayani Pada manuscripts as ‘artificial’ although he admits their utility in determining the accent of the Samhita text and in splitting of the Pada to some extent. [DHARMADHIKARI 1990:2-5]

Schroder 1881-1886 in two volumes from Leipzig.

Satavalekar 1943

Martin Mittwede has suggested a long list of proposed amendations to the text of the Maitrayani Samhita. The work is titled “Text-Kritiche Bemerkungen Zur Maitrayani Samhita”.

Short manuscripts containing examples of the Krama, Ghna, Jata, Malapatha etc. are also available in various collections [AITHAL 1991:478-479]

Chhandoanukramani

It is a part of the Varaha Parisishtas and enumerates the prosodic meters of the verses in the Samhita. It has been published by RAGHUVIRA [1981].

Upanishads

Maitrayaniya Upanishad: Also called Maitrayaniya Aranyaka or Brhadaranyaka of Maitrayaniya Sakha. A manuscript of an almost identical text at Lahore is titled ‘Charaka Aranyaka’.

1. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
2. Dipika of Ramatirtha

Svetasvatara Upanishad

1. Commentary ascribed to Sri Samkaracharya: considered spurious by many scholars
2. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
3. Commentary by Vijnanatman, the disciple of Jnanottama

Chhagaleya Upanishad

Manava SrautaSutra

Friedrich Knauer published a portion of the text in 5 parts from St. Petersburg (Russia) in 1901-1903. J. M. van Gelder published the sixth part comprising the Agnichayana in 1921. Subsequently, Gelder completed the work and published the entire text along with an English translation, plus a few Parisistas from Delhi in 1961.

This edition of Gelder was reprinted from Delhi by Shri Sat Guru Publications, appended with a list of suggested corrections and emendations by C. G. Kashikar.

Kashikar has collected 11 fresh manuscripts from Baroda, Nashik and Wai and is preparing a fresh critical edition. Upon examining the fresh manuscript material, KASHIKAR [1990] has suggested the following departures from Gelder’s edition:

First, Gelder divides her text into 11 parts which are further divided into Adhyayas or chapters. Kashikar states that the 10^th and the 11^th parts are actually Parisistas falling within the realm of Manava Grhyasutras, hence they need to be detached from the Srautrasutra.

Second, part 8 of Gelder’s edition comprising the ‘anugrahika’ is not an integral part of the Manavasrauta Sutra, but rather a Parisista of the Srautasutra.

Third, Kashikar has concluded that the Srauta tradition of the Manavas diverged at some point of time into two streams- the Gujarat tradition which is older, and the Maharashtra tradition (in districts adjacent to Gujarat) which is younger. He proposes the following sequence of the various portions of the Srautasutra

Book	Title	Topics	Adhayaya
I	Praksoma	Darsapurnamasau	1-4
		Agnyadheyam	5
		Agnihotram	6.1-3
		Agrayanam	6.4
		Punaradheyam	6.5
		Caturmasyani	7
		Nirudhapasuh	8
II	Agnistoma		1-5
III	Istikalpa	Kamya Ishtayah	1
		Kamya Ishtayah	2.1-7
		Hautram	2.8-9
		Kamyah Pasavah	2.10
		Kaukili Sautramani	2.11
		Pasvaikadasini	2.12-13
		Caturhotarah	2.14
		Gonamikah	2.15-16
		Brahmatvam	2.17-18
IV	Rajasuya	Rajasuyah	1
		Asvamedhah	2
		Ekahah	3
		Ahinah	4
		Sattrani	5
V	Cayana	Agnicayanam	1-2
		Vajapeyam	3
		Dvadasah and Gavam Ayanam	4
		Prayaschittani	5
		Pravargyakalpah	6

Kashikar has also suggested that the earlier view that Apastamba was indebted to Manava is flawed and a closer examination of the texts rather suggests the reverse.

Manava Grhyasutra

The text, with extracts from the commentary was first published by Friedrich Knauer from St. Petersburg in 1897, and the complete text of the commentary with the sutra was eventually published by Ramakrishna Shastri in the Gaekwad’s Oriental Series.

The text is known by three names – Manavagrhyasutra, Maitrayaniya Manava Grhyasutra and Maitrayaniya Grhyasutra. The preface to this edition was written by B. C. Lele. According to Lele [SHASTRI 1926: 6], these three names are respectively in the order of their increasing antiquity. The commentary states that the author of the sutra is Manavacharya and it is unclear of its author was ‘Manava’ or if it belonged to the school of Manavas. The sutra also cites a few verses by pritka, which do not occur in the Maitrayani Samhita.

The text, as it exists today, seems to be composite with several later accretions. Lele notes [p. 7] –

“…the opening sections which give the vratacharyaa and sandhyaa as well as the next four sections appear to be later. The Simantonnayana ceremony is mentioned twice at 1.12.2 and 1.15. At the end of the First Purusha we find several Diksas mentioned which do not appear to be directly connected with Grhya ritual. In the second Purusa we find the Prashthikalpa (11.13), a rite consisting of shtaalipaaka offerings not mentioned in the other Grhya Sutras. Section 11.14 contains the interesting worship of the Vinayakas. They are represented as demons which have a malicious influence on the life and wsork of men….”

On the relative dates of the sutra – it is often held that the Manavagrhyasutra is older than those of the Taittiriya Krshnayajurveda. Lele [SHASTRI p. 9] also proposes that the extant text, usually titled Manavagrahyasutra, supplanted an older Maitrayaniya Grhyasutra.

The Manavagrhyasutra runs parallel to the Kathakagrhyasutra. The two texts have several entire chapters in common (e.g., vratacharyaa, vaisvadeva etc.) and agree in the choice of expression and mantras. It has been proposed by Jolly that the Kathaka and Maitrayaniya schools arose in adjacent geographical regions, which is why their texts are so similar to each other.

No personal details are known about Ashtavakra, and even his name is deduced as such from an introductory verse occurring at the commencement of his commentary on the second Purusha. The commentator cites Mansmriti, Vasistha Dhamasutra and several other texts without mentioning the source of his citations. He also appears to be well-versed in Mimamsa and Grammar. The commentary does not often discuss the minutiae of various rites. Besides surviving texts, the commentary also quotes the lost Baijavapa Grhyasutra belonging to the Sukla Yajurveda, and a Kathaka Parisishta.

Followers of the Manavagrhyasutra are typically Modha Brahmins of Gujarat, as is apparent from the colophons of manuscripts of these texts.

Add note on Vinayaka rituals in the Grhyasutra.

A Hindi translation cum commentary on this text was published by Pandit Bhimasena Sharma, the principal disciple of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati (founder of Arya Samaj) in Vikrami Samvat 1861. The work was printed by Vedaprakash Yantraalaya located in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh.

Manavagrahyasutra Parisishtas

Muulajaatasanti: A manuscript noticed by Buhler.¹⁰⁴

Yamalasanti: A manuscript noticed by Buhler.¹⁰⁵ Does the text deal with expiations required to performed on the birth of twins? A text called Yamalajananasanti attached to a Katyayana Parisishta apparent deals with this topic.

Rudrajapa: Name of a Parisishta of the Manavagrhyasutra.¹⁰⁶

Sraaddhakalpa¹⁰⁷

Varaha Srautasutra

An edition of this text was published by Raghuvira and Caland in 1933. They themselves termed this edition as provisional. Fortunately, an improved edition has been recently published by Kashikar [

Dharmasutras

Harita Dharmasutra: A manuscript of this valuable work exists in the collection of Caland [ref. 1, pg. xxxiii]

Manava Sulva Sutra

Commentaries

1. Commentary by Sivadasa, the son of Narada. This is the earliest commentary on the text and its extent in shlokas is 1000. A manuscript exists in the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 460-461]. The introductory verses state that the commentary was composed in Varanasi, and that the author compared his text with the Sulbasutra of Baudhayana, in order to point out the differences between the two. Sivadasa also claims that the author of the Sulvasutra was none other than Manu who composed the famous Manusmriti. He calls his Sakha as ‘Manu-Maitri’ Sakha.

A Marathi translation of Manava, Katyayana, Apastamba and Baudhayana Sulvasutras was published in 1978 from Mumbai by R. P. Kulkarni [KASHIKAR 1996: 4].

Parisishtas

The Varahas have 22 Parisistas. Of these, the Chaturhotrka, Gonamika and Chhando’anukramani were published by Raghuvira. While a Frenchman Pierre Rolland (1940-74) published studies (in French) on the Vrstotsarga, Rahasya and Bhutotpatti. He also wrote a study (unpublished) on another Parisishta called the Grhyapurusha, which, according to PARPOLA [1976], casts an important light on ancient Indian architecture.

Miscellaneous

1. Charaka-Adhvaryakrdvatsah: A non identifiable text in Caland’s collection [ref.1, pg xxxiii]

References

1. Michael Witzel; Kliene Schriften: Willem Caland; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1990
2. B. R. Sharma; Kanva Samhita with the Padapatha and the commentaries of Sayanacarya and Anandabodha (2 vols.); Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala; Pune; 1988

Dharmadhikari, T. N.

1974: Some Conjectural Emendations in the Manava-Srauta-Sutra (Gelder’s Edition, 1961); in Vishveshwaranand Indological Journal, vol. XII.1-2; Hoshiarpur (Punjab)

______. 1990. pages 2-5 in Dharmadhikari, T. N.; R. S. Shastri; N. P. Jain; Vedic Texts: A Revision- Prof. C. G. Kashikar Felicitation Volume; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi

Kashikar C. G. 1990. Manava Srautasutra. pages 98-107 in Dharmadhikari, T. N.; R. S. Shastri; N. P. Jain; Vedic Texts: A Revision- Prof. C. G. Kashikar Felicitation Volume; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi

Kashikar, C. G.

The Varaha Srautrasutra

KASHIKAR, C.G. 1996. Ritualist Studies: A Retrospect and Prospect. In Some Aspects of Vedic Studies, ed. by Samiran Chandra Chakrabarti, School of Vedic Studies – Rabindra Bharati University: Calcutta; pp. 1-9

PARPOLA, Asko. 1976. Pierre Rolland (1940-1974). Studia Orientalia, vol. 45. Helsinki. Pp.161-168

RAGHUVIRA. 1981. Vedic Studies – A Collection of the Research Papers of Prof. Raghuvira, ed. by Sharada Rani. Satapitaka Series, volume 272: New Delhi.

Raghuvira and Willem Caland

The Varaha Srautasutra

SHASTRI, Chinnaswami. 1937. zAbarabhASye udAharaNaparipATI. In Jha Commemoration Volume – Essays on Oriental Subjects presented to Vidyasagar Mahamahopadhyaya Pandita Ganganatha Jha, Oriental Book Agency: Poona, pp. 1-10

SHASTRI, Ramakrishna Harshaji. 1926. Manavagrhyasutra of the Maitrayaniya Sakha with the commentary of Astavakra. Central Library: Baroda

Other Shakhas of Krishna Yajurveda

1. Varatantaviya: This is named after Rishi Varatantu, who is named by Panini on Ashtadhyayi 4.3.102. In his Raghuvansha, Kalidasa describes Varatantu as a ‘mantrakrita’ (5.4) and as a contemporary of King Raghu (5.1-20)

Kauthuma Sakha of Samaveda

“The Samaveda occupies a unique position in music history, for it preserves probably the world’s oldest notated melodies. It is to be cherished all the more as a record of sacred monophony, rooted in the remote past, which is carried to this very day in the memories of this Veda’s adherents.” [HOWARD 1977:8]

Rishi Kuthuma

Roop Kishore Shastri [1990:6] notes that Rishi Kuthuma, the promulgator of this sakha, was the second disciple of Rish Pauspinji. The former had three sons – Aurasa, Parashara and Bhaagavitti. The last is mentioned in Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 6.3.9.

Areas of Provenance/BrahminCommunities

1. Tamil Nadu: Followers of Kauthuma Samaveda are found in most towns of this state. They recite not only the Samhita together with the Samans, but also the Chhandogya Upanishad. The Kauthuma Samhita is recited utilizing 6 musical notes. STAAL [1961:19] states that the recitation of the Upanishad text is derived from printed editions, and not from an unbroken oral tradition. Consequently, the Upanishad text is not recited with the Vedic accent, since the printed editions do not bear the accent marks. Instead, it is recited in the bhASika svara “an even murmur”, also termed as the daNDaka recitation [STAAL 1961:27].

The Brahmanas of Samaveda are not recited.

2. Maharashtra**: **Small groups of Samavedin Brahmins, presumably followers of the Kauthuma Sakha, live in Khandesh (Bhadgaon).

3. Gujarat: The primary credit for the survival and prevalence of Kauthuma Sakha goes to the Audicya Brahmins, who intermarried with Gurjara Brahmins and imparted Samavedic lore to the latter.

4. Uttar Pradesh: Samaveda followers survive in Lucknow as well as in Varanasi. Those in Varanasi are all either Gujarati Brahmins, or have been taught by them [HOWARD 1977: 76]

5. Bihar: The Kauthuma tradition was revived by the Maharaja of Darbhanga

6. West Bengal: A Kauthuma Vedapathashala was recently opened in the state

Samhita

The Samaveda Samhita is of two types- the Archika samhita containing the mantras, and the Gaana comprising of the melodies.

Samavediya Archika Samhita: The Kauthuma Samhita of the Samaveda comprises of 1875 mantras of which 1800 are found in the published Rigveda Samhita. According to Damodara Satavalekar, the remaining verses are to be found in manuscripts of the Shankhayana Shakha of the Rigveda. The verses of Samaveda are divided into two books: The Purvarchika and the Uttarachika. The verses are accented, and contrary to the notations in the manuscripts of the other Vedas, the accents in the Kauthuma Samaveda are marked by inserting numbers and a few letters above the text of the mantras. The Purvarchika comprises of mantras address to Agni, Indra and Soma. These verses form the backbone of the Gramageyagana songbook. The Gramageyagana comprises of 1 or more melody to which each verse of the Purvarchika, taken in order, is set.

Padapatha of Kauthuma Samhita

The Padapatha is traditionally attributed to Sage Gargya.

Commentaries on the Kauthuma Samhita

1. Bharat Swamin

2. Sayanacharya

3. Ravana (?):WEBER [1878: 66, fn. 61] notes that Rost, in Indische Studien, Vol. IX, p. 176, hints at the existence of a Ravanabhashya on the Samaveda in Malabar.

4. Ralph Griffith¹⁰⁸ published an English translation of the Samaveda Samhita, titled ‘The Hymns of the Samaveda’ in two parts from Varanasi in 1963. Subsequent editions of the work were published in 1907, 1926, and finally the 4^th edition in 1963 was published by Chowkhamba Orientalia.

5. Pandit Tulasiram Swami (d. 1915) wrote a massive commentary from a devotional perspective on the entire Samaveda Samhita. This work was published in two volumes by Swami Press located in Meerut. Initially, the commentary was published in monthly fascicules, the first of which appeared on 24^th May 1898¹⁰⁹.

6. Pandit Chamupati: He wrote his commentary titled ‘Jivan-jyoti’ on Agneya Parvan of the Samhita and Soma-sarovar on the Pavamana Parvan. These works are written from a devotional perspective¹¹⁰.

7. M R Jambunathan published a Tamil translation of the Samaveda Samhita from Bombay in 1935, through the J. Book Depot. The work is titled ‘Samavedam’.¹¹¹ The translation is accompanied with notes and an appendix, and has an introduction on Samavedic literature.

8. Pandit Jaidev Sharma (1892-1961): He is the first scholar to have translated all the four Vedas into Hindi (or, as a matter of fact, into any Indian language). The translations were written between May 1925 and 1936, and comprise 7 volumes for Rgveda, 4 for Atharvaveda and 2 each for Yajurveda and Samaveda. Sharma closely follows the views of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati in his own translations. His translations have been reprinted numerous times and are prefaced by an elaborate and erudite note on the respective Veda.

9. Pandit Damodara Satavalekar: A Hindi and Marathi translation of the text was published by the Swadhyaya Mandala, Pardi (Gujarat).

10. Dandisvamin¹¹²: He edited the Samaveda Samhita with Sayanacharya’s commentary and a Bengali translation. The work was published by Shri Samkaracarya Vidyabhavan at Tarakeshwar in 1965.

11. Pandit Ramavatar Sharma Tirtha-Chatushtaya (d. 1971) and Pandit Vaidyanath: They jointly wrote a commentary on the entire Samhita, following Swami Dayanand Sarasvati’s methodology at the behest of the Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha which is the apex organization of the Arya Samaj. The commentary was written and completed in Lahore before India was partitioned, but it was printed several years later under the name Pandit Vaidyanath¹¹³.

12. Virendra Shastri published a Hindu translation of the entire text through Adarsh Sahitya Mandal (Varanasi) in 1950.¹¹⁴

13. Swami Bhagavadacharya published the Sama-Samskarabhashya from the Sri Ramananda Sahitya Mandira in Alwar in two volumes that were published in 1948 and 1957 respectively.

14. Devichand (1880-1965): He wrote a simple translation of Samaveda in English which is highly popular and is available in numerous printed editions. The translations follows the tenets of Arya Samaj. The work was first published in 1963.

15. Brahmamuni Parivrajakacharya: This commentary is written from an adhyatmic perspective, following the interpretation style of the Arya Samaj. It was published in two volumes.

16. Swami Gangesvaranada Saraswati: The commentary is written from an adhyatmic perspective and reads the story of Lord Krishna in the mantras [ref. 5, pg. 139]

17. Pandit Vishvanath Vidyalankar, a former Professor of Vedic Studies at Arya Samaj’s Gurukul Kangri (close to Haridwar) wrote a commentary on the entire Samaveda Samhita, which still exists in manuscript¹¹⁵.

18. Pandit Dharmadeva Vidyamartanda published an English translation of the entire Samhita. The translation is written from a devotional perspective and was first printed in 1967. At least one reprint by Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha has since appeared that I am aware of. The work has a brief English introduction that summarizes the Arya Samaj viewpoint on the divinity and interpretation of Vedas, and also citations from texts of other religions (such as the Adi Granth of Sikhism) that declare the divine origin of the four Vedas. In addition to this work, he also published poetical translations of select mantras of Samaveda¹¹⁶.

19. Sri Ram Sharma Acharya wrote a bare-bones translation of Samaveda Samhita, together with the original, unaccented text.

20. Pandit Virendra Shastri wrote a lucid Hindi commentary on the Samaveda from an Arya Samaj perspective. This work was published in two volumes as a special supplement to the magazine Vedavani (Vikrami Samvat 2007). It was reprinted subsequently in one volume in Vikrami Samvat 2020 by the Adarsh Sahitya Mandal of Rae Bareli (Uttar Pradesh)¹¹⁷.

Anukramanis of Kauthuma Samhita

1. Upanidana Sutra [Ref. 2, pg. 155]: This work, authored by Katyayana (or to Saunaka in a few manuscripts), is an index of meters of the verses of Samaveda. It comprises of two divisions called ‘Patalas’, which are respectively further divided into 5 and 3 chapters. Chapters 1 - 3 are general in nature, 4-5 are the index of meters of the Purvarchika, chapter 6 of the Aranya Kanda, chapter 7 of the Uttarakanda whereas the last chapter deals with the colors and the devatas of the various meters and also the sources of the work in a mere 4 verses. An edition of the work was published by Mangal Deva Shastri from Benares in 1931 [Ref. 9]
2. Sarvanukramani: There exists no ancient Sarvanukramani of the Samaveda, and this lacunae was filled by the Rsi-Devata-Chhanda Anukramani of Sivarama, the son of Visrama. Manuscripts of this work exist at Alwar and Baroda [AITHAL 1991:244]

Works on Samavedic Melodies (Samans)

1. ChandogAniyahnika: No details are available about this work, which is the composition of Shivaram Shukla [ref. 8. pg. 205]

**Brahmanas: **Tradition is unanimous that the Kauthuma Shakha has 8 Brahmana texts. The Samhitapanishad, Devatadhyaya and the Samavidhana appear to be common to all three recensions.

Tandya Mahabrahmana

The first printed edition of the text was brought out by Ananda Chandra Vedantavagisha from Calcutta in 1869-1874.

Commentaries:

1. Bhashya by Jayantasvamin, son of Harisvamin.

Chhandogya Mantra Brahmana

The Chhandogya Brahmana is a work of ten divisions called ‘Prapathakas’ and comprises of two parts –

Prapathakas 1-2 form the Mantra Brahmana or the Mantra Parvan and contain mantras used in Grhya rites.

Prapathakas 3-10 constitute the famous Chhandogya Upanishad.

The various early printed editions of the Mantra Brahmana are as follows:

1. SAMASRAMI Satyavrata. 1872. Serampore. The text contained in this edition is imperfect, being based on faulty manuscripts. A Bengali translation and an original commentary in Sanskrit is included
2. SAMASRAMI Satyavrata. 1890. Calcutta. The editor revised his first edition with the assistance of more manuscripts that gave a more correct text. He has also revised his Sanskrit commentary to correspond to the new readings.
3. HALLE Heinrich Stonner. 1901. Das Mantrabrahmana. – This work deals only with the first Prapathaka, and has an accompanying German translation.
4. JÖRGENSEN Hans. 1911. Darmstadt. – This edition contains the text, a German translation and the commentary of Sayana of the 2^nd Prapathaka alone

Thereafter, the text was published with the commentary of Sayanacharya by Bellikoth Ramakrishna SARMA, and with the commentaries of Gunavishnu and Sayanacharya by Durgamohan BHATTACHARYA [1958].

Commentatorial Tradition:

Two traditional commentaries exist on the Mantrabrahmana.

1. Gunavishnu: He was a native of Bengal, and lived before the 12^th century AD, since he has been quoted by Raghunandana and others from that period. BHATTACHARYA [1958] has published this commentary and I refer to his description of the same [p. xxiv]– “In an introductory verse, Gunavishnu has modestly described himself as faltering in the correct explanation of the words and their meanings. He has however explained in his commentary many items of etymological interest, and cleared up various points of syntactical obscurities by referring to the Nighantu and the Nirukta and by quoting the rules of Mimansa. He has quoted passages from a number of works including the Brahmana, the Upanishad, the Gryhasutra and the Dharmasutra. In determining the application of mantras in different rites, Gun has always quoted the Gobhilagrhyasutra in support. He has therefore followed the Kauthuma Sakha of the Samaveda prevelant in Bengal. In grammatical discussions, he has cited the sutras of Panini throughout, and has sometimes quoted the Kasikha and the Rgveda Pratisakhya as well. Gun was well conversant with the characteristic traditions of the different Vedic schools, as otherwise he could not have boldly adopted the Mantra-readings, which are, as he himself pointed out, opposed to the Rgvedic texts.”
2. Sayanacharya: The commentary, like his other Vedic commentaries, is titled the ‘Vedarthaprakasha’ and was apparently authored after he had already completed his commentaries on the Samhitas of the Rigveda, Yajurveda and the Samaveda. Sayana often borrows from Gunavishnu’s commentary, without mentioning his name. He supplements his comments with liberal quotations from the Khadira Grhyasutra (which was prevalent instead of the Gobhila Grhyasutra in South India) together with Rudraskanda’s commentary on the same. Often, his readings of the Mantrabrahmana are superior to those adopted by Gunavishnu [BHATTACHARYA 1958:xxvi]

That the two parts have always been considered as constituting one whole can be inferred from the fact that Shankaracharya has quoted from both of them as ‘the Sruti of Tandins’ while commenting on Brahmasutra 3.2.25,26,36

Coming to the Mantra Brahmana, each of the two Prapathakas is further subdivided into eight khandas, or sections. The entire text has 268 mantras, including the 11 additional formulae noted in the most ancient extant commentary by Gunavishnu. These mantras are pre-supposed by the Grhyasutras of Khadira and Gobhila, which prescribe them for various Grhya rites. In fact, the order of the mantras on the Mantra Brahmana parallels the corresponding rites in the Grhyasutras, in the same order. It is as if the Grhyasutras and the Mantra Brahmana complement each other. Certain western Indologists like Oldenberg [SBE XXX, p. 4-8] take this to conclude that the Grhyasutras and the Mantra Brahmana were composed simultaneously. Other Indologists however assume the priority of the Brahmana to the Grhyasutras, following the Indian tradition. Rudraskanda, while commenting on the opening sutra of the Khadira Grhyasutra, clearly states that the sutra presupposes the knowledge of the Brahmana, thereby suggesting that he considered the Brahmana to be older than the Sutra.

The very fact that both the Khadira Grhyasutra (a text of the Ranayaniya or the Sardula Sakha of Samaveda) and the Gobhila Grhyasutra (a text of the Kauthuma Samavedins) presuppose the Mantra Brahmana, it automatically follows that the text belongs to the combined Kauthuma-Ranayaniya Samavedic tradition.

Devatadhyaya lays down the criterion for deciding the deity of the Samaganas.

Samhitopanishad deals with the ‘secret’ aspect of the Samhitas, the collections of verses are grouped together for various purposes. It emphasizes the responsibilities of the great tradition of the Samaveda and the correct doctrine reflected therein, through the chosen line of disciples. This Brahmana is composed in the sutra style, divided into five chapters. It discusses vidhi, stoma, anuloma, pratiloma etc., in great detail. A few cosmogonic legends area also found in the text. Two commentaries exist on the text – one by Dvijararaja Bhatta, and the second is the Vedarthaprakasha of Sayanacharya.

Samavidhana Brahmana

Commentators

Bharatswamin: A manuscript of the commentary of Bharatswamin on the Samavidhana Brahmana was discovered by Bellikoth Ramakrishna Sharma in the Raj Library at Darbhanga (Bihar) [B. R. SHARMA 1996:56].

Arsheya Brahmana

The Devanagari text with a Bengali translation was published by Madhavadasa Samkhyatirtha through Sri Bharati Publishing Co. from Calcutta. The edition also has copious notes.¹¹⁸

Vamsha Brahmana

The Devanagari text with a Bengali translation was published by Madhavadasa Samkhyatirtha through Sri Bharati Publishing Co. from Calcutta. The edition also has copious notes.¹¹⁹

Aranyaka

Upanishads

Commentators of Chhandogya Upanishad

1. Vakyakara Brahmanandin: A brief comment, called the ‘Vakya’. The work is considered lost but extensive quotations from it are encountered in the works of Advaitins and Vishishtadvaitins. I have collected these.
2. Bhasyakara Dramidacarya: A commentary on # 1 above. Large and small extracts from the Bhashya are encountered in works like Vedarthasamgraha and Shri Bhashya of Shri Ramanujacharya, subcommentaries thereon by Sudarshana Suri, Rudraskanda’s vrtti on Drahyayana Kalpa; Parashara Bhattar’s commentary on the Sri Vishnu Sahasranama and so on. I have collected these.
3. Shankaracharya (Advaita): He terms his Bhashya as a short ‘Vrtti’ in the introductory portion. Anandagiri explains that the word ‘short’ is used to contrast it with the massive commentary of Dramidacharya. The commentary refers to some textual variants.
4. Bhaskara Bhatta (Bhedabheda perspective): Lost, and referred to in Bhaskara’s own commentary on the Brahmasutras. Numerous citations from this work are actually encountered with in the Tippana of Narottama Puri (see below). From these extracts it is clear that Bhaskara pre-supposed the Bhashya of Shankaracharya on this Upanishad, and criticized it in his own commentary. This might be taken as conclusive proof for the genuine character of Shri Shankaracharya’s commentary on the Chhandogya Upanishad.
5. Narendra Puri: A brief comment (‘Tippana’) on Shankaracharya’s commentary. It criticizes the Bhashya of Bhaskara in a very vitriolic language.
6. Madhvacarya (Dvaita perspective): Characteristic of his style, he interprets numerous passages in a very different manner than other traditional commentaries on the text. Significant philosophically is his unique interpretation of the mahavakya ‘Tat tvam asi’ in the 6^th chapter of the Upanishad. Madhvacharya interprets it as ‘atat tvam asi’ and marshals numerous reasons for doing so.
7. Anandagiri: A gloss (= Tika) on Shri Shankaracharya’s Bhashya. It follows the Tippana of Narottama Puri very closely, especially in the identification of allusions to the Dramida Bhashya in Shankaracharya’s commentary. The Tika is written in the characteristic lucid style of Anandagiri, and contains some original citations from the Dramida Bhashya as well, indicating that the Dramida Bhashya was available to him.
8. Sudarashana Suri: Bhashya on the Upanishad from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective.
9. Jnananananda: ‘Chandrika’ on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
10. Balakrishnananda: ‘Vivarana’ on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
11. Shankarananda: Dipika on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
12. Abhinava Narayanendra Saraswati: Pupil of Jnanendra Saraswati. The Tika is written from an Advaita Vedanta perspective.
13. Swami Vidyaranya: 3rd, 4th and 5th chapters of Swami Vidyaranya’s anubhUTiprakAsha. It’s not strictly a commentary, though. The chapters are called shvetaketuvidyA-prakAsha, sanatkumAravidyA-prakAsha and prajApatividyA-prakAsha. Pl. see Godabarisha Mishra’s critical edition published by the Univ of Madras.
14. Sayanacharya (Advaita): The commentary has been published on the basis of 2 manuscripts- one from Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute and the other from the Oriental Research Institute at Mysore (ref. 1). The Dipika, as the commentary is called, is a very lucid paraphrase that follows the Bhasya of Sri Shankaracharya very closely. From the colophons, it is apparent that Sayana wrote this work after completing his commentary on the Samhitas of Rigveda, Samaveda and Yajurveda. In addition to Sri Samharacharya’s Bhasya, the Dipika has relied heavily on the Vaiyasika Nyayamala of Swami Bharati Tirtha, and quotes the same very frequently. In fact, the Dipika might be regarded as a very lucid gloss on the Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya, and supplements the latter with additional quotes from a plethora of Vedic and Pauranic texts, and gives additional examples, textual analysis etc. to clarify the Upanishadic sentences. At the same time, the Dipika condenses the polemical sections of the Bhashya so that they are more comprehensible. In addition, Sayana wrote a metrical paraphrase of this text, along with 11 other principal Upanishads, in his work titled ‘Anubhuutiprakaasha’.
15. Vyasatirtha: A sub-commentary on Shri Madhvacharya’s Bhashya on the Chhandogya Upanishad, written obviously from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective. Like his other works, the sub-commentary is marked by acute fidelity to Madhvacharya’s Bhashya, and is superb for its logical acumen.
16. Vedesha Bhikshu, disciple of Vyasatirtha: ‘Padarthakaumudi’ on the Chhandogya Upanishad, from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective.
17. Rangaramanuja: Written from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective. Like his commentaries on most Upanishads, this is also a brief one and tries to incorporate comments on the relevant passages as far as they occur in the works of Shri Ramanujacharya. A noteworthy feature the work is that it cites all the Brahmasutras which refer to a particular passage of the Upanishad, while commenting on that passage. It is well known that the Brahmasutras do deal with only representative passages of the Upanisads and the principles enunciated in the text can be applied to many other parallel Upanisadic texts. This has been well demonstrated by Sri Rangaramanuja and he has applied the Brahmasutras profusely to arrive at a meaning of numerous passages of the Upanisads. Unfortunately, and contrary to expectations, Rangaramanuja does not give any new original citations from the Vakyagrantha or the Dramida Bhashya.
18. Dara Shikoh: A Persian translation written with the assistance of Sarvavidyanidhana Kavindracharya and other Pundits of Varanasi during the reign of Emperor Shah Jehan. The work was translated into German by Paul Duessen, and thereafter into English by Palsule and Bedekar (“Sixty Upanishads of the Veda”).
19. Raghavendra Yati: Written from the Dvaita Vedanta perspective.
20. Appaya Dikshit: Bhashya on the Upanishad written from the Advaita Vedanta perspective.
21. Advaitananda Tirtha: He composed a commentary called the Tatparya Dipika on the Upanishad.
22. Bhaskara Parivrajaka: ‘Padartha Vivarana’ on the Upanishad
23. Nityananda Ashrama: Pupil of Purushottama Ashrama. His work is called the ‘Artha Prakasha’. Written from an Advaita Vedanta perspective.
24. Nityananda Ashrama: Same person as the author of the ‘Artha Prakasha’. Wrote another commentary called the ‘Mitakshara’. Written from an Advaita Vedanta perspective.
25. Vyankatesh Ramachandra Sharma: Tika on the Upanishad
26. Bhagavadbhavaka: Vrtti on the Upanishad.
27. Upanishad Brahmayogin: Vivarana on the Upanishad. He is the celebrated author of commentaries on numerous Upanishads written from a Kevaladvaita perspective.
28. Vidyadhirajatirtha: Vyakhyana on the Upanishad
29. Nigudhartha Prakasana of Damodara Sastri
30. Ramasubrahmanya Shastri: ‘Vilasa’ on the text.
31. Ramanya, son of Jagannatha: Vyakhya on the Upanishad
32. Haribhau Shukla: Prakashika on the Upanishad
33. Vidushekhara Bhattacharya: Vyakhya on the Upanishad
34. Damodara Satavalekara: Commentary in Hindi, cited in the catalog of the Swadhyaya Mandala, but never encountered
35. Pundit Shivashankara Kavyatirtha: A very scholarly Sanskrit metrical commentary that employs the Vedangas profusely. Written from the Arya Samaj perspective.
36. Swami Nikhilananda: English translation with extensive notes, based on the Bhashya of Shri Shankaracharya
37. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan: English translation with notes from various traditional commentaries
38. Swami Chinmayanada: An English gloss on the Chhandogya Upanishad
39. Patrick Olivelle: Text and English translation, with notes on and a mention of the relevant Indological publications on various passages of the Upanishad.

Shrauta Sutras of Samaveda

1. Arsheya Kalpa Sutra of Masaka: This is the Srauta Sutra of Samaveda

Commentaries

1. Vyakhya of Varadaraja, son of Vamanacharya

2. Pushpa Sutra: This work has the following commentaries on it [AITHAL 1991:451-454] –

1. Phulla-pota of Ganesh Pandita (in manuscript)
2. Bhashya of Ajatasatru – printed several times
3. Phulla-dipa of Rama-krsna Diksita alias Nanabhai, son of Damodara Tripathin – published in B R Sharma’s edition of the text
4. Vivarana – anonymous, in manuscript at Trivandrum
5. Dipamala of Naganatha-suri or Nagappa-suri
6. Phullsutra tika of Adityaramakrshna Tripati, son of Damodara Tripathi. Manuscript comprising the commentary on sections 10-11 of the 10^th prapathaka with the sutra text exists in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1049].

Recently, TARLEKAR [2001] has brought out a fresh edition of the text on the basis of several manuscripts. The edition also has a detailed English translation of all the sutras.

**3. Latyayana Srauta Sutra: **The name of this text indicates that it was authored by a resident of the ‘Latadesha’- a region which included coastal Sindh and Gujarat in ancient times, but got restricted to the region between Mahi and Tapi rivers of Gujarat in later times [ref. 7, pg. 84]. The first edition of the Latyayana Srauta Sutra was published by Ananda Chandra Vedantavagisha from Calcutta in 1872. RANADE [1998] has recently published a critical edition of the text, together with an English translation and notes, extracts from the traditional commentary of Agniswamin and also the textual variations in the analogous sutras of Drahyayana, in 3 volumes.

Although based primarily on the Tandya Brahmana, the text is fairly eclectic in that it quotes specific injunctions from the Brahmanas of Shatyayanis, Raurukis and so on. A very distinctive feature of the work is that it quotes the opinions of several older teachers (e.g. Gautama, DhAnamjaya, Sandilya, Sandilyayana etc.) of Samavedic ritual by name, contrasting and comparing their opinions on ritual minutiae more than a 100 times. It also presupposes the Arsheya Kalpa and the Masaka Kalpa, which are referred to by their names.

Commentaries:

1. Manuscript of a commentary attributed to Sayanacharya exists at Alwar¹²⁰.

2. Commentary by Ramakrishna, son of Damodra: Manuscript exists at Alwar¹²¹.

4. Drahyayana Srauta Sutra

Commentaries:

1. Audgaatrasaarasamgraha Bhashya of Rudraskandaswamin¹²². No further information is available on this work.

2. Dipa by Dhanvin

**5. Anustotra Sutra: **It comprises of 8 sections [ref. 3, pg. 66]. Extent in shlokas is 100. It deals with the direction for proper application of vowels and musical sounds, viz. stobha, in connection with certain mantras [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1055-1056].

6. Tandya Lakshana Sutra: Some manuscripts also call it the Tanda sutra. The available text is very corrupt, and comprises of 3 prapathakas and 34 khandas (12, 12 and 10). No commentary is said to be extant on this text. Its extent in Shlokas is 280 [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1047].

7. Gayatra Vidhana Sutra: The text in 3 kandikas is attributed to Sunga, and deals with the use of the Gayatra Sama. The best edition of the sutra is by B. R. SHARMA [1971], the doyen of Samavedic studies in our times. It is a condensation of the Arsheya Kalpa and the Kshudra Sutra. An anonymous commentary exists on this work. The text and the anonymous commentary are still in manuscript stage.

**9. Nidana Sutra **of Patanjali

10. Anupada Sutra: The work is still unpublished but a manuscript exists in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1062]. It attempts to explain the obscure passages of the Tandya Brahmana. Amongst numerous texts and schools, the Sutra cites the following authorities: Kausitaki, Lingaarthavaada, Babhrava, Atharvana, Rathantara of Taittiriyas, Vajasneyis, Kathaka, Madhyandina, Vasishtha, Syaamaayani etc. It is a fairly long texts and its extent in shlokas is 1170. The manuscript has 39 folia.

11. Kalpanupada Sutra: This is a critical supplement to the Arsheyakalpasutra. Its extent in shlokas is 320, and the extant manuscript has 16 folia with 10 lines on a page [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1061]. It is enumerated amongst one of the ten sutras of Kauthuma Samaveda.

Grhya Sutras of Kauthuma Samaveda

Gobhila Grhya Sutra

Commentaries:

1. A commentary by Sayanacharya is reported in a manuscript catalog for the Awadh region.¹²³

2. Bhasya by Bhatta Narayana, the son of Mahaabala

3. Krtyachintamani of Shivaram Shukla: This is a voluminous digest on Dharmashastra based on the Gobhila Grhyasutra. Shivaram was a Modha Brahmin, and his father’s name was Vishrama. He composed a separate Paddhati on the Grhyasutra called the ‘Subodhinipaddhati’ [ref. 8, pg. 205]

4. Gobhilagrhyapaddhati of Vishnu Agnihotrin: Manuscript exists in Jammu in the collection of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir¹²⁴. Drahyayana Grhyasutra (also known as Khadira Grhyasutra):

5. Commentary by Rudraskanda

6. Subodhini by Srinivasa

7. Karika by Balagnihotri

8. Prayoga by Vinataanandana

Kauthuma Grhya Sutra

Gautama Dharma Sutra

Commentaries

1. Bhartryajna [ref. 7, pg. 85]

Drahyayana Dharma Sutra: A manuscript of this rare work exists in Caland’s collection [ref. 4, pg. xxx1]

Gautama Pitrmedha Sutra

A commentary on this text by Ananta Yajvan Kaviiyasaataabhatta, son of Krishna Bhattacharya, exists in manuscript in Berlin¹²⁵.

Chhandogapara Sutra: The word ‘Apara’ in the title here is used for ‘after death’ and accordingly, this work contains directions for performing the funeral ceremonies of a Samavedin, and for rites meant to be performed on the 11th day after death (Ref. 1, Pg. 1065, no.1345). The age of this work could not be determined. According to Dikshitar, it is the composition of Gautama [ref.6, pg. 183], in which case it is a very ancient text. There is a karika on this text as well [ref. 6, pg. 184]

Chhandogaparisishta or Karmapradipa: Also called Gobhila Smrti. It is a metrical treatise explaining in a lucid manner the Grhya rites prescribed in the Gobhila and other Grhya sutras. The text is also sometimes referred to as Slokakātyāyana which indicates that tradition may also attribute its authorship to Katyayana Muni.

Commentaries:

1. Parisishta Prakasa Tika of Narayana, son of Shona. On this work there are three subcommentaries: Saaramanjari by Srinatha (son of Srichakra), by Hariraama and by Harihara.¹²⁶

2. Bhasya of Āshāditya Misra

3. Vivrtti by Sivarama, son of Sukla Visrama [ref. 8. pg. 205]: Shivaram was a Modha Brahmin and composed numerous other works on the texts of the Kauthuma shakha of Samaveda.

Lakshana Granthas

1. Riktantra: This text is also called the Rktantra Vyakarana or the Chhandoga Vyakarana. It is a Pratisakhya of Samaveda, in five prapathakas, and is alternately ascribed to Audavraji and Sakatayana. There exists no commentary on the first prapathaka, whereas the remaining prapathakas have a commentary called. An edition of the Rktantra has been published by Suryakanta [Ref. 10].
2. Laghu Rktantra: An abridged, versified version of the Rktantra called the Laghu Rktrantra also exists.
3. Rktantra Parisista: This is the avagraha portion of the Rktrantra, and has been published by Suryakanta [Ref. 11]
4. Samatantra: It is a Pratisakhya of Samaveda in 15 Prapathakas, and is attributed to Sage Audavraji. It deals with the rules for converting verses into Samans. It has been published from Varanasi by A. M. Ramanatha Dikshita, along with a commentary attributed to Sayanacharya [1961]. In reality, it appears that the ascription to Sayana is in error and that it is actually much older. The other commentaries of the text, all still in manuscript, are – Bhashya of Dayasamkara, Vrtti-sara of Nrisimha-datta, Samatrantra-bhashya of Ramakrshna Diksita (son of Damodara). [AITHAL 1991:630-632]
5. Phullasutra: This text is also called the Pushpasutra. Its authorship is strongly disputed. Some say it was composed by Vararuchi, others name Rishi Pushpa and Audavraji as its authors.
6. Matralakshana: Composed by Vararuchi.
7. Gautama Siksa or Gautamiya Siksa: It is related to the Samaveda and is attributed to Sage Gautam. It comprises of two Prapathakas of 8 khandas each. The work was first published in the ‘Siksa Samgraha’ from Varanasi. [AITHAL 1991:286-287].
8. Gayatravidhana Sutra of Shunga
9. Naradiya Siksa
10. Lomasi Siksa – This work is ascribed to Sage Garga and is included in the ‘Siksa Samgraha’ published from Varanasi.
11. Sama Paribhasa or Paribhasa-laksana: This text is attributed to Vararuchi [AITHAL 1991:411, 632-633]. Other names of this work are Salaksana-Paribhasa and Samaveda gAna-paribhasha.
12. Archika Lakshana: This text discusses the accents of the Archika section of the Samhita.
13. Gitikalpa: This text expounds the prastavabhakti of the samans in uhagana [ref.6, pg. 317]
14. Upagranthasutra: The text consists of four prapaathakas.

Parisishtas of Kauthuma Samaveda: In many cases, the original works have not been consulted and therefore it is not possible to verify the Kauthuma affiliation of these works.

Aavasathyaadhaana: Exists in manuscript at Oxford.¹²⁷

Adhaana: Manuscript exists at Alwar etc.¹²⁸

Adhaanakarika: Manuscript exists at Alwar etc.¹²⁹

Amrtaaharana: Manuscript exists at Alwar, Oxford etc.¹³⁰ The work is also called Sarpabala.¹³¹

Anavagraha: Exists in manuscript at Oxford.¹³²

Annapraashana: Exists in manuscript at Oxford.¹³³

Aupavasathika: Exists in manuscript at Oxford.¹³⁴

Avasthyadhana Parisishta: (Ref. 1, Pg. 1075, no. 1360): No information could be obtained on this work

**Avagraha Parisishta: **A short work in two sections comprising a mere 12 and 5 sutras respectively. It concerns the separation or components of compound words or of the stem and certain suffixes and terminations. It has a commentary called the ‘vivarana’ on it [ref. 2, pg. 103]

Avagrahashaka: Manuscript exists at Alwar.¹³⁵

Chalaprakriya Parisishta

Gobhila Parisishta: No information could be gathered about this work.

Hitavakya

Pranata: Manuscript exists at Alwar¹³⁶.

Praushthapada: Manuscript exists at Alwar¹³⁷.

Rksamkhya Parisishta

Samagaanaam Chhandas: Manuscript at Oxford.¹³⁸

Somotpatti: A manuscript exists in GOL, Madras¹³⁹.

Srautapraayaschitta: Manuscript at Oxford.¹⁴⁰

Uttarahitvakyasutra: Manuscript exists at Alwar¹⁴¹.

Viseshabhutaparisishta: Manuscript exists at Alwar¹⁴².

References

1. Mahamahopadhyaya Haraparasad Shastri; A descriptive catalogue of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta; 1923
2. K. Parameswara Aithal; Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1991
3. Asko Parpola; The Srautasutras of Latyayana and Drahyayana and their Commentaries- An English Translation and Study (vol. 1); Helsinki; 1968
4. Michael Witzel; Kliene Schriften: Willem Caland; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1990
5. Gautam Patel; Chhandogyopanishaddipika; Guru Gangesvara Granthamala No. 42; Sadguru International Veda Mission; Bombay; 1989
6. M. Ramanatha Dikshitar; Samasarasarwaswam; Ramayana Printing Works; Madras; 1972
7. U. P. Shah; Some Less Known Non Jaina Sanskrit Writers from Gujarat; in Gautam Patel et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998
8. P. H. Joshi; Contribution of Gujarat to the Dharmashastra Literature; in Gautam Patel et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998
9. Shastri, Mangal Deva; Upanidana Sutra; Princess of Wales Sarasvati Bhavan Texts, No. 37; Benares; 1937
10. Suryakanta; Rktrantra
11. Suryakanta; Woolner Commemoration Volume; Lahore; 1940; pg. 321-328

BHATTACHARYA Durgamohan. 1958. Chandogyabrahmana with the Commentaries of Gunavishnu and Sayana. Calcutta Sanskrit College Research Series No. 1, Sanskrit College: Calcutta

HOWARD, Wayne. 1977. Samavedic Chant. Yale University Press: New Haven/London

JÖRGENSEN Hans. 1911. Das Mantrabrāmana, 2. Prapathaka. Darmstadt: C. F. Wintersche Buchdruckerei.

RANADE H. G. (Ed. and translator); Latyayana-Srauta-Sutra (3 vols.); Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi; 1998

SHARMA, Bellikoth Ramachandra. 1971. Gayatra Vidhana Sutra of Sunga. Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute: Hoshiarpur

_____. 1996. Text Editing and Text-Critical Study. In Some Aspects of Vedic Studies, ed. by Samiran Chandra Chakrabarti, School of Vedic Studies – Rabindra Bharati University: Calcutta; pp. 55-78

SHASTRI, Roop Kishore. 1990. Samavediya Brahmana, darsanika adhyayana. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan.

STAAL, J. F. 1961. Nambudiri Veda Recitation. Mouten & Co.: ‘S-Gravehage

TARLEKAR G. H. 2001. The Puspasutra, a Pratisakhya of the Samaveda. Motilal Banarsidass: New Delhi (2 vols.)

WEBER, Albrecht. 1878. The History of Indian Literature (translated from the second German edition of 1875 by Theodor Zachariae and John Mann). Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. :London (reprinted in 1961 as Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Studies Volume VIII, Varanasi).

Ranayaniya Shakha of Samaveda

The Ranayaniya is today found only in the south- in Shimoga and North Kanara districts of Karnataka, in Northern Andhra and southern Orissa [SHARMA 1991:78-79]

Recordings of Ranayaniya Samagas from Tinnevelly (Tamil Nadu) and from Gujarat are however available at Tirupati (HOWARD 1977:xix) indicating that this particular Shakha of the Samaveda has survived in these two areas up to recent times.

Communities of Ranayaniya Samavedins:

1. Karnataka: Havik Brahmin Samavedins of Honnavar, in the North Kanara Distrinct, are all Ranayaniyas. These Brahmins are worshippers of Lord Shiva, even though they might have Vaishnava names. In contrast, the Shivalli Brahmins of the South Kanara district are Vaishnavites, and followers of Madhvacharya (Dvaita Vedanta) and give Jaiminiya as their Sakha. Somayagas were performed by Havik Brahmins till the middle of the 20^th century, but this tradition has now died out [HOWARD 1977: 114]

2. Rajasthan: Of the 12 Gotras of the Dahima Brahmins of Rajasthan, the following adhere to the Ranayani Sakha of Samaveda, together with the Gobhila Sutra – Vatsa, Kautsa, Kasyapa, Sandilya [ASOPA 1988:23-29]. These Samavedin Brahmins worship Lord Vishnu and tie their top knot of hair to the left side of their heads.

Khadira Grhyasutra

Pattabhiramarya published the text with an original commentary called the Sutraarthabodhini from Madras in 1955¹⁴³. The publisher is P Ramadoss.

References:

ASOPA, Jai Narayan. 1988. The Brahmanas, Dadhichi and Dahimas. Shri Dadhimati Sahitya Shodha evam Prakashan Samiiti: Jaipur

HOWARD, Wayne. 1977. Samavedic Chant. Yale University Press: New Haven/London

Sharma, Bellikoth Ramachandra; Vedic Heritage of India (a brief survey); Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha; Tirupati Series No. 55; Tirupati; 1991

Jaiminiya Samaveda Sakha

The Finnish scholar Asko Parpola has made a significant contribution to the understanding of the Jaiminiya Samaveda, and his publication. For an almost complete overview of literature (manuscript and published) pertaining to the Jaiminiya Samaveda, refer Parpola [1973]. This web-page excerpts Parpola’s writings extensively, supplementing them with excerpts from works by other authors.

Maharshi Jaimini: The Mahabharata declares that Sage Veda Vyasa compiled the four Vedas towards the end of dvaapara-yuga, and imparted them to four disciples respectively. Samaveda was imparted to Maharshi Jaimini. Sabha Parvan 4.17 of the same text mentions that the Sage was present in the reign of King Yudhishthira, while Adiparva 48.6 states that he was the udgaata in the sarpayajna of King Janmejaya. The latter context also mentions that Jaimini belonged to the Kautsa gotra.

Brahmin Communities: The Jaiminiya Shakha is confined to Kerala and Tamil Nadu and its adherents are found among the Namudiri Brahmins if Malabar and in a section of the Brahmins of Tamil Nadu called Choliyapatters in Palghat and in Chidambaram [SHARMA 1991:79]. Veda Vyasa [1930] supplies details on the epigraphical attestations of the Jaiminiya school.

Parpola [1973:9] is certain that the Jaiminiya Sakha was named as the Satyayani Sakha in ancient times. The Satyayani Brahmana is the most often quoted of all the Brahmanas supposedly lost, and most of these quotations agree with analogous passages in the Jaiminiya Brahmana. Others have minor differences, or are verbal paraphrases. Parpola [ibid] argues that the minor discrepancies between the quoted Satyayanaka passages and the Jaiminiya Brahmana passages should not be taken as a proof that the two texts are different because such a discrepancy is seen between the quotations of extant Brahmanas in other works as well. In support of his contention that the Jaimini Sakha is identical with the Satyayani Sakha, Parpola [1973:9] notes that in the Jaiminiya Srautasutra, teachers Satyayani and Tandi are quoted side by side. Secondly, the title of the JUB, as preserved in the text itself, is Satyayani Gayatrasyopanishad. In addition, the name of Jaimini or his epithet ‘Talavakara’ is never found in the list of Acharyas (in Jaiminiya Grhya Sutra 1.14) is never found in ancient texts, but only in later commentaries.

Nambudiris: According to the most comprehensive studies undertaken, approximately 35% of the Nambudiris are Rigvedins, 50% are Yajurvedins and just about 1/8% are Samavedins. The rest are excluded from Vedic study [STAAL 1961:35-36]. Staal [1961] gives a list of the Nambudiri families that follow the Jaiminiya Sakha to this day. Nambudiri recitations are extremely rhythmic, in contrast to the Tamil recitations, which are more musical. HOWARD [1977: 200] estimates that the Namudiri Jaininiya tradition will surely become extinct in near future because exponents of this tradition are now all old, and they refuse to teach the Samaveda to other Namudiris who belong to the Rgveda or Yajurveda by birth. Fortunately, due to the efforts of Asko Parpola, E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma and Frits Staal, all the Jaiminiya chants have been recorded and thus have been preserved for posterity.

Since the Kerala Jaiminiya tradition is on the verge of extinction, a news item on a recent attempt to revive it is worth quoting in detail –

Hindu News Headlines for May 30, 2002

VHP helps scholars of a Sanskrit chanting legacy start new school

2002-05-30 Published by Hinduism Today Gathered by Staff Reporter

TRIVANDRUM,MAY 30: The ancient Jaiminiya Sama Vedic tradition, a Sanskrit chanting system practiced in the South Indian state of Kerala long ago, is on the verge of extinction. There are only a few scholars alive today who are qualified to teach the recitation of the Vedas in this obscure method, and they reside only in certain parts of Kerala and at Thiruvaiyuru in Tamil Nadu’s Tanjavur district. Of these experts there are said to be only five who can chant in this system perfectly without error, and they are all in their late seventies. These five masters are the teachers at a new Veda Vidya Peetham, a school established by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad to pass on Vedic knowledge to children in the Panjal village of Kerala’s Thrissur district.Classes at the new school are taught in the oral tradition, as they have been from ancient times. According to the school secretary, their aim is to creat the “atmosphere of the age-old gurukul tradition,” and no corporal punishment is used. On the school grounds are a main building, library and residential accommodations for students. At present, less than ten children attend. Commenting on the new peetham, his Holiness, Sankaracharya of Kanchi Kamakodipeetham, Jagat Guru Jayendra Saraswathi said, “I am proud of Kerala for two things: One, it is the land of Adi Sankara. The other is that it is the home of the rare Jaiminiya Sama Veda tradition, still preserved today for our country.”

Tamil Jaiminiyas: They hail from the Thanjavur/Tiruchirapalli region, and call themselves Talavakaras – another name for the same Sakha [HOWARD 1977: 163]. A PaaThashaala was established a few decades ago at Srirangam for teaching the Jaiminiya Samaveda [Parpola 1973:6]. Raghavan [1957 and 1962] has given a traditional list of the villages of Talavakara Brahmins around Srirangam. Parpola opines [1973:23] that the Tamil and Kerala Jaiminiya traditions have existed in mutual isolation for at least the last thousand years. He suggests that in Tamil Nadu, the nucleus of the Jaminiyas has been the Chola country, with the great temple centers of Srirangam, Thanjavur and Chidambarah. The communities in Tirunalveli (known to have lived their at least since the 16^th century CE from epigraphic evidence) and Palghat represent emigrations from this nucleus area.

Shivalli Kannadiga Jaiminiyas: The Shivalli Brahmins of the South Kanara district are Vaishnavites, and followers of Madhvacharya (Dvaita Vedanta) and give Jaiminiya as their Sakha. The famous Hastamalakacharya, a direct disciple of Sri Shankaracharya, belonged to this community, which was converted to Dvaita Vedanta by Madhvacharya himself, per tradition. No information is available about survival of Samaveda amongst Shivalli Brahmins. The Maharnava, a commentary on the Charanavyuha, states that the Jaiminiyas reside in Karnataka. However, the Jaiminiyas have not been attested outside Kerala and Tamil Nadu as of yet [Parpola 1973:23]. Parpola however refers to a statement by E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma that the Jaiminiyas reside also in Mysore, but this has not been verified so far.

Archika Samhita

The root text of the Jamainiyas, on which their melodies are based, is the Jaiminiya Archika Samhita. This text runs parellel to the Kauthuma Samhita of Samaveda, available in easily accessible editions.

Caland first published a bare-bones edition of the text, noting only the first and the last words of the mantra, noting their deviations from the corresponding Kauthuma texts. The edition has a very learned introduction. In 1938, Raghuvira published the complete Devanagari text of the samhita, with the full text of the mantras. The published texts do not have the accent notation like the Kauthuma Samhita. The Jaiminiya Archika Samhita is still recited from memory by the Samavedis among the Namudiri community.

The manuscripts used by Caland all hailed from districts Tirunalveli, Trichy and Thanjavur of Tamil Nadu. Parpola [1973:21-22, fn.3] has noted that the manuscripts from Kerala are slightly different as far as the divisions of the archikas is concerned. For instance, in the Kerala version, the 6^th and the 7^th khanda of the third kanda have 9 and 11 verses, whereas Caland’s edition has 10 verses each. Likewise, in Caland’s edition, several Khandas are very large and are split up into smaller sections in the Kerala tradition. There are several other similar differences.

No padapaatha of the Samhita is available. A work named Stobhapadam is available in manuscript at the Trivandrum Library and Parpola [1973:16] suspects that it is a catalog of stobhas linked to the Samhita.

Samans of the Jaiminiya Samhita

The Jaiminiya chants can be subdivided into 3 variations according to Staal [1961]:

1. The Nambudiri chants,
2. Thanjavur/Thiruchi districts in Tamil Nadu
3. Tirunalveli district and the area close to Palaghat (Kerala)in Tamil Nadu

The notation used by the manuscripts of the Jaiminiya Gramageya and the Aranyaka ganas and their relationship to the actual recitations was a mystery till recently, although the text ‘Dharanalakshana’ (of Sabhapati) which explains the same has been known to exist for several decades. There is a modern commentary called ‘Samalakshanam’ which explains the relevant passages of the Dharanalakshana and describes the notation used in the ganas of the Jaminiya Samaveda [Parpola 1973:18]. It must be noted however that the Dharanalakshana is primarily related to the Tamil style of Jaiminya recitations.

The Uttaragana of Jaiminiya Sakha was perilously close to extinction in 1971, when Staal and Parpola collaborated with a traditional chanter Sri Itti Ravi Namudiri, to record the same for posterity. I shall reproduce the words of Parpola [1973:21-22] that narrate this great saga:

“A plan to edit the Jaiminiya Ganas brought J. F. Staal for the third time in 1970-71 and me for the first time in 1971 to India. He main aim was the recovery of material on the Uttara-Ganas. It turned out that Sri Itti Ravi Namudiri, who had been the main Jaiminiya informant in Kerala of both Bake and Staal on his previous tours, knew only part of the text, and that the man who knew the rest had died recently. However, with the tape-recorder presented to him by Staal, Itti Ravi has subsequently recorded the entire text that he has reconstructed with the help of his pupils. The recordings of the Uttara-Gana, comprising fifty hours, have been bought this year jointly by the Department of Philosophy of the University of California at Berkeley and the Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies in Copenhagen. Even the Purva-Gana has recently been recorded in its entirety by Itti Ravi and a pupil of his for E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma.

Manuscripts of the Ganas, including the Uttara, are also available: Itti Ravi and one of his pupils have written down (without the svaras) the chant from their memory. The Uttara-Gana consists, according to Itti Ravi, of the Uha-Gana comprising 8 pattus [=Skt. Dasatis] divided into 77 ottus and making together 812 samans, 509 of which are on tristichs and 303 on single verses, and of the Usani, the secret chants, in 16 ottus comprising together 159 samans. If we compare these figures with the information of the Dharanalakshanam, we notice a great difference, for according to Sabhapati the Uham comprises 1802 samans and the Rahasyam 356 samans, which together with the 1523 samans of the Prakrti make up the grand total of 3681 samans. The number of the Prakrti-Gana is almost the same in Kerala. However, if 509 is multiplied by three for the tristichs, as one should, according to Itti Ravi, the Uha-Gana comprises in Kerala 1821 samans.”

Parpola also unearthed a manuscript of a text called Uhaprastava, which provides means of control on the Uttaragana.

The Tamil Jaiminiya Uttaragana tradition is fragmentary and although complete manuscripts exists, the oral tradition comprises of a selection of a few samans [Parpola 1973:22].

Brahmanas

Three Brahmanas from the Jaiminiya Samaveda Sakha are known – Jaiminiya Brahmana, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana.

Jaiminiya Brahmana

In 1879, Burnell noted that the manuscripts of this text described it as the Talavakara Brahmana although the followers of this Sakha termed is as the Jaiminiya Brahmana. Burnell also noted that the famous Kena Upanishad formed the last but one book of this Brahmana [Parpola 1973:7]. Burnell also noticed the great similarity between the quotations from the now lost ‘Satyayana Brahmana’ occurring in the Sayanabhashya of Rigveda and some passages in the Jaiminiya Brahman. However, he refrained from concluding an identity between the Satyayana Brahmana and the Jaiminiya Brahmana because the followers of the latter believed firmly that the two Sakhas were different. The JB is related to the Tandya Brahmana on one hand and to the Satapatha Brahmana on the other. Complete translation of the text is yet to appear, although Ranade is said to be preparing one, to be published by the IGNCA (Delhi). The portion 1.1-65, dealing with the Agnihotra/Pranagnihotra, has been translated by Bodewitz in 1973. Subsequently, Bodewitz also published the remaining portion of the first adhyaya of the Brahmana, dealing with the Jyotishtoma ritual. By and large, the manuscript material available for the text is replete with defects. Witzel informs that the oral tradition of the Brahmana, presumable more accurate and defect free compared to the written textual tradition, was alive as late as the 1960’s when the last known Nambudiri reciter died before he could be recorded.

Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana

This text is also known as the Talavakara Aranyaka and is the only extant Aranyaka of Samaveda. In the introduction to his commentary on the Kena Upanishad, Shankaracharya states that the Upanishad forms the beginning of the 9^th chapter of Brahmana of that Sakha. In the extant manuscripts, the Kena Upanishad forms the 10^th Anuvaka of the Upanishad Brahmana section, which occurs in the 4^th Adhyaya of the Jaiminiya Brahmana proper. The JUB is then followed by the Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana. The text was first published by Hanns Oertel in 1884 and a Devanagari transcript of the same was published by Rama Deva from Lahore in 1921. The latter edition has a good introduction on the literature of Samaveda by Bhagavad Datta. B. R. Sharma brought out an improved edition, utilizing some more manuscript material in 1967, omitting Anuvakas 4.18-27 (the Kena Upanishad) and also the two further anuvakas dealing with pranas and the savitiri. The Kena Upanishad is preceded by the Satyayani Gayatri Upanisad which ends at 4.17. Actually, the Satyayani Gayatri Upanishad also seems to be a later addition because the 3^rd adhayaya of the JUB ends with the Vamsa whereas there is another Vamsa at 4.16-17.

Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana:

A commentary on this text by Jayanta is extant, and occurs at the end of Bhavatrata’s Srautrasutra-Vrtti printed in 1966 [Parpola 1973:7]

Kena Upanisad

1. Bhavatrata (unkown): Portion of a commentary on the entire Talavakara Aranyaka- manuscript preserved at the Vishvesvaranand Vedic Research Institute at Hoshiarpur, India
2. Samkaracarya (Advaita): Wrote two commentaries- the more extensive ‘Padabhasya’ and the shorter ‘Vakyabhasya’.
3. Anandagiri: Sub-commentaries on # 2 above
4. Madhvacarya (Dvaita)
5. Jayatirtha: A sub-commentary on # 4 above
6. Rangaramanuja (Visistadvaita)
7. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagvat
8. Nigudhartha Prakasika by Damodara Sastri
9. Upanisadbrahmayogin (Paramadvaita): Manuscript preserved at Central Library at Baroda
10. Damodara Satavalekara

Jaiminiya Srauta Sutra

For a long time, only the first portion of the text (covering Agnishtoma) was known, as published by Gaastra in 1906. In 1966, Premnidhi Sastri published the commentary (Vrtti) of Bhavatrata (called Bhavatratiyam) on JSS, on the basis of a solitary manuscript. Unfotunately, the sutra text was not recoverable from the Vrtti since Bhavatrata quoted only the initial and last words of the Sutras. Fortunately, in 1966, Parpola detected a manuscript containing the Sutra text of all the three portions – Agnishtoma, Kalpa and Parisesha/Paryaya, at Thanjavur. The Paryayaadhyaaya also includes a ‘Pratihaara’ sutra of Abhisrenya. Hitherto, the manuscript had been mis-identified in the catalog as the ‘Masaka Kalpa’. The first 10 folios of the manuscript were missing, but the Sutras of the missing portion could nevertheless be retrieved from the Prayogavrtti of Candrasekhara Bhattarya, which was preserved in the same codex [Parpola 1973:15].

Commentatorial Tradition:

1. Bhavatratiyam or the Vrtti of Bhavatrata: Parpola is preparing a critical edition of the entire JSS together with the commentary of Bhavatrata as several new manuscripts of the Bhavatratiyam have been unearthed by him. The Vrtti is a very learned commentary. Bhavatrata’s commentary on the Kausitaki Grhyasutra has also been published. In addition, he wrote commentaries on the Jaiminiya Grhyasutra, on Taittiriya Aranyaka and Jaiminiya Aranyaka. His father Matrdatta, composed a commentary on the Hiranyakesin Grhyasutra. Legends and traditions concerning Bhavatrata are still remembered by Nambudiri Brahmins living where the Vrttikara lived 13 centuries ago [Parpola 1973:15]
2. Prayogavrtti by Candrasekhara Bhattaraya – see above
3. Kratudipika of Kurangaraja
4. Adhanapurva-agnishtoma-prayoga of Srinivasa Adhvarindra
5. Sarvanukramani (dealing with the Darsapurnamasa, adhana, agnihotra and istiprayashittas) by Srinivasa Adhvarindra
6. Anonymous prayogas like Adhanagnishtomasamani, Agnishtomasama and Atiratrasama
7. Srutaadhaanakriyaakarma. Parpola [1973:16] has listed a few other works as well, pertaining to the Jaiminiya Srauta tradition.

Jaiminiya Grhyasutra

The text was first published with the Subodhini commentary of Srinivasa Adhvarin by Kasturi Rangacarya in 1898 from Madras [Parpola 1973:12-13]. Subsequently, Caland published the Grhyasutra with the same commentary together with an introduction in Dutch in 1905. This edition was reprinted in 1922 from Lahore with an English translation and the earlier introduction also translated into English.

Parpola has studied the chronological relationship between all the Grhyasutras of Samaveda (Jaiminiya, Khadira and Gobhila) and has concluded that the JGS is the oldest [Parpola 1968:70].

The following Bhashyas and Prayogas etc. exist on the JGS:

1. Vrtti of Bhavatrata: Still in manuscript. An edition with a translation is under preparation by Asko Parpola. The edition is proposed to come out in the Kalamulashastra series of the IGNCA Publications Division (New Delhi) sometime in future.
2. Subodhini of Srinivasa Adhvarin
3. Karika of Tarunagnihotrin
4. Anukramanika
5. Prayogavivarana by A. Rangasvai Aiyangar, published in 8 fascicules from Kummbhakonam in 1923. The author was an authority in the Jaiminiya ritual he died before completing the work. According to the preface (in Tamil), he has utilized all the above four works for his Vivarana [Parpola 1973:13]
6. Prayaoga of T. Rajagopala Aiyangar (1970), R. Narasimhan (1970) and K. S. Srinivasa Aiyar (1964 and n.d.) – these are listed by Parpola [1973:13]
7. Manuscripts exist of the following works [Parpola 1973:14] -Jaiminigrhyasutrakarika by Balagnihotrin; Jaiminigrhya Karika of Vinataananda, the work is also called Vainateyakarika; Jaiminiygrhyaprayoga and Prayogasara by the same author- it is uncertain if the three works are different or if they are same.
8. At the MGOML, numerous other works exist like the Jaiminiyagrhyamantravrtti, Jaiminiyagrhyaprayogaratnamala and so on.

Satyayana-Sutra

In manuscripts, the text is also named as ‘Satyayana-proktani prayaschittani’; Satyayana-proktani grhyaprayaschittani’ and Satyayaniproktasarvaarishtasanti’. According to Caland [1920], the text is very old as it is referred to in the (un-published) Drahyayana Gryhaparisista. In fact, the text is very similar to portions of the Bharadvaja Grhyasutra, as noted by Caland.

References

Parpola, Asko; 1968; The Srautasutras of Latyayana……..

________.;1973; The Literature and Study of the Jaiminiya Samaveda in Retrospect and Prospect; in Studia Orientalia, Edidit Societas Orientalis Fennica XLIII:6; Helsinki

Sharma, Bellikoth Ramachandra; Vedic Heritage of India (a brief survey); Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha; Tirupati Series No. 55; Tirupati; 1991

SHASTRI, Roop Kishore. 2002. Jaiminiyopanishad Brahmana mein nihita darsanika siddhanta. Delhi: Jnanabharati Publications

Staal, Frits; 1961; Nambudiri Veda Recitation

Other Info + Recensions of Samaveda

1. Gautama Shakha: Dikshitar informs that there are heresy reports that followers of the Gautama Shakha still exist although they are very rare [ref. 1, pg. 4].

2. Shardula Shakha: Dikshitar reports that according to oral traditions, followers of the Shardula Shakha existed as recent as the 17^th Cent. C.E. [ref. 1, pg. 5]

3. Bhallavi Shakha: A Bhallaveya Matsya rajaputrah is mentioned in Samavedic Srauta text Anupada Sutra¹⁴⁴ 6.5. This leads WEBER [1878:95, fn. 98] to suggest that this school of Samaveda was prevalent in North India. According to Dikshitar, manuscripts of the Bhallavi Brahman are still said to exist in North India [ref. 1, pg. 207]

4. Shatyayana Shakha: According to Dikshitar, manuscripts of the Bhallavi Brahman are still said to exist in North India [ref. 1, pg. 207]. A recent work [ref. 2] refers to ‘Shatyayan Brahmana’ as one of the sources for some of its stories.

Thus, the story of Shakti and Vasistha is supposedly based on ‘Rgveda 7.32.26, Tandya Brahmana, Saranukramani Vedartha Deepika and Shatyayana Brahman’ [Ref. 2, pp. 149-150]. No address is given for the last three works. The story of Travrushna Tryarun and his royal priest Vrusharishi is likewise said to be derived from ‘Rgveda 5.2.9, Brhaddevata 5.14-23, Tandya Mahabrahman and Shatyayan Brahmana 13.3.12’.

I have requested a follower of the Swami to examine his manuscript collection to determine if such a text did exist with him. I am awaiting the response.

WEBER [1878:95] follows a particular version of the Caranavyuha to speculate that it is positively a school of Krshna Yajurveda, because of a ‘peculiar connection (itself still obscure) which we find elsewhere also between the schools of the Black Yajus.

Oppert mentions two manuscripts of the Shatyayana Brahmana but upon enquiry they could not be discovered.¹⁴⁵

5. Rauruki Shakha: According to the Divyavadana, Roruka was the capital of the Sauvira country during the reign of Rudrayana, a contemporary of Bimbisara of Magadha (582-554 BCE) which was destroyed by a catastrophe.
6. Naigeya Shakha – This text is represented by an Anukramani, which is variously called as Naigeya Parisishta, Naigeyarcika, Naigeyarshadevata etc. A manuscript of a Naigeya Sutra attributed to Gobhila is also reported by AITHAL [1991:390] but no information on its contents is available.

References:

1. M. Ramanatha Dikshitar; Samasarasarwaswam; Ramayana Printing Works; Madras; 1972
2. MALHARA, Sundarlal B. (Transl.) 1982. Vedas a Way of Life from Yadnya (Sacrifice) to Yoga (Union) by His Holiness Swami Shree Gangeshwaranand Udaseen. Matoshri Rampyaribai Sarda Satkarya Nidhi: Nasik

WEBER, Albrecht. Indische Studien, vol. XIII, pp. 441-442.

_______. 1878. The History of Indian Literature (translated from the second German edition of 1875 by Theodor Zachariae and John Mann). Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. :London (reprinted in 1961 as Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Studies Volume VIII, Varanasi).

General Information on Samaveda

The Samaveda Samhita is of two types- the Archika samhita containing the mantras, and the Gaana comprising of the melodies.

Samavediya Archika Samhita: The Kauthuma Samhita of the Samaveda comprises of 1875 mantras of which 1800 are found in the published Rigveda Samhita. The verses of Samaveda are divided into two books: The Purvarchika and the Uttarachika. The verses are accented, and contrary to the notations in the manuscripts of the other Vedas, the accents in the Kauthuma Samaveda are marked by inserting numbers and a few letters above the text of the mantras.

The Purvarchika comprises of mantras addressed to Agni, Indra and Soma. The deity and the meter determines the order of the mantras. Appended to the Purvarchika is the Aranyaka Samhita.

The Uttaraarchika contains verses usually arranged in triads. The first verse of each triad is normally found in the Purvarchika as well.

Gana Books of Samaveda Samhita:

Samaveda has four gana books, comprising the hundreds of melodies chanted during Vedic ritual. These four books are: Gramageyagaana, Araanyakagaana, Uhagaana and Rahasyagaana. The first two are collectively called ‘Purvagaana’ or ‘Prakrtigana’ (= primary or prototype melodies).

The gramageyagaana contains melodies meant to chanted and learned within inhabited quarters (grama, or villages). These melodies are based on the mantras in the Purvarchika texts, and follow the sequence of these mantras. In ritual, the melodies are chanted in the order in which they occur in the gaana-book. Each mantra may be set to several gaanas, not just one. No graamageyagaana is set to any mantra from the Aranyakasamhita.

The Aranyakagaana, as the name suggests, are meant to be chanted away from human inhabitations, in forests, due to their potency, esoteric character. These melodies are based on mantras of the Aranyakasamhita, taken in serial order, although not all mantras of this portion of the Archika Samhita have melodies associated with them. Some Aranyakagaanas are also based on Purvarchika mantras, and these melodies are different from the corresponding gramageyagaana melodies on the same mantras. Purvagana forms part of the Swadhyaya of the Samhita, and are therefore considered Apaurusheya.

In contrast, Uttaragaana contains chants for ritual purposes, i.e., they are liturgical chants. These chants are considered ‘paurusheya’ and are based on mantras of the Uttararchika portion of the mantrasamhitaa. Since verses occur in triads in the Uttaraarchika, the Uttaragaanas are based on triads of verses (whereas the Purvagaanas are based on individual verses). The Uttaragana is divided into two sections known as the Uha and the Uhya or Rahasyagaana: the former borrows some melodies from the Gramageya while the second does so from the Aranyageya. Thus the Uttaragana closely follows the Purvagana in its structure, divisions and notations including the melodic notes. Or in other words, the Purvaganas (Gramageya and Aranyageya) form the archetypes of ganas, to which the Uttaragana based on the Uttararchika is adapted.

The Uha and Uhya ganas of Uttararchika are divided into seven divisions namely Dasharatra, Samvatsara, Ekaha, Ahina, Sattra, Kshudra and Prayaschitta. These names are clearly derived from the respective types of sacrifices at which the corresponding gaanas are chanted.

The Purvagaanas and Uttaragaanas are also respectively often referred to as rUpAntara and svarUpa gaanas.

B. R. SHARMA [1991:80-81] gives some additional information on the nature of Uttaraganas -

“Since they are the products of the human mind, the ganas of Uttararchika are normally name after the Rishis who had composed them. Each of these ganas is divided into five melodic units called Bhaktis to which two more Bhaktis namely Hinkara and Omkara are added- the former before the prastava and the latter before the udgitha- when the Saman melodies are being executed in sacrificial rits by the singers. These five melodic units are named as prastava, udgitha, pratihara, upadrava and nidhana respectively and they are changed by three singer-priests individually; for example, prastava by prastotar, udgitha by udgatar, pratihar and upadrava by pratihartar and lastly the nidhana, the concluding unit of a Samagana, by all the three in chorus. In sacrificial sessions this is done sitting under the udumbara tree in the yajnashala. The ganas belonging to the Gramageya, as the word indicates, should be chanted in public but the ganas of Aranyegeya, also called the Rahasya, meaning secret, are to be studied and chanted away from the dusty path of life in a forest retreat secrecy. This rule equally applies to the Uha and Uhya or rahasya melodies of the Uttaragana-since they were adapted for the Gramageya and Aranyageya respectively. Therefore, these two collections of melodies namely Aranyageya of the Purvagana and Uhya of the Uttaragana are called Rahasyaganas, secredt melodies. Because the recitation and transmission of these ganas are exectuted in secrecy, every care is taken to see that these ganas are not transmitted to undeserving disciples. Among these the Rathantara and Brihat are the two Samans of great consequence, which are jealously guarded and kept secredt by the Samavedis for reason of great spiritual potency and magic power attributed to these ganas. In the case of the Rathantara in particular, great care is taken while it is being sung on certain special occasions.

The text of the Rathantara is replaced with the mystic sound bha while it is being chanted in public, but at the same time the entire text of the gana is sung in mind so that no one can even surrepititiously learn the mystical Saman by overhearing it. The gana of which the text is not ‘expressed’ but concealed in Stobhas, mystic syllables, is known in Saman parlance as aniruktagana, ‘unexpressed melody’. Here, in this context, the Brahmanas caution the singer telling him that whole replacing the consonants of the original melodies the vowels of those consonants should be carefully affixed to the concerned bhakaras, thus impregnating them with full mystic potency and esoteric value of the original text of the melody. The swaras, (vowels) are regarded as the lofe breath (prana) of consonants of the melodic text, to the bhakaras, the singer, in truth, transfers the full spiritual worth of the replaced melodic text to the anirukta-gana, ‘unexpressed melody’, sung with the original musical notes.

Pg. 81: The silent recitation of the mystic Samans is considered to be more effective since it is done with greater concentration of mind. Fruther the subtle vibration that is generated by the rain in this instance travels through the higher plane quicker in the right direction as projected by the mind. In the mechanical recitation audible to others this may not happen. For this reason, a student is always initiated in secrecy and the mantra, communicated to him by the guru, to begin with is to be recited in a low voice by him. But before he is left alone to do this, the guru sees that the mantra is correctly recited and the formalities are strictly followed by the initiated. The Samaganas are normally executed in order to create a congenial atmosphere by purifying the surroundings by means of the vibrational force generated by the nada of the Samaganas, appropriate to the occasion.”

He also makes a note of some mystical melodies, referred to Ashariragaanas [page 82]: “In this connect I must bring to the notice of the readers that there are references in the Vedas to some of the most secret melodies which are not known to any but to the great mystics who acquired these melodies through their sadhanas, their intensive spiritual exercise, by practicing penance and meditation. These secret melodies revealed to the Rishis, however, are not recorded in the books of the ganas nor are they based on the known Vedic texts; hence their structure, musical notation, the gamut of Saman notes are not known to any but the Sadhakas in this line. In fact these secret melodies are also called anrcam Sam, a gana sung not on Vedic text, meaning a gana entirely sung on stobhas, the mystical syllables, not recorded in any Vedic text or a gana tuned to the melodic notes alone without articulate text. Therefore this gana is also called ashariram sama, the gana having no visible physique i.e., the decipherable text, on which it is sung.”

Mention of Samans in other Vedas:

Rigveda 1.107.2, 2.43.1.2, 5.44.14, 10.78.5

Atharvaveda 7.54.1, 11.7.24, 15.6.9

Sakhas of Samaveda:

The Buddhist text Divyavadana enumerates 1065 sakhas of Samaveda as under:

100 of Mahayajnika

100 of Satyamugra

100 of Samantaveda

100 of Brahmasama

500 of Mahasama

100 of Kauthumas

25 of Sheelavalkas

40 of Lokaaksha

Varieties of Sama Chanting:

Teachers of Samaveda

The Samavidhana Brahman lists the following 13 as the foremost teachers of the Samaveda: Ranayani, Satyamugri. Durvasa, Bhaguri. Gaurudni, Gaulgulavi, Aupamanyava, DaraAla, Gargi Savarni, Varshganya, Kuthumi, Shalihotra, Jaimini

Impurity of Samaveda

According the Manusmriti, the Samaveda should not be recited when the Rigveda and Yajurveda are being recited. He further adds that the Samaveda is the Veda of the Pitars (manes). According to Dikshitar [ref. 1, pg. xi], this is nothing but an arthavada.

References:

1. M. Ramanatha Dikshitar; Samasarasarwaswam; Ramayana Printing Works; Madras; 1972

Sharma, Bellikoth Ramachandra; Vedic Heritage of India (a brief survey); Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha; Tirupati Series No. 55; Tirupati; 1991

Saunaka Sakha of the Atharvaveda

The name ‘Saunakin’ as that of a Sakha is seen in Kausika Sutra 85.8, Vaitana Sutra 43.25 states that a person who seeks to know witchcraft should perform a Saunaka Sacrifice. In Atharvaveda Parisishta 24.10, the followers of this Sakha are referred to as ‘Saunakeyah’.

BLOOMFIELD [1890:xxxv] notes that the name is found in several corrupt variants outside such as ‘kunakhin’, ‘kaunakhin’ which may be explained in two ways –

1. The phenomes ‘sh’ and ‘ka’ are seen to be interchangeable in India (e.g. Sharkota, and Karkotaka)
2. The name ‘kunakhin’, which means ‘sick-fingers’, is perhaps used with a malicious or a sinister intent, since this meaning is reminiscent of the evil sorcerers etc., who were often demonized as lepers with deformed up fingers.

Sage Saunaka in Hindu Tradition

Saunaka is remembered as a Sage in Atharvaveda Parisishta 20.1; 23.3; 24.13; 26.1; 26.31; 54.1; 65.6; 71. Saunaka is mentioned along with Sage Devadarshi in Panini’s Ganapatha. In addition, Saunaka is mentioned in the Ashtadhyayi sutra 4.3.103.

Samhita of Shaunaka Atharvaveda

According the edition of Damodar Satavalekar, there are 5977 mantras in the text. Of these, 1260 are repeated from RV (Sakala), 81 from YV (Madhyandina) and 1 from SV (Kauthuma). In addition, 230 mantras occur twice in the text. [Kapur 1983]

The first edition of the Saunaka Samhita was published by Rudolf Roth and D. Whitney from Berlin in 1855. This edition did not have the accents marked on the text.

Krama and Jata Pathas

Incomplete manuscripts of these Pathas exist in various libraries [Aithal 1991:64-65]. Professor Madhav Deshpande of the University of Michigan (at Ann Arbor) kindly informed me via an email on 03 December 2001, that he is preparing a critical edition of the following -

1. Kramapatha of the 20^th Kanda of the Samhita
2. Jatapatha of the 15^th and 17^th Kandas

He has utilized 6 manuscripts available at Pune for preparing this edition.

Since the 20^th kanda of this Samhita is almost wholly borrowed from the Rigveda Samhita, and the oral tradition of the Krama recital of the latter is still alive, it is worthwhile investigating the relationship between the kramapathas of the Rigveda and the 20^th Kanda of the Shaunakiya Atharvaveda Samhita. Professor Deshpande informs me that while the kramapatha of the Atharvaveda Samhita is clearly based on the Rigveda Kramapatha, it has been integrated quite well into the tradition of Atharvaveda. Dr. Deshpande notes that the “Galitas in the Kramapatha for the 20th Kanda show several examples where the Rks occurring in other Kandas are treated as Galitas in the 20th Kanda. This is one of the main indications of the integration of the 20th Kanda with the rest of the AV Samhita". It is hoped that this edition is published soon.

Oral Traditions/Geographical Distribution

According to Staal [Howard 1986:110], Atharvavedic recitation is extant only in a few villages of Gujarat, where it was discovered by the Shankaracharya of Dvaraka. However, epigraphy attests to the presence of Atharvaveda across India in earlier times: At Nirmanda on river Satluj (7^th cent. C.E. probably), at Nellur in Andhra Pradesh (7^th cent. C.E.), near Bijapur in Karnataka (6^th cent. C.E.) and at Bhavnagar in Gujarat (7^th cent. C.E.). Haug [ibid:372] also reported an Atharvavedic tradition in Poona around the middle of the 19^th cent. C.E.

Kashmir: A surprisingly large number of manuscripts of the Saunakiya Samhita exist in the collection of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir¹⁴⁶. All these are unaccented, are of recent origin and are written by Kashmirian scribes, although it is not certain whether they were copied from Kashmirian originals or from originals from other parts of India¹⁴⁷. Only one of them is nearly complete, all the rest cover a few books of the Samhita. Therefore, in our present state of knowledge about these manuscripts, it is difficult to conclude from this collection that the Atharvaveda tradition in its Saunakiya version survived in Kashmir till the nineteenth century or so. It appears that this collection was ignored by VVRI in the preparation of their critical edition of the Saunakiya Samhita.

Himachal Pradesh

Bengal

Uttar Pradesh

Punjab

Commentaries on the Saunaka Samhita

1. Sayanacharya

2. Commentary on the Saunakiya Pratyangira Kalpa: The Suktas 17-19 and 40 of Kanda 4; Suktas 14 and 31 of Kanda 5; Sukta 65 of Kanda 7 and Sukta 5 of Kanda 8 comprise Krtyanirharana Suktagana of the Saunaka Samhita. A lucid commentary by Vasudeva called ‘Balabodhavivekini’ exists in manuscript (Ref. 1, Pg. 1096, no.1384)

3. Manuscripts of an Atharvana Bhashya by Bhatta Bhaskara exist in various libraries like the Sringeri Matha collection. However, it is unclear of the commentary is on the Samhita (very unlikely) or on some other Atharvavedic text.

4. Persian Translation: According to some Muslim chronicles, the Atharvaveda was translated into Persian during the reign of Emperor Akbar. Badayūni remarks – “In this year a learned Brahman Shaikh Bhāwan, a converted Mussalman had come from Dakhin. His Majesty (Akbar the great) gave me the order to translated the Atharvana. Several of the religious precepts of this book resemble the laws of Islam. During the translation I found many difficult passages which even Shaikh Bhāwan could not interpret. I reported this to His Majesty, who ordered Shaikh Faizi and then Haji Ibrahim, to translate it. The latter, though willing, did not write anything. Among the precepts of the Atharvana there is one precept which says that no man will be saved unless he reads a certain passage. This passage contains many times ‘L’ and resemble very much ‘Lillāh’, ‘Illillāh’. Besides, I found that a Hindu under certain circumstances may eat cow flesh and also that Hindus bury their dead and do not burn them. With such passages the Shaikh used to defeat other Brahmans in argument and he had in fact led them to embrace Islam.” The Ain-I-Akbari of Faizi adds that the translation was entrusted to Hahi Ibrahim Sirhind and that the work was completed. However, no copy of this Persian translation exists today¹⁴⁸.

5. William Jones translated some hymns of the Samhita into English [PURI 1994:60].

6. Ralph Griffith published a popular English translation in two volumes from Varanasi in 1895-96. Due to its convenient format, the work has been reprinted several times.

7. Hindi translation of Mahatma Tulasi Ram (d. 1915) of Amritsar – follows the Arya Samaj school of interpretation. This is probably the first translation of the Atharvaveda in any modern Indian language. Tulasi Ram was the principle disciple of Pandit Bhimasena Sharma, who in turn was the principle disciple of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati, the founder of Arya Samaj.

8. Hindi translation by Kshemakaranadasa Trivedi – follows the Arya Samaj school of interpretation. Trivedi was born on 3^rd November 1848 in Aligarh district of Uttar Pradesh. He learnt Sanskrit from Swami Dayanand Sarasvati for some time, and promised him to write a commentary on Vedic texts. His commentary on the Atharvaveda was published in several parts between 1912 and 1921 and was subsequently reprinted by at least two other organizations. Trivedi also published an alphabetical word Index to the Atharvaveda Samhita in Vikrami Samvat 1978 from Narayana Yantraalaya located in Allahabad¹⁴⁹. The significance of this commentary lies in the fact that hitherto no complete translation or commentary existed on the Atharvaveda Samhita, the Bhashya of Sayanacharya also being fragmentary.

9. Pandit Rajaram Shastri: He was a Sanskrit Professor at DAV college in Lahore and published a commentary on Atharvaveda Samhita from Lahore in Vikrami Samvat 1986. The work gives the accented text of the Samhita, the Seer, meter etc., of each mantra, word meanings and numerous annotations¹⁵⁰. The work largely follows the interpretations of Sayanacharya and western Indologists, even though he was closely associated with Arya Samaj and its institutions for a greater part of his life.

10. M R Jambunathan published a Tamil translation of the Saunakiya Samhita from Bombay in 1940, through the J. Book Depot. The work is titled ‘Atharvavedam’.¹⁵¹ The translation is accompanied with notes and an appendix, and has an introduction on Atharvavedic literature.

11. Devichand (1880-1965) commenced an English translation of Atharvaveda Samhita from an Arya Samaj perspective, but did not live to complete it. Nevertheless, this work is extremely popular and is available easily in numerous printed editions.

12. Hindi translation of Swami Brahmamuni Parivrajakacharya – it extends only to the first 3 books.

13. Hindi translation and commentary of Brahmarshi Damodara Satavalekar – published in 4 massive volumes. The same work is also available in Marathi and Gujarati versions and has been reprinted several times. This is perhaps the best commentary available on the text.

14. Pandit Jaidev Sharma (1892-1961): He is the first scholar to have translated all the four Vedas into Hindi (or, as a matter of fact, into any Indian language). The translations were written between May 1925 and 1936, and comprise 7 volumes for Rgveda, 4 for Atharvaveda and 2 each for Yajurveda and Samaveda. Sharma closely follows the views of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati in his own translations. His translations have been reprinted numerous times and are prefaced by an elaborate and erudite note on the respective Veda.

15. Siddheshwar Sastri Chitrav¹⁵²: He published a Marathi translation of the text through the Shri Amriteshwar Devasthan, Poona, in 1972. The work has a general introduction dealing with the Atharvaveda, and prefatory notes at the beginning of each Kanda.

16. Pandit Buddhadev Vidyalankar Vidyamartanda (d. 1964) wrote a commentary on the first four books of Atharvaveda Samhita from an Arya Samaj perspective¹⁵³.

17. Commentaries on Kanda 9, 10, 13 and on Kuntapa hymns by Swami Gangesvarananda Saraswati: This commentary reads the story of Lord Krishna in the mantras [Patel 1998:139]

18. Commentary and Hindi translation by Professor Vishvanath Vidyamartanda. The commentary was started in the reverse order of the text, i.e., starting with book XX and then proceeding backwards. It has been published in 8 volumes by the Ramalal Kapoor Trust. The commentator is a follower of the Arya Samaj.

19. A ‘Sanatana Bhashya’ in Hindi covering three volumes was published by Madhava Pustakalaya in Delhi in 1977.

20. Shri Ram Sharma Acharya wrote a bare-bones Hindi translation of Atharvaveda in 4 volumes that were first published by Chowkhamba Prakashan from Varanasi.

21. Pandit Jayadeva Vidyalankar published the text with a verse by verse translation in Hindi of the Saunakiya Samhita through Chowkhamba.

Saubhagya Kanda of Atharvaveda: According to Atharvanic tradition, the Atharvaveda also has an esoteric and secret portion called the Saubhagya Kanda. Fragments or sections of this work exist in various libraries, and indicate that it is most likely a Tantric work. For instance, the Vaanchhaakalpalataa section exists in Alwar¹⁵⁴.

Atharvanarahasya: From various manuscript notices, it appears that the Atharvanarahasya was the name of a formalized or a non-formalized collection of various Upanishads, Upanishad-like texts, stotras and similar material which would be considered the ‘secret’ (rahasya) or the essence of Vedas (the Atharvaveda in this case) in classical Hinduism. Apparently, this collection had a Purvabhaga, and an Uttarabhaga or Uttarakhanda. For instance, a manuscript of the latte has been reported¹⁵⁵. The Gopalottaratapaniya Upanishad is sometimes considered a part of Atharvanarahashya¹⁵⁶. A Narayanahrdayastotra and a Lakshmihrdaya exist in manuscript and are attributed to the Uttarakhanda of the Atharvanarahasya¹⁵⁷. Other texts included in the Atharvanarahasya are: Trisikhibrahmana (Upanishad)¹⁵⁸, Nrsimhapanjara, Mahalakshmihrdaya, Lakshmihrdayastotra, Sraavanikarmavidhi¹⁵⁹, Samayanyasraaddha vidhi, Siddhaantagita¹⁶⁰, Laksminarayahrdayastotra, Nrsimhapanjara (a Tantric work)¹⁶¹. A commentary on the Atharvanarahashya by Govinda Shastri also apparently existed.¹⁶² It is apparent that the Atharvanarahashya is a collection of late texts.

Another text bearing the title ‘Atharvanarahashya’ was authored by a Dhiragovindasharma in the beginning of the 19^th century. A manuscript of this text preserved at Oxford was utilized by Durgamohan Bhattacharya to publish it with a translation.

Commentaries on Selections from Saunakiya Samhita:

Balabodhavivekini Vyakhya by Vasudeva, son of Dviveda: An explanation of the collection of hymns in the Samhita that are directed against witchcraft exists in manuscript [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1096-1098].

Anukaramanis

Sarvanukramani

KUMAR [1981] has conducted a detailed study of the Rishis of Atharvaveda. According to him, there are 130 Rishis in Atharvaveda. The major contributors are -

Atharva – approximately 200 Suktas. As many as 57 Suktas in Kanda VI and all the 18 Suktas of Kanda 15 belong to him. The Seventh Kanda has 43 Suktas attributed to him [p. 52-52]. Significantly, the hymns of Rishi Atharvan typically do not have any other co-author.

Brahma – 101, Bhrgvangira – 29, Bhrgu – 27, Vishvamitra – 19, ShantAti – 17, Atharvangira – 16, Yama – 16, Vasishtha – 15, Medhyatithi – 14, ChAtana – 16, MadhuchhandA – 11, Shukra – 11.

The remaining 116 Rishis have less than 10 hymns attributed to them.

Gopatha Brahmana: This is the only extant Brahmana of the Atharvaveda. There is no traditional commentary available on this Brahmana, although in his Triccabhaskara (written around 1710 C.E.), Bhaskara Raya refers to his own commentary on the text, although the context is not clear.[Bhaskararaya 8]

The Purvabhaga of the Gopatha Brahman exhibits more originality of content in that it glorifies the Athavan and its priests. In contrast, the Uttarabhaga follows the other Brahmanas in its content, although it introduces legends related to other Atharvan teachers. For instance, it introduces Idhma Angirasa and Barhi Angirasa in the prasitra legend at 2.1.2

PATYAL [1990] lists the following editions of this text –

Rajendralala Mitra and Haracandra Vidyabhusana; Bibliotheca Indica, New Series Nos. 215 and 252 (work no. 69); Calcutta; 1872

Jivananda Vidyasagara; Calcutta; 1891. Practically same as the first edition.

Dieuke Gasastra; Leiden; 1919. Critical edition with an exhaustive introduction in German. Based on 6 manuscripts.

Pandit Kshemakaranadasa Trivedi; Allahabad; 1924. A Sanskrit commentary with a Hindi translation based on the first two Indian editions.

Vijayapala Vidyavaridhi; Ramalal Kapur Trust; Bahalgarh (Haryana); 1980. Critical edition utilizing two additional manuscripts from Pune together with Gaastra’s edition.

Hukan Chand Patyal; PhD Thesis; University of Pune; 1969. Text and English translation based on Gaastra’s edition, however additional manuscripts have been used.

Upanishads

Mundaka Upanisad

1. Samkaracarya (Advaita)

2. Bhaskara Bhatta: Manuscripts mentioned by Oppert. It is clear which Bhatta Bhaskara this is since several scholars of this name are known in Hindu history

3. Anubhutisvarupacarya: A sub-commentary on # 1 above

4. Madhvacarya (Dvaita)

5. Anandagiri: A sub-commentary on # 1 above

6. Sayanacharya: He wrote a metrical paraphrase of this text, along with 11 other principal Upanishads, in his work titled ‘Anubhuutiprakaasha’.

7. Vyasatirtha: A subcommentary on # 4 above

8. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu

9. Tika of Srinivasatirtha (Visistadvaita)

10. Rangaramanuja (Visistadvaita)

11. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

12. Nrsimhacaryya Chhalari (Dvaita)

13. Nigudhartha Prakasika of Damodara Sastri

14. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagavat, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma

15. Upanisadabrahmayogin (Paramadvaita): Manuscript at Central Library at Baroda

16. Pandit Gurudatta Vidyaarthi wrote an English translation of the text following the principles of Arya Samaj in the late 19^th century. This work was translated into Hindi by Pandit Atmaram Amritsari in Vikrami Samvat 1948¹⁶³.

17. Damodara Satavalekara

18. Patrick Olivelle

19. Valerie Roebuck

Mandukya Upanishad

1. Karikas if Gaudapadacharya
2. Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya on the Upanishad and the Karikas
3. Bhasya of Sri Madhvacharya
4. Tika of Anandagiri (on #2 above)
5. Sayanacharya: He wrote a metrical paraphrase of this text, along with 11 other principal Upanishads, in his work titled ‘Anubhuutiprakaasha’.
6. Tika of Vyasatirtha (on # 3 above)
7. Aloka of Sri Vijnana Bhiksu
8. Tika of Srinivasatirtha (Visistadvaita)
9. Bhasya of Rangaramanujamuni
10. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagvat, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma
11. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
12. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an Anubhavadvaitavedanta perspective.
13. Pandit Gurudatta Vidyarthi wrote an English translation and commentary of the text¹⁶⁴.

Atharvana Upanishads

In addition to the above Upanishads which have a definite link with the Atharvaveda tradition, a collection of 52 Upanishadic texts has also been circulation under the name of ‘Atharvana Upanishads’. This collection includes the texts listed above, and in addition one also finds well-known Upanishads belonging to the other Vedas. In their Atharvavedic version, these well-known Upanishads may show slight textual differences from their respective vulgate versions and could have a different name altogether. Thus, the Kathaka Upanishad is often named as ‘Atharvavalli Upanishad’¹⁶⁵, and the Nrsimhataani Upanishad as ‘Atharva Tapani Upanishad’¹⁶⁶ in some manuscript colophons.

Kalpasutras

1. Vaitana Sutra
2. Kausika Sutra
3. Santi Kalpa
4. Naksatra Kalpa
5. Angira Kalpa
6. Saunakiya Pratyangira Kalpa: The word ‘Pratyangira’ means ‘that which is directed against witchcraft or black magic’. A manuscript exists at Calcutta (Ref. 1, Pg. 1096, no.1384). The work is in verse and comprises of 7 folio, with 10 lines per page. It starts by naming several Rishis, expecially those associated with the Atharvaveda.
7. Atharva-Prayaschittani:

Kausika Sutra

In his introduction to his commentary on the Atharvaveda, Sayanacharya states that the Kausika Sutra is a ritual text used by followers of 4 Sakhas of the Atharvaveda, beginning with the Saunaka Sakha. Shankar Pandit, who published the commentary of Sayana on Atharvaveda for the first time, had determined [BLOOMFIELD 1890:xxxv] that these 4 Sakhas are Saunakiyas, Aksalas, Jaladas and Brahmavada. The Aksalas are typically known by another name – the Jajalas {jAjala}.

The Kausika Sutra was first published by Maurice Bloomfield with extracts from traditional commentaries, in 1890 from New Haven (Connecticut, USA).

BAHULKAR [1990:117] lists the following commentaries on the text –

Darila Bhashya

Kesava Paddhati

Dasakarmani

Atharvanapaddhati

Prayogadipa of Devabhadra

Prayogabhanu of Ravisankara Nagara

Sthalikaprayoga- anonymous

Bahulkar is also preparing a critical edition of this text, which utilizes 9 manuscripts of which 7 are being used for the first time. The traditional division into Adhyayas, Kandikas and Sutras is being retained.

Vaitana Sutra

The Sutra is often referred to as Saunakiya Sutra. The first edition of the Vaitana Sutra was published by Richard Garbe from London in 1878.

Atharvaveda Parisishta

1. Atharva Vidhana Parisishta: A short work of 20 verses printed in the ‘Siksa Samgraha’ collection published from Benares [Aithal 1991:64]. It lists the works related to Atharvaveda and prescribes various hymns and verses for obtaining specific gains, in the manner of Rigvidhana.

2. Asuri Kalpa: A text of this name of tantric nature is considered a part of the Mahapurana. A manuscript of this work exists in Alwar¹⁶⁷.

Laksana Granthas

1. Saunakiya Chaturadhyayika: Also called the Atharva Kautsa Vyakarana. According to VARMA [1984:191], this text is pre-Paninean. It has several traditional commentaries

a. Commentary of Krsnadasa: A manuscript at the Vaidik Samsodhana Mandala of Pune [Aithal 1991:63]

2. Atharvaveda Pratisakhya - VARMA [1984:186] opines that the Atharvaveda Pratisakhya belongs to all the Sakhas of that Veda, and is not restricted to Paippalada or the Saunaka Samhita alone. He considers this text Pre-Paninean [1984:191].
3. Atharvana Siksa: Manuscript in private libraries of south India are mentioned by Oppert in his catalogue [Oppert 66]
4. Dantyoshtavidhi
5. Pacapatalika
6. Manduki Siksa

Miscellaneous Texts

Atharvanatarpana

References:

Bhaskararaya; Tricchabhaskara;

ADHIKARI, Tarak Nath.1994. Gopatha Brahmana- A Critical Study. Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar: Calcutta

Aithal, K. Parameswara; Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart; 1991

BAHULKAR S. S.1990. Kausikasutra. Pages 115-120 in Dharmadhikari, T. N.; R. S. Shastri; N. P. Jain; Vedic Texts: A Revision- Prof. C. G. Kashikar Felicitation Volume; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi; 1990

BLOOMFIELD, Maurice. 1890. The Kausika-Sutra of the Atharva-Veda, with Extracts from the Commentaries of Darila and Kesava. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XIV.

Howard, Wayne; Veda Recitation in Varanasi; Motilal Banarsidass; Delhi; 1986

Kapur, Karmanarayan; 1983; Vedon mein punaruktiyaan; in “Vedavani”, vol. 35.8:17-20

Kumar, Sharad. Atharvaveda ke pramukha deviyon ka parichay. pp. 46 – 86 in Bali, Suryakant. 1981.

Patel, Gautam et al (Ed.); Contribution of Gujarat to Sanskrit Literature (Dr. M. I. Prajapati Felicitation Volume); Dr. M. I. Prajapati Sastipurti Sanman Samiti; Patan (Gujarat); 1998

**PATYAL, Hukam Chand. **1990. Gopatha Brahman. Pages 10- 15 in Dharmadhikari, T. N.; R. S. Shastri; N. P. Jain; Vedic Texts: A Revision- Prof. C. G. Kashikar Felicitation Volume; Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi; 1990

PURI, B. N. 1994. Ancient Indian Historiography, A Bi-Centenary Study. Atma Ram and Sons: Delhi/Lucknow

VARMA, Satyakam. 1984. Vedic Studies. Bharatiya Prakashan: New Delhi

Paipplada Sakha of Atharvaveda

The name of the Sakha itself suggests that it follows the tradition of Rishi Pippalada, who is a celebrated Sage in numerous Hindu texts. In various lists and texts, the name is also alternately given as paippalAdaka, PaippalAdi, pippalAda, paippala, pippala, paippalayAna etc.

He is revered as a teacher in the colophons of certain manuscripts of the Atharvaprayaschittani Sutras.

The Pippaladi Shantigana (Atharvaveda Parisishta 34.20) commences with the very first mantra of the Paippalada Samhita.

Paippalada Brahmin Communities

In the Brahmayajna in southern India, when the opening lines of all the four Vedas are recited, the mantra ‘zaM no devIr abhiSTaya…’ represents the Atharvaveda. This mantra is in fact the opening mantra of the Paippalada Samhita of the Atharvaveda.

Paippalada Samhita

The Samhita has been found in two versions: Kashmirian and Orissan. The former has approximately 6500 mantras, while the latter about 8000 mantras.

Pundit Dukhishyam Pattanayak [Samvat 2036] got the entire text of the Orissan Paippalada Samhita recited by the Brahmins of district Baripada recorded, and sent the same to the K. L. Janert of Cologne Unviversity (Germany). He also studied some additional manuscripts of the Samhita available at the Orissa State Museum at Bhuvaneshvar and has suggested several emendations to the text published by Durgamohan Bhattacharya. Pattanayak was to edit the entire text with the help of this manuscript material with the assistance of Pt. Yuddhishthira Mimamsaka, who was a lecturer of Sanskrit at the Bhuvaneshvar University for some time. However, the climate of the city did not suit Pt. Mimamsaka and he moved to north India. Perhaps that is the reason why the project of the publication of the entire text was given up.

Dipak Bhattacharya [1997] recent published Kandas 1-15 of the Paippalada Samhita from Calcutta, utilizing the manuscript material procured by his father Durgamohan Bhattacharya.

A critical edition and translation of kandas 13-14 was completed as his PhD thesis by Carlos Lopez of the Harvard University in June 2000.

Overall, it is believed that the Paippalada Samhita text is closer to the Ur-Atharvaveda than the Saunakiya text. NARANG [1981] has compared about 64 readings in the first 10 hymns in the AVZ and their corresponding versions in AVP (K and O) and concludes that in 29 cases, AVP appears better, in 9 instances, AVZ text is better. In 8 instances, both the versions seem to have altered the original text, while no decision can be made in 21 instances. Thus, overall, the Paippalada text appears to be better and older in comparison to the Saunaka text.

Paippalada Samhita Jatapatha

A fragment of the Jata Patha of the Samhita exists in libraries of western India [Aithal 1991: 65]

Paippalada Brahmana

In the Prapachahridyaya, the anonymous author mentions the Paippalada Brahmana and states that it comprised of 8 chapters. This is intriguing.

Following Roth [Caland 1990:407], Witzel too opines that the Gopatha Brahman is an anubrahmana of the Paippalada Brahmana.

In the Anukramani prefixed to his commentary on the 8^th Ashtaka of the Rigveda, Venkatamadhava states that he who studies the Paippalada Brahmana is a ‘vrddha’ (i.e. very knowledgeable). However, he quotes an ‘Atharvaveda Brahmana’ under RV and the citation matches Gopatha Brahmana

Prashna Upanishad

Rishi Pippalada is the celebrated sage and teacher in this text, which consists of his replies to 6 disciples, who approach him with questions on various aspects of Hindu spirituality. As pointed out by BLOOMFIELD [1890:xxxiii], the colophons of a manuscript of the Upanishad at Berlin designates it as a text of this Sakha (‘iti pippalAdAtharvaNe sAkhAyAM praznopaniShat samAptA’).

**Commentaries on Prashna Upanishad **[Raghavan et al]

1. Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya
2. Tika of Anandjnana: This is merely a subcommentary on # 1 above
3. Bhasya of Sri Madhvacharya
4. Vivritti of Balakrishnananda
5. Sayanacharya: He wrote a metrical paraphrase of this text, along with 11 other principal Upanishads, in his work titled ‘Anubhuutiprakaasha’.
6. Bhasya of Vyasatirtha: This is a subcommentary on # 3 above
7. Aloka of Sri Vijnana Bhiksu
8. Bhashya of Jnanendra Saraswati
9. Vivarana of Narayanendra Saravati, the disciple of Jnanendra and the grand-disciple of Kaivalyendra Sarasvati: This is a sub-commentary on # 1 above
10. Bhasya of Rangaramanuja Muni
11. Vivarana on Shankaracharya’s Bhashya by Abhinava Naranayanendra Saraswati
12. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
13. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagvat, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma
14. Bhashya of Appaya Dikshit, the disciple of Sundaresatatapada
15. Dipika of Narayana
16. Tika of Shrinivasa
17. Bhashya (Dvaita) of Kandalandacharya
18. Bhashya (Dvaita) of Chalari Sheshacharya
19. Khandartha of Raghavendrayati
20. Shatapashnopanishad Khandarthaprakashika of Narasimha Bhikshu, pupil of Raghavendrayati
21. Shataprashnarthaprakashika by Nrsimha, pupil of Vidyadhisha
22. Vivarana of Shrinivasacharya, pupil of Shrimat Tirthacharya and son of Vitthalacharya
23. Bhashya of Satyaprajnatirtha
24. Bhashya of Chalar Nrsimhacharya
25. Bhashya of Makali Dharmacharya
26. Vivarana of Shrinivasacharya, disciple of Yadupatyacharya
27. Bhashya of Shrivivasa, pupil of Konerayacharya
28. Commentary by Damodara Shastri
29. Bhashya of Dharmaraj
30. Upanisadabrahmayogin, the disciple of Vasudevendra (Paramadvaita): Manuscript at Central Library at Baroda
31. Bhashya by Anandachandra Vedantavagisha
32. Bhashya by Anandashrama
33. Hindi Bhasya of Damodara Satavalekara
34. English translation by Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
35. English translation and commentary (Advaita) by Swami Gambhirananda
36. English translation by Ekanath Eswaran
37. English translation by Patrick Olivelle

Miscellaneous

1. Paippalada Atharvanasutra: Fragments of this unidentified work exist in Caland’s collection [Caland 1990:xxxiii]
2. Pippalada Sraaddhakalpa: Quoted by Hemaadri in Pariseshkhanda

References

AITHAL, K. Parameswara; 1991; Veda Laksana (Vedic Ancillary Literature), A Descriptive Bibliography; Franz Steiner Verlag; Stuttgart

BALI, Suryakant. 1981. Historical & Critical Studies in the Atharvaveda. Nag Publishers. Delhi

BLOOMFIELD, Maurice. 1890. The Kausika-Sutra of the Atharva-Veda, with Extracts from the Commentaries of Darila and Kesava. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XIV.

CALAND, Willem; 1990; Kleine Schriften; Ed. by Michael Witzel; Franz Steiner Verlag Stuttgart; 1990

NARANG, Satya Pal. 1981. Textual Notes on the Atharvaveda Pages 1-20 in BALI:1981

PATTANAYAK, Dukhishyam; Samvat 2036; Paippalada Samhita- Atharvaveda ki Utkaliya Sakha; in Vedavani, vol. 31.9:18-21

RAGHAVAN, V. et al (ed.); various years; New Catalogus Catalogorum; Adyar (India)

Jajala Sakha of Atharvaveda

A teacher named Bhagali (bhAgali} is referred to in Kausika Sutra 9.10; 17.27 and in Vaitana Sutra 1.3; 22.1; 28.12. Certain scholars such as Roth believed that this name underlies the name of the Sakha, but as BLOOMFIELD [1890:xxxv] points our correctly, there is no basis for this suggestion.

References

BLOOMFIELD, Maurice. 1890. The Kausika-Sutra of the Atharva-Veda, with Extracts from the Commentaries of Darila and Kesava. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XIV.

Brahmavada Sakha of Atharvaveda

Variants of this name, more or less corrupt, such as ‘Brahmapalasa ‘(brahmapalAza}, Brahmabala, Brahmavala, BrahmadAbala are found in literature [BLOOMFIELD

1890:xxxvi].

References:

BLOOMFIELD, Maurice. 1890. The Kausika-Sutra of the Atharva-Veda, with Extracts from the Commentaries of Darila and Kesava. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XIV.

Other shAkhAs of AV

Staudayana Shakha of the Atharvaveda

The name occurs in Atharvaveda Parisishta 23.3

Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas

A popular, brief introduction

Contents

1. The Meaning and Importance of ‘Veda’
2. Veda and Classical Hinduism
3. Extent and Classification of the Vedic Literature
4. Vedic Sakhas and their Present Geographical Distribution
5. Extant Vedic Texts
6. Veda-Lakshana: The Oral Preservation of Vedic texts
7. The Contents of Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas – A Brief Survey
8. Ancillary Literature of the Vedas
9. Geographical context of the Vedas
10. Internal Chronological Stratification of Vedic texts
11. Age of the Vedic Texts – The Vedas as Historical Documents
12. Methods of Interpreting the Vedas
13. Rishis and Rishikas – Men and Women as Vedic Seers
14. Vedic Prosody and Poetry
15. Vedic Epistemology – The Philosophy of Knowledge
16. Karmakanda – The Vedic Rituals and Euchology (Prayer)
17. Devatakanda – Vedic Deities
18. Vedic Ontology – On the Nature of Being
19. Vedic Eschatology – After death, the Final Destination
20. Brahmakanda – Vedic Spirituality
21. Srshtividya – Cosmology and Cosmogony
22. Vedic Soteriology
23. Ethical Teachings in the Vedas
24. Vedas and Human Pschology
25. Human Existence – The Purpose of Our Lives
26. Family Values in the Vedas
27. Men and Women in the Vedas
28. Flora and Fauna in the Vedas
29. Ecology and Environmentalism in the Vedas
30. Medicine in the Vedas
31. Social Sciences in the Vedas
32. Political Concepts in the Vedas –Nationhood and National Integration
33. Physical Sciences in the Vedas
34. Vedic Arts and Music
35. Vedas on Wealth, Production and Commerce
36. Military Science in the Vedas
37. Amusements and Sports in the Vedas
38. Vedas on Universal Brotherhood of Mankind
39. Veda Rahasya – the Secret of the Veda
40. Vedas in Modern Hinduism
41. References

1. Meaning and Importance of ‘Veda’

The word Veda is often derived from 5 roots these days:

1. Vid jnaane: To know
2. Vid sattaayaam: To be, to endure
3. Vid labhe: To obtain
4. Vid vichaarane: To consider
5. Vid chetanaakhyaananiveseshu: To feel, to tell, to dwell

To these roots is added the suffix ‘ghaw’ according to Ashtadhyayi 3.3.19, the celebrated text of Sanskrit grammar of Panini. Accordingly, the word Veda means ‘the means by which, or in which all persons know, acquire mastery in, deliberate over the various lores or live or subsist upon them.’

Traditionally, the Vedic literature as such signifies a vast body of sacred and esoteric knowledge concerning eternal spiritual truths revealed to sages (Rishis) during intense meditation. They have been accorded the position of revealed scriptures and are revered in Hindu religious tradition. Over the millennia the Vedas have been handed over generation to generation by oral tradition and hence the name “shruti” or “that which is heard”. According to tradition they are un-authored (apaurusheya) and eternal.

The Vedic literature is also called by several other names –

1. Nigama: Traditional wisdom transmitted from generation to generation
2. Amnaaya: The root texts or primordial texts of (Hindu) tradition
3. Trayi: The Vedic texts comprising of Versified mantras, prose mantras, and melodies.

Theoretically, the Vedic corpus is held in deep reverence in the Hindu society. It constitutes the most authoritative genre of Hindu scriptures. Any other Hindu scripture must agree with the Vedas in order to be considered an authority. Schools of philosophy which reject the authority of the Vedas are considered ‘Naastika’ or heretical, while schools which accept Vedic authority, even if nominally, are considered ‘Aastika’ or orthodox, from a Hindu perspective.

While most Hindus never see Vedic texts in their lifetime, the term ‘Veda’ is used as a synonym for authoritativeness in religious matters. The Vedas are considered full of all kinds of knowledge, and an infallible guide for man in his quest for the four goals – Dharma, Artha (material welfare), Kama (pleasure and happiness) and Moksha (Salvation). In sacred Hindu literature, they are considered the very manifestation of God, and the ultimate source of all wisdom and of all Dharma.

Hindu priests were exhorted to study them regularly, recite their sentences, practice their sacraments and memorize their words. In practice however, this has been restricted to a dwindling minority of the Brahmin caste, despite recent attempts to revive Vedic study, ritual and recitation in the traditional manner. On the other hand, the Vedic texts are now widely available in print, and this has lead to a greater dissemination of their knowledge amongst Hindu masses, then say, a century back. Even here however, the popularization largely concerns the spiritual treatises called the Upanishads – the texts par excellence of Hindu spirituality. In fact, for several centuries now, the word ‘Veda’ has been used by Hindu Acharyas to indicate the Upanishadic texts in particular.

2. Extent and Classification of the Vedic Literature

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The Vedas are four in number – Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.

The traditional perception of the four Vedas may be illustrated with the following verses of Brahmanda Purana -

In his (Daksha’s) elaborate sacrifice, all the devas had arrived and were present. So also the various ancillaries of the sacrifice. Vashatkara was there in an embodied form. 2.3.1.22

The Samans and thousands of Yajusha mantras were there in an embodied form. The Rigveda embellished with the Kramapatha also appeared there. 2.3.1.23

Yajurveda, endowed with chhandas brilliant with Omkara as its mouth was stationed there along with the Suktas (hymns), the Brahmanas and Mantras intermingled with the arthas (objects, purposes) of the Yajna. 2.3.1.24

Samaveda endowed with the relevant meters and with all the Mantra melodies at their head was present along with Visvavasu and all the other Gandharvas. 2.3.1.25

The Brahmaveda was present there accompanied with terrible rites. Due to the accompaniment of the Pratyangiras (hymns that nullify the effect of deprecatory verses), it appeared as if it had two bodies and two heads. 2.3.1.26

**

According to tradition, each Veda can be divided into two parts – Mantras and Brahmanas. A collection of Mantras is typically called a Samhita. Currently, and often in ancient Hindu tradition as well, it is often the Samhita portion alone which is referred to as the Veda. For instance, the word ‘Rigveda’ would typically mean the Rigveda Samhita.

The Brahmanas have their own names and are more like theological treatises of the Vedas. The end portions of many Brahmanas have an esoteric content, called the ‘Aranyakas’. Embedded in these Aranyakas, or at their very end, are deeply spiritual treatises called the ‘Upanishads’. For several centuries now, Upanishads are the mainstay of Hindu spiritual traditions, and are held in the highest esteem.

In the case of the Rigveda, Samaveda and the Atharvaveda, there is a clear-cut separation of the Mantra collection from the Brahmana portions. In contrast, the Yajurveda is of two types: Shukla (or white) Yajurveda and Krishna (or black) Yajurveda. In the former, the Mantra and Brahmana collections occur separate from each other. In the latter, the Mantra and the Brahmana portions are intermixed. Thus, the Taittiriya ‘Samhita’ belonging to the Krishna Yajurveda has Mantras interspersed with Brahmana portions. Even the Taittiriya ‘Brahmana’ has both Mantras and Brahmana passages mixed with each other.

Coming to the Brahmana texts, there is often no clear-cut distinction between the Brahmanas proper and the Aranyakas, or between the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Brahmana text proper often merges into the Aranyakas and many old Upanishads are actually embedded in the Aranyakas.

There are a few exceptions even to the above generalizations on the internal distinctions in the Vedic texts.

What are Mantras?

The mantras are basically hymns sung to the Gods - the devotional outpourings of the souls of poets. The Samhitas of the four Vedas are complied for the smooth performance of Vedic sacrifices <sentence a bit odd>. Four types of priests are needed to perform a Vedic sacrifice:

1. The **Hotr **priest who sings hymns to Gods inviting them to preside over the sacrifice,
2. The Udgaataa priest who sings sweet hymns in musical tones for the entertainment of the Gods,
3. The Adhvaryu priest who performs the sacrifice according to strict ritualistic code and makes the offering to the Gods and a
4. The Brahma priest well versed in all the Vedas who supervises the sacrifice.

The four Samhitas are said to have been compiled to fulfill the needs of these four main priests: Rk-Samhita for the Hotr, Sama-Samhita for the Udgaataa, Yajurveda Samhita for the Adhvaryu and the Atharvaveda Samhita for the Brahma priest. Initially however, there was no special connection of the Brahma priest with the Atharvaveda, as this Veda was and is not so closely integrated with Vedic ritual as the other three Vedas are.

---

Mantras are basically of 3 major types, when classified according to their mechanical form: Rks, Yajus and Samans. Rks are versified mantras. Yajus are prose mantras whereas Samans are melodies set on Rk.

1. The Rigveda is so called because it is comprised of Rks.
2. The Yajurveda is so called because it is composed predominantly of prose mantras (yajus) although it has hundreds of Rks as well. However, even the Riks in Yajurveda are recited as if they were prose passages.
3. The Samaveda Samhita is composed of melodies called Samans, and also the underlying Rks which are set to these melodies.
4. The Atharvaveda is comprised of Riks (5/6) as well as Yajus (1/6). Some adept Vedic scholars can set even the mantras of Atharvaveda to melodies.

In many ways, the Samhita of the Rigveda constitutes the basis of other Samhitas. Not only is it the most ancient Vedic text, it also contributes hundreds of verses to theother Samhitas. Thus, if we consider Samhitas of Rigveda (Sakala), Yajurveda (Madhyandina), Samaveda (Kauthuma) and Atharvaveda (Saunaka), we find that the following number of mantras are repeated:

RV mantras repeated in RV = 140

YV mantras repeated in YV = 120

SV mantras repeated in SV = 2

AV mantras repeated in AV = 230

RV mantras repeated in SV = 1800

RV mantras repeated in YV = 581

RV mantras repeated in AV = 1260

YV mantras repeated in SV = 1

YV mantras repeated in AV = 81

SV mantras repeated in AV = 1

Theoretically, the Mantras have a higher authority than the Brahmanas.

What are the Brahmanas

Commenting on Taittiriya Samhita 1.2.1, Bhatta Bhaskara defines ‘Brahmanas’ as texts which expound the Vedic mantras and Yajnas. In chapter 2 of his Kavyamimansa, Rajasekhar defines the Brahmanas as texts which are characterized by statements of eulogy, censure, exposition and (ritual) application (of mantras). The word is used distinctively to denote certain texts for the first time in Taittiriya Samhita 3.7.1.1

Many scholars, modern and ancient, have tried to define the Brahmanas by stating their characteristics. The reality however is that there is no sharp difference in the characteristics of the Mantra and the Brahmana portions of the Vedas. The only thing that we may state safely is this – Mantras are those portions of the Vedas that are designated as such traditionally. And the rest is Brahmana.

Unlike the mantras, which are mostly in verse, the Brahmanas are predominantly prose. The Brahmanas contain formulas for rituals, rules and regulations for rites and sacrifices and also outline other religious duties. The formulas and rules for conducting extremely complex rituals are explained to the minutest detail. And every ritual is performed for a specific purpose for which a specific effect/benefit is expected. It was felt that there was nothing that could not be achieved by sacrifices – the sun could be stopped from rising and Indra, the chief of gods, could be deposed from his throne. The duties of men professing different occupations, the eternity of the Veda, popular customs, cosmogony, historical details, praise of ancient heroes are some other subjects dealt with in the Brahmanas.

The symbolic and spiritual aspects of the sacrificial religion are meditated upon in the Aranyakas while philosophical issues are discussed in the Upanishads. A detailed discussion of Aranyakas and Upanishads is beyond the scope of this webpage.

Attached to the Vedas are several genres of auxiliary texts – the Pratisakhyas, Anukramanis, Siksas, Kalpasutras, Parisishtas etc. A discussion of these texts is beyond the scope of the present webpage.

3. Vedic Shakhas and their Geographical Distribution

The Vedic literature that has come down to our times is attached to various traditional schools of recitation and ritual called the ‘shakhas’. All the four Vedas have more than one shakha extant. In the past, the number of shakhas studied was many times more.

According to the Mahabhasya of Patanjali, there were 21 shakhas of Rigveda, 9 of Atharvaveda, 101 of Yajurveda (86 of Krishna Yajurveda and 15 of Shukla Yajurveda, according to later authorities) and a 1000 varieties of chanting of Samaveda. Maybe, the number 1000 for the Samaveda merely refers to ‘numerous’. Nevertheless, although only 20 or so Shakhas of the Vedas are extant now, we do possess names of most of the lost Shakhas of the Rigveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Fragments of many of the lost shakhas are also available as quotations in ancient works. For the Samaveda, we do not have more than 40 names extant.

Two different Vedic shakhas might share one or more texts amongst themselves. Conversely, the distinction between two shakhas of the same Veda might result from the use of a different Samhita text, and/or a different Brahmana text, and/or different Kalpasutra text and so on. For e.g., the Baudhayana and the Apastamba shakhas use the same Taittiriya Brahmana, Taittiriya Samhita and Taittiriya Aranyaka but follow different Kalpasutras. On the other hand, the Shankhayana and the Kaushitaka shakhas use the same Samhita and Shrauta Sutra but their Brahmanas have slightly different readings and their Grhyasutras are quite different.

A group or a community of people who study a particular shakha in its entirety (Samhita + Brahmana + Aranyaka + Kalpasutra + any additional texts) and perform its ritual constitute a ‘charana’. For instance, Brahmins who study the Taittiriya Samhita/Brahmana/Aranyaka together with the Kalpasutra of Apastamba say - “I follow the Apastamba charana’.

In certain cases, we have instances of ‘mixed shakhas’. For instance, the followers of Shakala shakha have adopted the Kalpasutra of Ashvalayana. The Ashvalayana shakha, which had the now well-known Ashvalayana Sutra, has in turn lost oral traditions of its Samhita. Likewise, the Kaushitakins of Kerala often use the Samhita of Shakalas.

The various shakhas of the Vedas were, at one time, spread throughout South Asia. Their geographical location has not been constant down the ages, as communities of Brahmins professing a particular shakha migrated from one part of India to the other, or adopted another shakha when it became impossible for them to sustain the tradition of their own shakhas.

It is quite certain however, that the tradition of recitation of the Vedic texts originated in north India, and this region was the area where almost all the shakhas originally arose. From various sources, we can determine the following geographical distribution of Vedic Shakhas at various intervals of times, and their present state of survival :-

1. Shakala RV: Thrives in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, and Tamil Nadu and to some extent in Uttar Pradesh. Might have existed in Punjab. Nambudiris of Kerala recite even the Brahmana and Aranyaka with accents. Accented manuscripts of Brahmana and Aranyaka are available to this day.
2. Shankhayana Rigveda: Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan and Maharashtra. Oral tradition extinct, only manuscripts of Samhita are extant. Ritual lives in a very fragmentary condition
3. Bashkala RV: Claims have been made about its existence in Kerala, Rajasthan, Bengal and Assam as a living tradition, but have never been verified. The Samhita exists in manuscript. Nambudiris of Kerala are said to follow this Shakha of RV as far as the Samhita is concerned but studies of their oral tradition do not seem to bear this out.
4. Ashvalayana RV: Manuscripts of the Samhita have been found in Kashmir, Maharashtra (Ahmadnagar) and Patna (Bihar). In parts of central and eastern India, Shakala RV texts are often attributed to Ashvalayana. For instance, the Aitareya Brahman is often called Ashvalayana Brahmana in West Bengal. Oral traditions extinct although the followers of Shakala Shakha in Maharashtra often term themselves as Ashvalayanas because they follow the Kalpasutra (Shrautasutra + Grhyasutra) of Ashvalayana.
5. Paingi RV: Exited in Tamil Nadu, in and around Andavan. Oral traditions lost but Brahmana texts rumored to exist.
6. Mandukeya RV: Magadha and eastern and central Uttar Pradesh. Possibly lower Himalayas in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. No text or oral tradition extant although the Brhaddevata and Rigvidhana might belong to it.
7. Shaunakiya AV: Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Avadh region in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh. Only Gujarat has maintained the oral traditions, and the shakha has been resuscitated in recent times in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and in Andhra Pradesh.
8. Staudayana AV: According to Majjhima Nikaya, followers of this shakha lived in Koshala (central and eastern Uttar Pradesh). The shakha is completely lost.
9. Paippalada AV: Followers are currently found in parts of Orissa and adjacent areas of Bihar and West Bengal and recite the Samhita in ekasruti (monotone syllable). Epigraphic and literary evidence shows that they once thrived in Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, and parts of Gujarat, East Bengal and in Tamil Nadu as well.
10. Devadarshi AV: According to literary evidence, followers of this Shakha once lived in coastal Andhra Pradesh. Other AV shakhas said to have been prevalent in that region were Shaulkayani and Munjakeshi. The shakha is completely lost.
11. Charanavaidya and Jajala AV: Perhaps existed in Gujarat, Central India and adjacent parts of Rajasthan. According to the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, the Samhita of the Charanavaidya shakha had 6026 mantras.
12. Mauda AV: According to some scholars, they existed in Kashmir
13. Madhyandina YV: Currently found all over North India- Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and even Maharashtra (up to Nashik), West Bengal, Assam, Nepal. Along with Taittiriya Yajurveda, it is the most prevalent Vedic shakha. Followers of this school were found in Sindh (Pakistan) in the 19^th century but became extinct after Hindus were ethnically cleansed by the Muslim majority after 1947.
14. Kanva YV: Currently found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. In Orissa, the followers of this shakha follow a slightly different text. Epigraphic evidence shows that they were once present all over India, as far as Himachal Pradesh and possibly in Nepal.
15. Charaka YV: Interior Maharashtra, adjacent parts of Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh. Followers of this shakha now follow the Maitrayani YV shakha, having lost their own texts.
16. Maitrayani YV: In Morvi (Gujarat), parts of Maharashtra (Naskik/Bhadgaon, Nandurbar, Dhule). Earlier, they were spread all the way east up to Allahabad and extended into Rajasthan and possibly into Sindh.
17. Kathaka YV: The oral traditions became extinct possibly a few decades ago. They were found in central and eastern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, possibly west Punjab and NWFP. In later times, they got restricted to Kashmir, where all their extant manuscripts have been unearthed. Recently, the entire Hindu minority was cleansed from the Kashmir valley by Islamists, and so the shakha might be deemed extinct completely now.
18. Charayaniya Katha YV: Existed in Kashmir.
19. Kapisthala Katha YV: Found in West Punjab around the time of the invasion of Alexander. Also in parts of Gujarat. Only a fragmentary Samhita and Grhyasutra text exist, and followers of this shakha are said to exist at the mouths of Narmada and Tapi rivers in Gujarat.
20. Jabala YV: Central India, around the Narmada region. In Maharashtra, there still exist Shukla-Yajurvedin Brahmins who call themselves ‘Jabala Brahmins’, but there is no knowledge of the existence of any texts of this shakha.
21. Taittiriya YV: Buddhist texts and some versions of Ramayana attest their presence in the Gangetic plains but currently they are found all over Southern India. The Taittiriyas are themselves divided into numerous sub-schools. Among these, the followers of Baudhayana and Apastamba were found all over South India (including Maharashtra), while the Hiranyakeshins were found mainly in Konkan and Western Maharashtra. The Vaikhanasas have a more eastern presence- around Tirupati and Chennai. The Vadhulas are present currently in Kerala and earlier in adjacent parts of Tamil Nadu. The Agniveshyas, a subdivision of the Vadhula immigrants from Malabar, are found around Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. The Apastamba, Hiranyakeshin, Vaikhanasa and Baudhayana schools have survived with all their texts intact. The Vadhulas survive, with most of their texts while the Bharadvajas and Agniveshyas are practically extinct as a living tradition although their fragmentary/dilapidated texts survive.
22. Kauthuma SV: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu (tradition revived with the help of Brahmins from Poona), Kerala, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar (tradition revived a century ago), West Bengal (tradition has been revived recently). There are numerous varieties of Kauthuma chanting. This shakha is the most vibrant tradition of Samaveda.
23. Ranayaniya SV: Orissa (manuscripts available, status of oral tradition not known), Maharashtra, Karnataka (the Havyak <you mean havik?> community for instance), Uttar Pradesh (till recently in Bahraich and Mathura), Rajasthan (till recently in Jaipur). The existence of this shakha was endangered till recently, but it has been strengthened with the help of institutions like the Kanchi Kamakoti Matha.
24. Jaiminiya/Talavakara SV: Two distinct sub streams- the Namudiri recitations in Central Kerala, and the recitations of Tamil Nadu Brahmins in districts adjacent to Kerala and in and around Srirangam. The survival of these schools is endangered.
25. Shatyayaniya SV: Said to have been prevalent in Tamil Nadu and parts of North India. The shakha is no longer extant.
26. Gautama SV: Said to have been prevalent in Tamil Nadu and in Andhra Pradesh till the 17^th cent. C.E. Many followers of the Kauthuma school in Andhra Pradesh still call themselves ‘Gautamas’.
27. Bhallavi SV: Said to have been prevalent in Karnataka and parts of North India
28. Other Shakhas of YV: A text called ‘Yajurvedavriksha’ gives the geographical distribution of more than 100 Shakhas of Yajurveda. This description is being left out for brevity.

4. Extant Vedic Texts

The Vedic texts were traditionally transmitted orally (or at least predominantly without the aid of manuscripts, which might have been used sparingly as memory aids). This was essential because the texts were ‘accented’, or in other words the different words or letters therein were recited according to different pitch/tones. Very elaborate mnemonic devices were developed to preserve the texts with great fidelity, and harsh divine vengeance and evil repercussions were promised to those who deformed or mutilated the text in any manner. As a result, several Vedic texts were indeed transmitted over several millennia with utmost fidelity, together with accent. The texts that are used for aiding the memorization and recitation of the Vedas with utmost fidelity, are called ‘Lakshana Granthas’. These texts include Padapathas, Ghanapathas, Kramapatha and other Vikrtis or modifications of the root text, phonetic treatises like Sikshas and Pratisakhyas and so on.

In some cases however, the accents were lost with time and the texts had to be recited without the Vedic accents. For instance, the Brahmanas of the Samaveda lost their accents even as early as the time of Kumarila Bhatta (7^th century C.E.). Similarly, the Paippalada Samhita is recited by its followers today without the Vedic accents (i.e., in ekasruti). In the case of the Madhyandina Samhita, the oral intonations are not related to the accent of the written text. The table below lists only the texts that exist (in print or manuscript) OR are rumored to exist in manuscript. The various cells describe whether the printed editions or manuscripts are available or not, and whether the oral traditions are extant or not. The symbol ‘X’ indicates that no information is available.

_Shakha_	_Samhita_	_Brahmana_	_Aranyaka_	_Upanishad_
Shakala RV	Oral and Printed	Printed (=Aitareya Brahmana) and Oral (?)	Printed (Aitareya Aranyaka) and Oral (?)	Printed (Aitareya Upanishad) and Oral (?)
Bashkala RV	Manuscript exists with accents and Padapatha.	-	-	-
Shankhayana RV	Manuscript exists with accents and Padapatha.	Printed (=Shankhayana Brahmana)	Printed (=Shankhyana Aranyaka)	Printed as a part of the Aranyaka
Kaushitaki RV	X	Printed (=Kaushitaki Brahmana) and Oral	Manuscript exists	Printed (=Kaushitaki Upanishad)
Ashvalayana RV	Manuscript exists, with accents and Padapatha.	Same as Shakala	Same as Shakala shakha	Same as Shakala shakha
Paingi RV	X	Manuscript might exist	‘Rahashya Brahmana’ lost.	X
Madhyandina YV	Oral and Printed	Oral and Printed (Madhyandina Shatapatha) with accents.	Oral and Printed (=Shatapatha XIV.1-8) with accents,	Oral and Printed (=Brihadaranyaka Upanishad= Shatapatha XIV. 3-8) with accents.
Kanva YV	Oral and Printed	Oral and Printed partially (=Kanva Shatapatha Brahmana) with accents.	Oral and Printed (Book XVII of Kanva Shatapatha) with accents.	Oral and Printed (with numerous commentaries, as ‘Brihadaranyaka Upanishad’) with accents.
Katyayana YV	Manuscript (?)	Manuscript (only first 6 books, rest lost)	X	X
Taittiriya YV	Oral and Printed	Oral and Printed: =Taittiriya Br. and Vadhula Br. (part of Vadhula Srautrasutra)	Oral and Printed (=Taittiriya Aranyaka) with accents.	Oral and Printed (=Taittiriya Upanishad, Mahanarayana Upanishad) with accents.
Maitrayani YV	Oral (partial?) and Printed	Lost	Oral and Printed (=Maitrayani Aranyaka/Upanishad) with accents.	Oral and Printed (virtually same as Aranyaka)
Kathaka YV	Printed. Accents survive only on 1/3 on the text.	Fragments printed and in manuscript)	Printed as ‘Katha Aranyaka’ (almost the entire text from a solitary manuscript)	Printed as Kathaka Upanishad with numerous commentaries. Katha Shiksha Upanishad also published.
Kapishthala YV	Printed (from a fragmentary manuscript. Accents left out)	Small fragment extant in manuscript	X	X
Charaka	Manuscript exists (?)	Lost	In Manuscript (?)	X
Kauthuma SV	Samhita and Samans printed/recorded	Printed (8 Brahmanas in all). Accents lost long back.	None. The Samhita itself has the ‘Aranyaka’.	The famous Chhandogya Upanishad with numerous commentaries
Ranayaniya SV	Manuscripts of Samhita exist. Samans recorded but not printed	Same as Kauthuma with minor differences.	None. The Samhita itself has the ‘Aranyaka’.	Same as Kauthuma.
Jaiminiya/Talavakara SV	Samhita published. Two distinct styles of Saman recitation, partially recorded and published.	Brahmana published (without accents) – Jaiminiya Brahmana, Arsheya Brahmana	Tamil Nadu version of Talavakara Aranyaka (=Jaiminiya Up. Brahmana) published	Famous Kena Upanishad
Shatyayana SV	X (traditions might be similar to Jaminiya SV)	Manuscript (?)	X	X
Paippalada AV	Two versions: Kashmirian (published) and Orissan (partly published, in manuscript, unaccented)	Lost	X	Famous Prashna Upanishad, Sharabha Upanishad etc. – all published.
Shaunaka AV	Printed and Oral traditions alive	Fragmentary Gopatha Brahmana (extant and published). No accents.	X	Mundaka Upanishad (?) published.

It must be emphasized that the Vedic literature was several times its current extent, and most Vedic texts are lost. The extant literature however is a good and a comprehensive representative of the overall corpus.

5. Veda Lakshana – The Oral Preservation of Vedic Texts

6. Contents of Samhitas and Brahmanas: A Brief Survey

1. The Rigveda Samhita

This is the oldest Vedic text, as also the largest. It comprises of 10552 mantras in 1028 hymns (=Suktas). The hymns are divided amongst 10 books called the ‘mandalas’. Mandala 9 has 114 hymns address to Soma. Mandalas 1 and 10 are considered later additions, for most part.

The Rigveda Samhita is often also divided into 8 parts called ‘Ashtakas’ which are further divided into 8 chapters each. Thus, there are 64 chapters according to this classification, which is later than the Mandala scheme.

On the whole, the Rigveda mostly consists of hymns to be sung to the various gods as manifestations of the One Divinity. Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitr, Vishnu, Pusan, the Ashvin twins, Agni, Soma, Yama, Parjanya, Indra, Maruts, Rudra, Vishvakarman, Prajapati, MAtarishvan, Ushas, Aditi are some of the Gods encountered in the Rg Veda. Varuna - the god of the sky, Indra - the god of war <that is rather limited description!> and Agni - the god of fire, are more popular than Vishnu and Rudra (Shiva). Surya, Savitr and Pusan all refer to the solar deity and the Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitr. Ushas and Aditi are goddesses. Almost a quarter of hymns each are addressed to Agni and to Indra. Mandala X has several hymns pertaining to more popular topics, to spiritual topics, cosmogony and other miscellaneous matter.

The hymns are altogether attributed to 407 Rishis, or Sages, of which 21 are women Sages ( = Rishika). The Sages belong, in general, to 10 families, each of which has a special hymn (=Apri Sukta) associated with them. Mandalas 2-8 are family mandalas since each of these mandalas contains hymns predominantly from 1 major family of Vedic seers. These families subsequently gave rise to most of the Brahmin communities of the Hindu society. Mandala 2 is associated with Grtsamadas, Mandala 3 is associated with Vishvamitra and his lineage, 4 with Vamadeva and related Rishis, 5 with Atris, 6 with Bharadvajas, 7 with Vasisthas. Mandala 8 has numerous hymns by Kanvas while Mandala 9 has several hymns by Kashyapa Rishis.

The mantras are composed in 7 major and dozens of minor prosodic meters.

2. Yajurveda Samhitas

As stated earlier, the Yajurveda has two main divisions – Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. In the former, the mantra and Brahmana portions are collected in separate texts, whereas in the later, the two portions are found interspersed.

The extant Shukla Yajurveda Samhitas are Madhyandina and Kanva.

The extant Krishna Yajurveda Samhitas are Kathaka, Maitrayaniya, Taittiriya (also called ‘Apastambi’ Samhita), Kapishthala (fragmentary) and possibly Charaka.

Of the extant Yajurveda Samhitas, the two major ones currently are the Madhyandina and the Taittiriya.

The great sage Yajnavalkya is said to have collected and edited the Ur-Shukla Yajurveda Samhita, called the Vajasneyi Samhita. The Madhyandina Samhita comprises of 1975 kandikas or 3988 mantras (the prose kandikas are split up into several mantras) arranged into 40 chapters according to the order of performance of Vedic sacrifices. All but the last chapter (which is called the Ishavasya Upanishad) are employed in the Vedic ritual. The Yajurveda is largely prose, with about 700 verse mantras, most of which are directly borrowed from the Rigveda. The Yajurveda therefore is a liturgical text, but also contains sacrificial formulas to serve the purpose of ceremonial religion (yaju is derived from the root “yag” – to sacrifice). Coming to the Madhyandina Samhita specifically,

1. Chapters 1-2 deal with Darsapurnamasa rites,
2. Chapter 3 with sacrifices performed in the morning and the evenings, sacrifices performed every four months at the start of the three seasons
3. Chapters 4-8 with Soma sacrifices
4. Chapters 9-10 with Rajasuya and Vajapeya
5. Chapters 11-18 with construction of altars for yajnas
6. Chapters 19-31 with Sautramani rite
7. Chapters 22-25 with the Ashvamedha
8. Chapters 26-29 give material supplementary to earlier chapters
9. Chapters 30-39 contain mantras for novel and unique rites like the Purushamedha, Sarvamedha, Pitrmedha and Pravargya
10. Chapter 40 is the Isavasya Upanishad

Very popular in South India, the Taittiriya Samhita deals with detailed descriptions of sacrifices like Agnishtoma, Jyotishtoma, Vajapeya, Rajasuya, etc It is divided into 7 kandas which are further divided into 5-8 Prapathakas each. The Taittiriya Brahmana, the Taittiriya Aranyaka and the Taittiriya Upanishad are associated with this Samhita. In the Yajur Veda, Vishnu becomes more important. Shiva is also mentioned. Prajapati, the creator of the world, is identified with Vishvakarman. Brahman comes to signify the creative principle of the world. In general, the contents of this Samhita parallel the Shukla Yajurveda Samhitas although exotic and special rites like the Purushamedha are absent here.

3. The Samaveda Samhitas and Melodies

It is purely a liturgical collection that comprises of 1875 Rks, of which all but 75 Rks are traceable to the published Shakalya Samhita of the Rigveda. The rest are all said to occur in the Shankhayana Samhita of the Rigveda. All these verses are set to melodies, called the Samans. The origins of Indian classical music lies in the Sama Veda.

The Samhita is divided into two broad divisions- Purvarchika, on which the Gramageya and the Aranyaka samans are set, and the Uttararchika, on which the Uha and the Uhya chants are set. The ganas (=samans) of Gramageya and Aranyageya form the basic collection called the Prakritigana or the archetypes of ganas, to which the Uttaragana based on the Uttararchika is adapted. The marked difference between the melodies of Purvarchika and Uttararchika is that the former is constituted on a single verse basis while the latter on units of three verses. The Uttaragana is divided into two sections known as the Uha and the Uhya or Rahasya: the first is adapted to the Gramageya while the second to Aranyageya. Thus the Uttaragana closely follows the Purvagana in its structure, divisions and notations including the melodic notes. While Purvagana forms part of the Swadhyaya or daily recitations, like the Samhitas, which are considered to be apaurusheya, meaning thereby that they were not composed by the Rishis but revealed to them by Brahma, whereas the Uttaragana was believed to have been composed by the acharyas for liturgical purposes by adapting them to the Purvagana. Hence, they are called Uhaganas, adapted melodies. The Uha and Uhya ganas of Uttararchika are divided into seven divisions namely Dasharatra, Samvatsara, Ekaha, Ahina, Sattra, Kshudra and Prayaschitta, clearly indicating the class of sacrifices at which they are generally executed.

The Ranayaniya Samhita is not published yet but appears to be materially identical to the Kauthuma Sahmita, although its Samans are quite different.

The root text of the Jaiminiyas, on which their melodies are based, is the Jaiminiya Archika Samhita. This text runs parellel to the Kauthuma Samhita of Samaveda, available in easily accessible editions. The Samhita has approximately 1650 mantras and its Saman tradition is quite different from the main Kauthuma tradition. The Jaiminiya chants can be subdivided into 3 variations:

1. The Nambudiri chants,

2. Thanjavur/Thiruchi districts in Tamil Nadu

3. Tirunalveli district and the area close to Palaghat (Kerala) in Tamil Nadu

4. Atharvaveda Samhita

It is often said that the Atharva Angirasa was originally not given the status of a Veda, but seems to have been later elevated to the position. The main theme of the Atharva Veda is cure for diseases, rites for prolonging life and fulfillment of one’s desires, statecraft, penances, magic, charms, spells and sorcery. While the Gods of the Rg Veda are approached with love, the Gods of the Atharva Veda are approached with cringing fear and favor is curried to ward off their wrath. Homage is paid to them to abstain from doing harm. Sophisticated literary style and high metaphysical ideas mark this Veda. The two extant Samhitas of Atharvaveda are Shaunakiya and Paippalada.

The former has 5977 mantras arranged in 20 books called ‘kandas’ while the latter has approximately 7950 mantras arranged in as many kandas.

This Veda offers a better insight into the actual culture and life of the Vedic society, because of its significant ‘popular’ content – hymns connected with wedding, agriculture, battle, medicine, domestic ceremonies, coronation and so on. Significantly, dozens of hymns are also devoted to Hindu spirituality, and are often at par with the Upanishads.

The Atharvaveda has numerous names –

1. Bhrgvangirasa Veda – because of association with Bhrigus and Angirases
2. Atharvangirasa Veda – Because of association with Atharvana and Angirasa priests, and because of a dual nature (sorcery as well as ‘shanti-pushti’ rites)
3. Kshatraveda – because it has several hymns dealing with war, rites of coronation and so on.
4. *Brahmaveda *– because it has several hymns dealing with spirituality

5. Aitareya Brahmana of Rigveda

This Brahmana is common to the Shakala and Ashvalayana shakhas of Rigveda. It comprises of 8 groups (called ‘Panchikas’) of 5 chapters each. Hence, the text comprises of 40 chapters. Of these, the first 30 are presumably the composition of Rishi Mahidasa Aitareya, whereas the last 10 chapters were added by Rishi Shaunaka. The main contents of this text are as follows –

1. Chapters 1-13 deal with the duties of the Hotr priest in the Agnishtoma sacrifice
2. Chapter 14 deals with the meaning of the word ‘Agnishtoma’ and sundry matters
3. Chapters 15-17 describe the Ukthya, Shodasha, Atiratra and other sacrifices
4. Chapter 18 contains rules for the Hotr priest
5. Chapters 19-24 discuss the duties of the Hotr priest at the twelve minor sacrifices
6. Chapters 25 deals with sundry matters – expiations needed to be performed by the sacrificer, appropriate times of performing the Agnishtoma, duties of Brahma priest
7. Chapters 26-30 deal with the duties of the Gravastuta, Subrahmanya and 6 other minor priests involved in the Soma sacrifices
8. Chapters 31-40 deal with the sacrifices performed by the Kshatriyas (e.g. Vajapeya and Rajasuya) and the mutual relationships of Brahmanas and Kshatriyas.

6. Shankhayana Brahmana of Rigveda

This Brahmana text comprises of 30 chapters and is still studied in Gujarat and parts of Maharashtra. Its contents run parallel to the Aitareya Brahmanam but its arrangement is more systematic.

7. Kausitaki Brahmana of Rigveda

This text differs from the Shankhayana Brahmana only in a few words and syllables here and there. The other difference is that in this Brahmana, even the sentences are enumerated. It is prevalent only in Kerala, where it is recited orally. Portions of the text are recited with accents.

8. Kanva and Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmanas of the Shukla Yajurveda

The Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana (SBM) is divided into 14 Kandas containing 100 adhyayas, 68 prapathakas, 436 Brahmanas and 7179 Kandikas

The Kanva (SBK) text is divided into 17 Kandas, 104 adhyayas, 435 Brahmanas and 6806 Kandikas. Note that unlike the Madhyandina version, there is no division into Prapathakas.

The following table lists the contents of their respective sections –

Name of the Kanda	Serial number in SBK	Serial number in SBM
Ekapat Kanda	1	2
Haviryajna Kanda	2	1
Udhari Kanda	3	-
Adhvara Kanda	4	3
Graha Kanda	5	4
Vajapeya Kanda	6	-
Sava Kanda	-	5
Rajasuya Kanda	7	-
Ukhasambharana Kanda	8	6
Hastighata Kanda	9	7
Citi Kanda	10	8
Sagnitciti (Saciti) Kanda	11	-
Sanciti Kanda	-	9
Agnirahasya Kanda	12	10
Astadhyayi Kanda	13	11
Madhyama Kanda	14	12
Asvamedha Kanda	15	13
Pravargya Kanda	16	-
Brihadaranyaka Kanda	17	14

The Shatapatha Brahmana is perhaps the most important Brahmana text from the perspective of Vedic studies.

9. Taittiriya Brahmana of Krishna Yajurveda

The Brahmana comprises of 3 kandas, which are divided into 8, 8 and 12 adhyayas respectively. The Brahmana is also sometimes divided into 8 ashtakas, in the style of Rigveda. These adhyayas are further divided into anuvakas or sections, which contain sentences on a particular topic. There are a total of 17480 sentences in the Brahmana. The first kanda of the text deals with the Agnyadhana, Gavamayana, Vajapeya, Soma, Nakshatreshti and Rajasuya. The 2^nd kanda deals with Agnihotra, Upahomas, Sautramani, Vaisysava and others. The last kanda gives some additional details on the Nakshatreshti, the Ashvamedha and some parables like that of Bharadvaja, together with the Purushamedha Yajna.

10. Vadhula Brahmana or the Anvakhyana Brahmana of Krishna Yajurveda

It is an anu-brahmana or a minor Brahmana like work, embedded in the Vadhula Shrautasutra. The work has not been published so far and is in manuscript.

11. Panchavimsa Brahmana of Samaveda

This text derives its name from the fact that it has 25 chapters called Prapathakas, which are further subdivided into 347 sections called ‘khandas’. It is also called the ‘Tandya Mahabrahmana’ and is the principal Brahmana text of the Kauthuma and the Ranayaniya schools. This Brahmana deals with the employment of various Samans in different Vedic rituals, discusses Soma sacrifices in detail, and narrates legends about various Sages to whom different Samans were revealed. The contents of the Brahmana are as follows –

1. Prapathaka I : Collection of Yajus
2. Prapathakas II-III : Vistutis
3. Prapathaka IV –IX.2 : Various rites (Jyotishtoma, Ukthya, Atiratra, Prakrtis of ekahas and ahinas)
4. Prapathaka IX.3 – IX.10 : Somaprayaschittas
5. Prapathaka X – XV : Dvadashaha rite
6. Prapathaka XVI – XIX : One day rites
7. Prapathaka XX – XXII: Ahina rites
8. Prapathaka XXIII – XXV : Longer rites i.e., the Sattras

12. Shadavimsa Brahmana of Samaveda

As the name suggests, it is an appendix to the Panchavimsa Brahmana, forming its 26^th chapter as it were. The text deals with the Subrahmanya litanies and with one-day abhichara (sorcery) rites. This is a short text comprising 5 sections.

13. Samavidhana Brahmana of Samaveda

This text comprises of 3 prapathakas. It deals with the recitation of Samans with a view of obtaining specific fruit/results. It is paralleled in the Rigveda tradition by a text called Shaunakiya Rigvidhana, and in the Yajurveda tradition by Katyayaniya Yajurvidhana.

14. Arsheya Brahmana of Samaveda

The text is merely a kind of an Arshanukramani, or an index of Sages connected with the Gramageya and Aranya Samans. A particular Saman might have more than one Rishi or Sage associated with it, and these might be different from the Sage linked to the underlying Rk on which the Saman is sung. It is divided into 3 Prapathakas.

15. Devatadhyaya Brahmana

It lays down the criterion for deciding the deity of the Samaganas.

16. Chhandogya Brahmana

The Chhandogya Brahmana is a work of ten divisions called ‘Prapathakas’ and comprises of two parts –

1. Prapathakas 1-2 form the Mantra Brahmana or the Mantra Parvan and contain mantras used in Grhya rites.
2. Prapathakas 3-10 constitute the famous Chhandogya Upanishad.

Coming to the Mantra Brahmana, each of the two Prapathakas is further subdivided into eight khandas, or sections. The entire text has 268 mantras, including the 11 additional formulae noted in the most ancient extant commentary by Gunavishnu. These mantras are pre-supposed by the Grhyasutras of Khadira and Gobhila, which prescribe them for various Grhya rites. In fact, the order of the mantras on the Mantra Brahmana parallels the corresponding rites in the Grhyasutras, in the same order. It is as if the Grhyasutras and the Mantra Brahmana complement each other.

A discussion of the Chhandogya Upanishad is beyond the scope of the present webpage.

17. Samhitopanishad Brahmana

This text deals with the ‘secret’ aspect of the Samhitas. The collections of verses are grouped together for various purposes. It emphasizes the responsibilities of the great tradition of the Samaveda and the correct doctrine reflected therein, through the chosen line of disciples. It also discusses the fee that ought to be given to one’s religious teachers.

18. Vamsa Brahmana

This is a very short Brahmana, containing lists of ancient Samavedic teachers.

19. Jaiminiya Brahmana

After the Shatapatha Brahmana, this is perhaps the second most important Brahmanas because it is a fairly long text and because it is a storehouse of several Vedic legends and stories. The text is divided into three main divisions called the ‘kandas’. The main ritual sections of the text are – Agnihotra (1.1-1.65), Agnishtoma (1.65-1.364); Gavaayamaana (2.1-80); Ekaahas (2.81-234) or one day Soma sacrifices; Ahinas or sacrifices lasting upto 12 days (2.235-333); Sattras or longer sacrifices (2.334-370); Gavaayamaana (2.371-442), Dvadashaaha (kanda 3). The last kanda has very interesting geographical and historical information. The text as printed has several unclear words. Although it runs parallel to the Tandya Mahabrahmana, it is more detailed in its treatment than the latter. The other two Brahmanas of the Jaiminiya shakha are the Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana and the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana.

20. Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana

Its contents are similar to the Arsheya Brahmana of the Kauthuma shakha, but the specific names of the two texts differ a lot. This text names only 1 Sage per Saman, while the Kauthuma Arsheya Brahmana often lists more than one Sage.

21. Gopatha Brahmana

This is the only extant Brahmana of the Atharvaveda. It is divided into two major parts – Purvabhaaga and Uttarabhaaga. These in turn are altogether divided into 11 sections called ‘Prapathakas’. The Purvabhaga of the Gopatha Brahman exhibits more originality of content in that it glorifies the Athavan and its priests. In contrast, the Uttarabhaga follows the other Brahmanas in its content, although it introduces legends related to other Atharvan teachers. Embedded in the Gopatha Brahmana are Upanishad texts like the Pranava Upanishad. According to the Atharvana Charanavyuha, the text originally had 100 Prapathakas and was therefore much larger in extent. Significantly, Gopatha Brahmana 1.1.29 quotes Vyasa to the effect that he who knows the Atharvaveda knows all.

22. Aitareya Aranyaka

It comprises of 5 Aranyakas further divided into 18 chapters. The first three Aranyakas are ascribed to Mahidasa Aitareya, the 4^th is merely a collection of Mahanamni verses, and the fifth Aranyaka is attributed to Ashvalayana (or sometimes, to Rishi Shaunaka).

1. Aranyaka I deals with with the Mahavratas of the fundamental duties, and with Saman-stotras meant to be sung on particular days.
2. Aranyaka II.1-3 explain the meaning of ‘uktha’ while Aranyaka II.4-6 are the famous Aitareya Upanishad.
3. Aranyaka III is a ‘Samhita Upanishad’, i.e., it treats the Rigveda Samhita and its various mnemonic forms as objects of meditation and reflection. Numerous Vedic Sages are mentioned in this section.
4. Aranyaka IV is merely a collection of Mahanamni verses.
5. Aranyaka V is like a Sutra text, and deals mainly with the Nishkevalya shastra that is recited during the afternoon ceremony portion of the Mahavrata rite.

23. Shankhayana Aranyaka

The text is divided into 15 chapters, and its contents are similar to the Aitareya Aranyaka. The famous Kaushitaki Upanishad is embedded in this text as sections III-VI.1-4. The first two chapters resemble Brahmanas, and the last chapter is often considered a later addition.

24. Taittiriya Aranyaka

This work comprises of 10 Prapathakas. The first two are called ‘Kathakam’ because they are said to have been borrowed from the Kathaka shakha of Yajurveda.

Prapathaka 5 deals with the Pravargya rite.

Prapathakas 7-9 are the famous Taittiriya Upanishad.

Prapathaka 10 is the Mahanarayana Upanishad, or the Yajnika Upanishad. This Prapathaka is often considered an appendix because its extent and contents are unsettled and vary from region to region. It is a compilation of Upanishadic matter together with miscellaneous mantras for recitation at various occasions and for various purposes.

25. Brihadaranyaka of Shukla Yajurveda

This text forms the 17^th book of the Kanva Shatapatha Brahmana, and the 14^th book of the Madhyandina Shatapatha Brahmana. The initial 2 Prapathakas in the Madhyandina version deal with the Pravargya rite, and the last 6 constitute the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, whose details are beyond the scope of this webpage. In the Kanva version, the Pravargya portions are present separately as kanda XVI.

26. Maitrayaniya Aranyaka

Since this text is identical with the Maitrayaniya Upanishad in 7 Prapathakas, its discussion is beyond the scope of the present webpage.

27. Katha Aranyaka

It comprises of 3 Prapathakas, of which II and III largely deal with the Pravargya rite.

28. Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana

This text is also known as the Talavakara Aranyaka and is the only extant Aranyaka of Samaveda. In the introduction to his commentary on the Kena Upanishad, Shankaracharya states that the Upanishad forms the beginning of the 9^th chapter of Brahmana of that Sakha. In the extant manuscripts, the Kena Upanishad forms the 10^th Anuvaka of the Upanishad Brahmana section, which occurs in the 4^th Adhyaya of the Jaiminiya Brahmana proper. The JUB is then followed by the Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana. This Aranyaka deals with the esoteric meanings of various Samans, and also deals with concepts that are later found in Tantric Hinduism. It also gives spiritual interpretations of several Rigvedic mantras.

F. Age of the Samhitas and the Brahmanas

It is difficult to date the various Samhitas and Brahmanas of the Veda very precisely because of the following reasons –

1. First, they are primarily liturgical, ritualistic and spiritual texts. Hence, any information on the material aspects of the culture that they belonged to, would be incidental.
2. Second, they were composed and transmitted by very elitist classes of Brahmin priests and therefore are not representative of the culture and civilizations of the periods to which they belong. This makes it difficult to correlate them with archaeological data.
3. Third, they appeared to have been written and compiled predominantly in modern Indian states of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, and therefore, any corroborating information from other parts of India would be of limited utility.
4. Fourth, the texts, as available today, are quite heterogeneous and layered and it is often difficult to separate the layers chronologically.
5. Fifth, we are still in the dark about the precise chronological and cultural relationship between the archaeologically dated Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) and the culture pre-supposed by the Vedic texts.
6. Sixth, we do not know precisely the extent of transformation (in terms of content and language) that these texts underwent before they were finally frozen into their present forms. Thus, while the present forms of these texts might be dated on the basis of principles of Historical Linguistics, we would still not know when the Ur-texts were composed.
7. Seven, the extant Vedic texts are a fraction of the original literature and it is known that at least some of the lost texts showed different linguistic features. Therefore, any conclusions drawn on the basis of linguistic studies could only be provisional.
8. And last, the script of the IVC still remains un-deciphered. Most of the earlier failures of attempts (more than 50) were probably due to the unjustified assumption that the script represented a ‘proto-Dravidian’ language.

The whole issue has become extremely vitiated because of heavy politicization, and because the earlier chronologies proposed for these texts were often inspired by white supremacist views and Christian missionary biases.

The conventional views, first proposed in the 19^th century by Western Indologists, who were often (but not always) constrained by Biblical biases (“the world was created in 4004 BCE”) or influenced by the ‘white man’s burden’ mindset, were that the Rigveda was composed around 1200 BCE. The Rigveda was then said to have been followed chronologically by all the other Vedic texts. The emerging studies of Comparative Linguistics and Philology, and the myth of the Aryan Invasion Theory were made to lend further credence to these views.

With the discovery of a pre 1500 BCE civilization in the Indus basin (and subsequently in Gujarat and as far east as the Ganges and as far south as the Godavari river) it was assumed that this newly found civilization was non-Vedic. The composers of the Vedas were then said to have destroyed the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) with the help of horses and chariots and iron weapons (later on) and pushed the original inhabitants of the IVC area into peninsular India. This is called the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT).

The theory further states that the Vedic people (called Aryans) were fair and tall like Nordic Europeans, in contrast to the inhabitants of the IVC area, who were presumably short and dark. The verses of Rigveda were twisted to see massacres of these dark ‘Dasyus’ perpetrated by the invading white Aryans, as a result of which the Dasyus then fled to south. The Aryans were said to have invaded in several massive waves, so much so that they came to dominate modern Pakistan, northern India and Afghanistan completely in a few centuries, and obliterated all the traces of a non-Aryan past. The descendants of the Dasyus, who were supposedly pushed to South India, were equated with modern Dravidian speakers and even certain words said to be ‘borrowed’ from Dravidian languages were found in the Rigveda, despite the fact that the earliest literature in any Dravidian language (Tamil to be specific) post-dates Rigveda by atleast 1200 years. The AIT was also initially promoted by certain influential archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler. No primary evidence was really adduced to support the AIT. The theory was rather based on the fact that the Vedic language was determined to belong to the same family as Greek, Latin etc. This langauge family was called the Indo European family or the IE family. Secondly, several arguments of silence were used. For instance, the AIT’ers pointed out that the unearthed motifs of the IVC culture do not show the horse or the spoke wheeled chariot at all whereas these play an important role in the Vedas and also in other IE cultures. Conversely, the supposed absence of mention of items like tigers and rice which were indeed attested at IVC sites in the Rigveda was taken as another proof that the Aryans had nothing to do with the IVC. Certain other curious arguments were also cited. For instance, the AIT’ers pointed that the word for the elephant in the RV was ‘Mrgahastin’ (or ‘the animal with a hand’), indicating that the Aryans found this creature novel after they entered South Asia from Central Asia. Such arguments actually fall flat when it is pointed out that the ‘snake’ is often referred to as ‘toothed rope’ in the Vedas.

Dissenting voices were indeed by Indian scholars raised right from the start, but the AIT was accepted as the correct view by Western and several Indians till recently. In fact, it is still the view stated as a fact in works on World History and other related fields due to academic inertia.

Opponents to the AIT were often termed as ‘Hindu chauvinists’, ‘Indian Nationalists’ and so on (and these terms are still used by proponents of the new Avatar of the AIT which is the AMT- see below). In recent decades however, opposition to the AIT has mounted considerably and no respective Indologist will publicly uphold the AIT in its crass form any longer. The following were the objections of the opponents:

1. There is absolutely no archaeological evidence of any invasion of the IVC area by Aryans. No burnt cities, no massive destuctive migration trails. There is also no proof of migration of Dravidian speakers from the IVC area to South India.
2. The Vedas themselves are completely silent about any migration or invasion. They pre-suppose the geography, flora and fauna of North India and have no traces of any extra-Indian features. (Some scholars still continue to see the rivers and animals of Central Asia, Afghanistan and even Europe in Rigvedic hymns. We can ignore them as being quite farfetched). From very early times, Indians have had no memory of having come from outside to settle down in North India. In fact, the area pre-supposed by the Rigveda and even other Samhitas actually corresponds with the area that the IVC occupied. Any invading race likes to write about its victories and its advent from a foreign land- things which are rather absent in the RV or other Vedic literature. Similarly, the Dravidian speakers themselves have no memory of being pushed south from the IVC area. Rather, their traditions speak of a migration from more southern areas, which were submerged by the encroaching sea!
3. The verses of Rigveda that supposedly describe the massacres of inhabitants of IVC are grossly misinterpreted. There more credible as well as traditional interpretations do not see any ethnic genocide mentioned therein.
4. The Anthropologists further said that there is no break in skeletal continuity in NW India from 2800 BCE to around 800 BCE. Therefore, skeletal remains do not support any invasion or even a migration.
5. Archaeologists point out that if an urban and a literate people like the IVC area inhabitants were pushed to South India, they could have easily set up urban centers there. However, Dravidian culture was clearly Neolithic till the middle of the first millennium BCE. How can a literate and an urban civilization lose its character so fast?
6. Archaeologists have pointed out that the IVC did not really die out suddenly as would have happened had Aryan invaders or migrants overwhelmed IVC residents. Rather, it moved to new areas like Gujarat, and subsequently to the Gangetic plains. In other words, they see a clear continuity in culture and civilization from IVC to later Ganges based culture.
7. The Rigveda and even later texts extol the river Sarasvati as the ‘mother of all rivers’. The river is said in the texts to have flowed across Haryana, Rajasthan before joining the sea/disappear into the sands. As we come to later texts, the river diminishes in importance (and size) and then, it is replaced by the Ganges. In fact, satellite imagery in recent decades conclusively established that such a might river did flow in that area and interestingly, the archaeologists have discovered 100’s of new sites around (and even on) the dried bed of the river. The evidence is very clear then- that the maximum concentration of IVC sites was indeed on the Sarasvati river and that the culture moved to other areas when the river dried out. Now, the river seems to have dried out by 1500 BCE, and therefore it follows that the Aryan culture becomes contemporary in time and space with the IVC. The ‘Sarasvati paradigm’ is something, which the modern proponents of AIT (now AMT) have not been able to explain away satisfactorily. In fact, even late Vedic texts mention the performance of rituals on the banks of Sarasvati and Drishdvati, which would be anachronistic of these texts were composed around 600 BCE (which is when the AIT’ers and even most modern Indologists date them).
8. Frawley’s Paradox: In the case of Aryans, we are left with a massive literature that is several times the length of the Bible. We further know that the extant literature is merely a fraction of what existed once. Yet, we have very little material traces from the period 1400 BCE to 600 BCE in the area and the period when these texts were apparently composed. In contrast, we have in IVC a sprawling civilization covering 1.5 million square km. with more than a 1000 urban sites identified. And yet, there is no literature extant, only a few thousand seals with a few writing symbols.
9. Genetic evidence also does not lend support to the AIT and is inconclusive at best.
10. Oceanic Imagery: The internal evidence of texts is also adduced to counter the AIT. It is pointed out that if the Aryans were a pastoral society, their texts would not refer to boats, ships and oceans. In fact, there are more than a 100 references to oceans and ships, which is consistent with the fact that the IVC had archaeologically attested trade relations with the Sumerian culture.
11. Arguments based on technology are also advanced. It is pointed out that the geometry pre-supposed by the IVC architectural remains is actually reflected in the ritualistic Vedic texts.
12. A very problematic fact for the proponents of AIT is the fact that the Vedic texts contain certain astronomical information (positions of constellations etc.), which takes us well into the IVC period (and even beyond that) and area. This could not have been the case if the Aryans were a pastoral society and were resident in Central Asia. In fact, the original location of proto-IE speakers has still not been traced and from the perspective of archaeology, proto-Indo-Europeans remain and enigma. So is it even justified to talk of Aryans as a race? The issue is compounded by the fact that there is no archaeologically attested trail of Aryans even outside India!
13. The arguments of silence proposed by proponents of AIT are also explained. For instance, although rice is not mentioned in the Rigveda, rice dishes certainly are. And tiger might have been subsumed in the word for lion (as still is the case in modern times to some extent). Alternately, since the tiger was actually present all the way to Central Asia, its non-mention in the Rigveda is merely by chance. Also, the use of the word ‘Mrgahastin’ or ‘Hastin’ for the elephant does not indicate novelty because although snakes occur everywhere in the world except in the Polar region, they are called ‘toothed ropes’ in even a late text like the Atharvaveda. And yet nobody can state that the Aryans saw the snake for the first time when they entered South Asia. In other words, the elephant has been given that name because the Vedic language as such is picturesque.
14. The notion that the IVC drew a lot from the Sumerian culture and that the Aryans were themselves invaders from Central Asia takes an ‘Iranocentric’ view of Indian civilization. Such a view is now being questioned by archaeologists. They point that most developments in the IVC area were indigenous to India. For instance, it is now believed that Iron was introduced into India from peninsular India. A site called Mehrgarh has been discovered in Baluchistan. At this site, organized agriculture is attested up to 6^th millennium BCE. This is the time around which agriculture started in the Middle East as well. Excavations have shown that writing originated in the IVC area around 3300 BCE, which is around the time it started in Sumer as well. Very early domestication of animals is now attested archaeologically in IVC area. And in the case of many IVC sites, it now appears that there was a gradual transformation from a pre-historic Neolithic culture to the urban, literate IVC culture, which had a significant interaction with the Neolithic cultures in Vindhyas and also in the east.
15. The cultural continuity of the IVC culture with much later culture in north India is also stressed to conclude that there was no AIT which lead to a break in the cultural continuity of north India. For instance, it is now known that the weights and the ratios of bricks used in India later on are virtually identical to the corresponding artifacts found in the IVC area.
16. It is also pointed out that supposed points of distinction between the IVC and the Aryans (viz. the horse, the chariot and iron) should start appearing archaeologically around the time of the supposed invasions/migrations. This is not really the case. Thus, chariots are not attested archaeologically in India till the 3^rd cent. BCE (although they are mentioned by Greeks around 323 BCE) and likewise, horse remains do not start appearing suddenly around 1200-1400 BCE everywhere in north India. In fact, horse remains have been now found in IVC sites as early as 1700 BCE and even earlier in the non-IVC areas.
17. All the Indian traditions (Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Atheist) clearly pre-suppose several millennia of development of their philosophical, religious, theological systems. This runs counter to the idea that the Aryans entered India around 1500 BCE and came to dominate only in the course of subsequent centuries.
18. Cattle breeds in the middle show an ingression of Indian breeds genetically. In murals etc., we see that the Indian humped cattle started appearing in the Middle East around the middle of the 2^nd millennium BCE. This is around the same time that the Aryans moved into India from Central Asia. So did the cattle move out of India while men moved into India, at the same time?

The results of the objections such as those listed above have lead the proponents of the AIT to reformulate their views in several views. Some Indologists in the West (who are predominantly philologists and linguists) have tried to adduce reasons why the invading Aryans have not left behind any material traces. Thus, they have redefined certain terms in the Vedas to mean something different from their earlier definitions. For instance, The Rigvedic word ‘pur’ which was earlier taken to mean a city or a fortress is now said to denote mud dwellings with palisades and so on. The word ‘grama’ which earlier denoted ‘village’ or a settlement in general is now taken to mean a ‘cart-wagon’ (like that of gypsies). In other words, it is postulated that since the Vedic Aryans were a gypsy like community, they could hardly be expected to leave any material trace!

Most Indologists, having abandoned the idea of large-scale invasions are now proposing other models. For instance, some subscribe to the ‘elite dominance’ model according to which a small number of Indo-Aryan (IA) speakers entered the IVC area to dominate the collapsing IVC and soon came to dominate the natives with the help of horses and chariots (termed as ‘Vedic Tanks.’). These invasions are being re-christened as ‘migrations’ and ‘acculturation’. Some others are proposing a continuous process of interaction of IVC inhabitants with IA speakers of Afghanistan and Bactria accompanied by small-scale migrations (but large scale transfer of language). Needless to say, at this stage, all these models that are being proposed to explain the lack of evidence of invasions are often really invasions described in a euphemistic way, or are completely chaotic and unsatisfactory.

However, the proponents of this Aryan Migration Theory (AMT) have advanced sophisticated arguments based on linguistics to emphasize that at least the horse, the chariot and the language of Vedic Aryans was imported from Central Asia in the late 2^nd millennium BCE. They highlight the fact that in the language tree, Vedic Sanskrit appears a rather late language. They emphasize the supposed cultural dichotomy between IVC (no horse, no chariot, bath, bricks) and the Aryan culture (horse and chariots are important, no public bath, no bricks). They have tried to explain away the astronomical evidence as misinterpretations of Vedic passages and have made (totally unsuccessful) attempts to see a Dravidian language in IVC seal inscriptions. Moreover, they see a ‘Dravidian’ or an ‘Austro-Asiatic’ or even a ‘Language X’ substratum in Rigveda as a proof that when the Aryans came to North India, it already had speakers of proto-Dravidian, para-Munda or of hypothetical languages like the language X. They also suggest that the so-called horse bones unearthed in the IVC area and also in peninsular area actually came from poorly documented excavations. Therefore, they cannot be stratified, and therefore dated perfectly. In other words, they stick to the old paradigm that horse was indeed brought from outside by the Aryans into South Asia. AIT/AMT proponents also seek to malign opponents by branding them as ‘dangerous people’, ‘chauvinists’, ‘Hindutva fanatics’, ‘theologians’ and so on.

To counter these views, the AIT opponents point out that -

1. It is possible that while the RV was indeed composed in the same period as the IVC or even earlier, it was redacted several times and given its present form around the middle of the 2^nd millennium BCE so that linguistically its language is close to Greek, Avestan and Latin.
2. Recent researches have actually shown that when the various books of the RV are arranged chronologically, we have to deduce a movement from east to west (i.e. from Uttar Pradesh to Afghanistan), which is just the opposite of AIT (and is therefore called the Out of India Theory or the OIT).
3. Third, it is pointed out that the arrival of the horse and the chariot is not attested archaeologically and moreover, the word of horse (=ashva) could have referred to some other similar animal as it did in Sumer.
4. Fourth, it is proposed that the RV and other Vedic texts do not represent the culture of the IVC area as such, but only of the Haryana/Sarasvati/UP area (which is evident from the internal testimony of the texts as well). Therefore, for this reason and also those stated in the first paragraph of this section, we can hardly expect a 1:1 correspondence between RV culture and IVC.
5. Fifth, it is shown that the legends in the RV represent the most archaic and holistic versions of several IE mythological themes, indicating that it was rather the IE speakers who left India in various waves.
6. Sixth, they highlight the fact that names of geographical places in north India and Pakistan do not have any Dravidian or Austro-Asiatic substrate, which is rather odd if the Aryans displaced Dravidian or Austro-Asiatic features.
7. Seventh, it is stated that if the Aryans had indeed brought the horse into India, then the Dravidian word for the same would have been borrowed from Vedic Sanskrit, but this is not the case.
8. Eight, it is seen that late chariot features (like spoke wheeled) that are attested only as late as 2000 BCE, are to be found mentioned only in the latest parts of the Rigveda. The earlier parts of Rigveda are actually free of any references to spoke wheeled chariots, and presume only solid wheeled wagons and chariots.
9. Nine, the presence of Dravidian words as such in the Vedic texts need not pre-suppose a substratum, but only a borrowing from an adjacent culture which was contemporary (and not necessarily one which was overcome via immigration or invasion).
10. Ten, the AIT/AMT opponents refer to the fact that the horse in the Rigveda has 34 ribs (and is therefore of a South East Asian/South Asian variety now mostly extinct) and is therefore not the Central Asian horse which has 36 ribs. The argument is that had the Aryans brought their horse from Central Asia, it would have had 36 ribs and not 34.
11. Eleven, AIT opponents point to the fact that certain linguistic peculiarities in modern Indo-Aryan languages of North India are not deductible either from Vedic Sanskrit or from Dravidian/Austro Asiatic. So is the case with numerous aspects of Hindu religion. All this suggests that the Vedas themselves represent the religious beliefs of only a section of the ancestors of modern Hindus. Consequently, it is inaccurate to represent Vedic Aryans as a ‘group’ that displaced IVC people. It is possible rather that inhabitants of different parts of the IVC area, peninsular India and the Gangetic plains were resident in their respective areas for along time and with time, their beliefs fused even further to lead to the formation of the magnificent construct that Hinduism is.

Opponents of AIT often tend to point to the Eurocentric or Marxist (within India) biases of the up-holders of AIT/AMT, a charge that is resisted by (some of) them stoutly. A great drawback of the OIT theories is that similar to AIT/AMT, it is not attested archaeologically. In its defense, it must be said however that the theory is rather new and therefore archaeologists will take several years to correlate their data with the suggestions of the OIT’ers, whereas the AIT/AMT has had a head start of 150 years to influence the mute findings of the archaeologists.

It would not be out of place to mention that most recent attempts aimed at the decipherment of the IVC script presume a language related to Sanskrit. All attempts to date have, however, been a failure.

The above was but a brief resume of a few conflicting viewpoints. As things stand, majority of Indologists (Linguists, historians, archaeologists) in India reject the AIT or even the AMT and almost all the archaeologists in the West and an increasing number of specialists from other fields are also rejecting these theories. Some linguists are now proposing that there is no way of determining the IE homeland and so the matter is best left ignored. They also agree that the old paradigms of the spread of the centum and satem groups of IE languages are no longer valid because of the discovery of a centum language recently right in the foothills of Himalayas. In other words, the current state of linguistic data is such that it cannot be used as the primary evidence to support AIT/AMT but rather only as secondary evidence. And as for the primary, alternate, non-linguistic evidence for AIT/AMT - it is not yet forthcoming.

Within India, the matter has become highly politicized. Marxist historians (who have monopolized government institutions and grants in India since 1960’s), politically active or fundamentalist Muslims, Christian missionaries/evangelists, Dravidian Nationalists (and also members of the oppressed lower castes, who are often incited by the aforementioned categories) and many other lay Indians of all religious and political persuasions still defend the AIT or the AMT. In contrast, although a majority of academicians in India have rejected the AIT (and some even the AMT), the anti-AIT view is often associated with Hindutva politics (although there does not appear to be a real cause and effect relationship between them). While proponents of the Hindutva viewpoint would naturally favor OIT today, historically the case has been quite the opposite. In fact, it has been and is still in the interest of Marxists and of the fundamentalist sections of the Indian minorities (as well as the Dravidian Nationalists) to uphold the paradigms foisted on Indians by their erstwhile colonial masters.

Therefore, what we need is a dispassionate look at the multifaceted evidence and also completely de-link the issue of the exact relationship between Aryans and IVC from the question of Indian Nationalism. What happened 35 centuries ago (or a earlier) is hardly of relevance to the question “Who is an Indian” because national identities and borders have been fluctuating all over the world down the ages.

G. Methods of Interpreting the Vedic texts

Numerous methods have been used in ancient and modern times to interpret Vedic texts. A resume of the same is given below. Note that since the Vedic literature itself is heterogeneous, there isn’t a single method that is best suited for interpreting the entire Vedic literature. For instance, if the hymn in question is merely a praise of an act of charity, it is futile to impart a spiritual meaning to it. So also, if the hymn reflects a spiritual method, it is inaccurate to force a ‘nomadic culture’ meaning into it just to satisfy the requirements of AIT. There is no sharp boundary between these different methods of interpretation, all the more because many of these are indispensable even for the other methods of interpretation. For instance, no one can ignore Vedic grammar while translation Vedic hymns. The various methods of interpretation of Vedic texts are as follows -

1. Yajnika School: This is a ritualistic interpretation of the Vedas and is exemplified to a great extent in the Brahmana texts themselves. In certain cases, it is seen that the ritual employment of a mantra has no relationship to its actual meaning. Rather, the mantra seems to have been rubricated into the ritual merely on account of the presence of a word or two that have a phonemic similarity to a word that would correctly describe an object or an act connected with the ritual. It must be noted however that the employment of the Vedic Samhitas in rituals has actually contributed to their preservation down the ages. Moreover, the details of the ritual acts in the Brahmanas often give some measure of the cultural background and the material aspects of ancient India. Last, the Samhitas of Yajurveda and Samaveda are in reality liturgically arranged for aid in ritual performances. After the Samhitas and the Brahmanas, we have another vast corpus of literature called the Kalpasutra, which describes the minutiae of Vedic rituals in a systematic and a comprehensive manner. The Kalpasutras are considered in a separate section. Most of the extant commentaries of the Vedas follow this technique although they draw elements from other modes of interpretation as well.

2. Nairukta School: This is the etymological method of interpretation of words or phrases occurring in the Vedic mantras and its origins can be traced to the Brahmana text themselves. The text par excellence of this mode of interpretation is the Nirukta of Yaska, which itself is a commentary on a collection (called Nighantu) of difficult words occurring in the Vedas. The Nirukta of Yaska was apparently preceded by a dozen works belonging to this genre as he quotes them profusely. Nirukta is considered one of the 6 Vedangas of the Veda along with grammar, astronomy, phonetics, ritual and prosody.

3. Dharmashastric School: In his Nirukta, Yaska quotes the opinion of some who derive legal instructions from certain verses of the Rigveda. For instance, in Nirukta 3.3, he observes that some interpret Rigveda 3.31.1 to mean that daughters can also inherit the property of their father whereas some state that only sons are eligible for inheritance.

4. Naidana School: Nothing much is known about this school of interpretation although a text called the Nidana Sutra by Patanjali exists. From the citations of their views in the Nirukta of Yaska, it appears that they were closely allied to the Aitihasika school of interpretation with the caveat that they paid more attention to the original context of or the cause for the composition of Vedic hymns.

5. Mimamsaka School: The followers of this school believe that all the Vedic texts should be treated as a harmonious whole, that the correct import of the hymns can be understood if we consider the context, the relationship of various sentences and of words in those sentences; if we consider parallel passages in various texts; and if we interpret passages after determining their central import. Unfortunately, the method is mostly restricted to the interpretation of Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads, as exemplified in the Purva and Uttara Mimansa Sutras (and also numerous commentaries on them). The Vedas are considered eternal, uncreated Word, free of any references to temporal events and free of defects associated with human compositions.

6. Aitihasika School: The followers of this school of interpretation hold that each and every mantra or hymn is related to an Itihasa i.e., a traditional account of ancient events, and accordingly they interpret the concerned hymn or verses in conjunction with that Itihasa. For instance, Yaska narrates an Itihasa connected with the Nadi Sukta (Rigveda III.33) wherein Sage Visvamitra is said to have addressed the rivers with the concerned mantras whereupon they allowed him to cross over. The Brahmana texts contain numerous such Itihasas and the now-lost Shatyayani Brahman is often quoted by the commentators of Rigveda for these Itihasas.

7. Parivrajaka School: This school seeks to highlight the spiritual import of mantras. While several hymns of the Vedic Samhitas indeed convey spiritual ideas very directly, followers of this school of thought hold that even the other hymns can be explained in a spiritualistic manner. Examples of this method of interpretation are the commentary on the first 40 hymns by Shri Madhvacharya (13^th cent. C.E.) and the commentary of Atmananda on the Asya Vamasya Sukta (Rigveda I.164). Kapali Shastri has written a spiritual commentary on the entire first Ashtaka of the Rigveda while Swami Brahmamuni has written a spiritual commentary on the entire Kauthuma Samaveda Samhita. This is not to say that this mode of interpretation is modern. Rather, the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads themselves expound numerous verses in the spiritual mode. In his Nirukta, Yaska cites the views of several followers of this method of interpretation, as does Sayana in his commentaries on various Vedic texts.

8. Vaiyyakarana School: This is a general method of interpretation by the application of the rules of grammar to Vedic mantras. It is taken into account by all the other schools while commenting on the mantras. The Padapathas of the Vedic Samhitas is the earliest such commentary on these texts. These Padapathas seek to analyze the compound words occurring in the mantras according to certain rules of grammar. The Padapatha of Rigveda Samhita is by Shakalya, on Samaveda Samhita is by Gargya, and on the Taittiriya Samhita is by Atreya. The Padapathas on the Shaunakiya Atharvaveda Samhita, Maitrayani Samhita, Rigvediya Shankhayana Samhita, Rigvediya Ashvalayana Samhita, Shukla Yajurvediya Kanva Samhita and the Madhyandina Samhita also exist but are anonymous. Later grammarians however often reject a few analysis contained in the Padapatha as being opposed to the rules of grammar.

9. Arya Samaj School of Interpretation: This was found by Swami Dayanand Sarasvati (1824-1883) and is exemplified by his commentary on the Madhyandina Yajurveda Samhita and approximately 7.5 mandalas of the Rigveda Samhita. After him, various scholars of the Arya Samaj have written numerous commentaries on the 4 major Vedic Samhitas in English, Hindi, Marathi and other Indian languages. These commentaries conform to the ideals regarding the Vedas propagated by the Arya Samaj: First, the Vedas are held to preach pure monotheism and therefore Agni, Indra etc., are held to be merely names of the one God. Second, the Vedas are said to encompass the Samhitas only, not the Brahmanas. Third, the Vedas are said to be the eternal word of God revealed at the beginning of creation, and as such, they are devoid completely of historical accounts or proper names. Fourth, since the Vedas are divine knowledge, they contain all the branches of knowledge (even modern ones like telegraphy, aeronautics and so on) in the root form. Fifth, all the modern commentaries on the Vedas are held to be spurious. Only the works composed by sages from Brahma to Jaimini (including the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Sutras and so on) are held to reliable commentaries on the Vedas. Even these are to be rejected in so far as they are in conflict with the intent of the Samhitas. Sixth, even amongst the Samhitas, only the following 4 were revealed by God- Shakalya, Madhyandina, Shaunaka and Kauthuma. All the other Samhitas are composed by men and are like glosses on these 5 Samhitas. Seventh, the method of Yaska and Vyakarana are to be relied upon heavily to interpret the Vedas and the later Hindu texts like Puranas etc., must be rejected completely. There are several other principles followed by this school of interpretation (in one of his own works, Swami Dayanand himself lists 16 such principles).

10. **_Shri Aurobindo’s School of Interpretation: _**This is a modern version of the ancient Parivrajaka school of interpretation and is discussed in numerous works of Sri Aurobindo like ‘The Secret of the Veda’ and of his followers like Kapali Shastri and David Frawley. Herein, the various gods in the Samhitas are said to represent different states of consciousness on the spiritual journey of men.

11. Pauranic School: This is not really a school of interpretation, and refers to a few partial commentaries on the Vedic Samhitas that seek to discover the biographies of Hindu deities like Sri Rama and Sri Krishna in the hymns. This method is similar to the Aitihasika school, with the big difference that here that the ‘Itihasa’ does not pertain to the Seer of the hymn.

12. Indological Method: This method is adopted currently by virtually all Vedic Scholars outside India and also by numerous scholars within India. It is has the greatest internal diversity and we have lumped various methods of interpretation of the Vedas only for the sake of convenience. Several members of this school take the Rigveda to be an Indo-European text that must be interpreted with the help of parallel traditions in the other branches of the Indo-European language family. Linguistics and Philology are relied upon heavily. Some Indologists like Ludwig suggested wholesale emendations in the traditionally handed texts, whereas others, like Max Mueller, strongly advocated the accuracy of the traditionally handed text. Scholars like Oldenberg completely rejected the traditional commentaries like those of Sayana, while others like Pischel emphasized that the Vedas are Indian texts and ought to be interpreted keeping in mind Indian paradigms as reflected in the traditional commentaries. Indologists of course take into account the Vedic Vyakarana, Nirukta and the Brahmanas and Kalpasutras into account, but are often also seen to reject their testimony on various grounds, some of which are highly conjectural. For instance, the AIT was taken as gospel truth in the past and accordingly a lot of hymns were interpreted as if they represented battles between tall, fair, long nosed Aryans and black, short native Indians. The most remarkable contributions of these scholars have been the creation of massive concordances, indices and scholarly exegetical notes on the Vedic texts (besides publishing critical editions of the same), correlation of ideas mentioned in the Vedic texts with parallel ideas in other literary traditions, analysis of the internal chronology of these texts and composition of exhaustive commentaries and translations in various languages. At times however, some of this work appears to be mere conjecture dressed up in jargon of the field, and too divorced from what the Vedic tradition has to say about itself. Nevertheless, an intensive study of both modern as well as old exegetical traditions is a must for comprehending the Vedic texts.

Polytheism, monotheism, monism have all been read into the Vedic hymns. Max Muller even coined the term “henotheism”, as the transitional stage between polytheism and monotheism in the hymns. It is the opinion of modern scholarship that the Vedic hymns reveal the gradual progress of philosophical thought i.e., from polytheism to monotheism to monism. This major flaw in interpretation is not surprising when it is understood that such an opinion springs from viewing Indian philosophy through a Western philosophical looking glass.

The fundamental difference between Western philosophy and Indian philosophy, especially the scriptures, is that while Western philosophy tries to uncover the real with the use of the intellect, Indian philosophy is basically an attempt to logically reconcile the world of experience with the spiritual experience of the sages. The sages – Yajnavalkya, the Buddha, Mahaveera – had experienced reality – unlike Western philosophers they’re not speculating, analyzing with the help of reason what reality may be – they know what it is. They have experienced it and using analogies they try to describe it. Indian scholarship is more interested in seeking the ‘fruit’ of Vedic studies, whereas the Western scholarship concerned primarily with the ‘roots’ of the Vedic texts and words.

The scriptures are not to be interpreted as progress in philosophical thought. What’s claimed as polytheism and monotheism is but the identification of the various manifestations of the One Supreme Being. Unity in the Divine is what the Vedic Sages have proclaimed as the highest teaching and numerous verses supporting this are spread across each Veda, from the first mantra portion to the last Upanishad portion: “the One real which the wise declare as many”; “Purusha is all this, all that was and all that will be”; “the real essence of the Gods is one”; “The same real is worshipped as Uktha in the Rg, Agni in the Yajus and Mahavrta in the Saman”; “the indescribable is the ground of all names and forms, the support of all the creation”; “He is immanent in all this creation and yet he transcends it”.

Likewise the different parts of the Veda – Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads – too don’t signify the progress of philosophical thought. The Veda is a whole package towards spiritual liberation. One cannot directly start with the Upanishads, which teach the highest truth. One must first develop the physical, mental and moral maturity to be eligible to learn such truth. The Mantras, Brahmanas and parts of the Aranyakas serve such a purpose. The four parts of each Veda can also be mapped to the four stages of life (ashrama) of the twice born (dvija). As a student (brahmachArin) one is to chant the hymns and live a life of control and virtue. As a householder (grhasta) one is to observe the injunctions laid forth in the brAhmanas. In the forest dweller stage (vAnaprastha) one is to meditate upon the spiritual truths behind the rituals as explained in the Aranyakas and practice austerity. With the mental and moral maturity developed during the three previous stages one can finally take up the life of a wandering mendicant (samnyAsin) and study the highest truth taught in the Upanishads. Such is the orthodox Indian view.

H. An Anthology

The literature being surveyed in this section is indeed vast- about 8 times the length of the Bible. Therefore, we can only incorporate a small fraction of passages for the reader. The translations have been adapted from various published popular and scholarly works.

A. From Rigveda Samhita

1. Hymn to Agni RV 1.1.1-9

I praise Agni, put at the head of the sacrifice, God, priest, Hotr, distributing great riches. ||1||

Agni is fit to be praised by former and also by present seers; he shall bring the gods here.||2||

Through Agni one expects to gain day by day, wealth, indeed prosperity, which is honorable, most abundant in heroes. ||3||

Agni, the ritualistic sacrificial worship which you are pervading everywhere, assuredly goes to the gods. ||4||

Agni, Hotr, wise, truthful, having most wonderful fame, God, may he come with the gods. ||5||

Indeed O Agni! When you intend to bestow good fortune to the worshipper, that Angiras is surely your truth. ||6||

Daily, O Agni! The lighter of darkness, we approach you with prayer, bearing obeisance. ||7||

We come to you, who are ruler of sacrificial rites, guardian of cosmic law, bright, growing in your home. ||8||

Agni, be easily accessible to us, like father to son, accompany us for good fortune. ||9||

2. Hymn to Indra (Rigveda VIII.45.1-3)

Let those who come here light the fore and spread the grass in unbroken line, who have Indra, ever young, for a friend. ||1||

Large the fuel, great is the chant, and high is the sacrificial pole of those who have Indra, ever young, for a friend. ||2||

Irresistible in war, the hero drives the foe with warriors, who have Indra, ever young, for a friend. ||3||

3. Jnana Sukta (Rigveda X.71.1-11)

When, Lord of our Prayer! The First of the sacred Speech, and the Foremost,

The sages uttered, giving the Un-named a name.

Which was their best, and their most stainless,

Then they, with love, revealed the Divine secret in their souls. ||1||

When the sages formed the Speech with their mind,

Straining it, as they strain flour with the sieve,

Therein have friends discovered the bonds of friendship,

Whose holy beauty lies hidden in that Speech. ||2||

With worship they followed the steps of the Speech,

And found it installed in the hearts of sages.

They acquired it and gave it at many places,

And seven singers intone it together. ||3||

There is the man who sees but has not seen the Speech!

There is the man who hears but has not heard her!

But to another, Lady Speech reveals her lovely form,

Like a loving wife, finely robed, to her husband. ||4||

There is a man who, they say, is firm and secure in friendship,

None should urge him to contests.

But he wanders, with an illusion that is barren,

And the speech he hears bears no fruit or flower! ||5||

For one deserting a friend who knows the truth,

There is no grace even in the holy Speech.

What he hears, he hears amiss,

Aye, to be sure, he does not know the path of righteousness! ||6||

Friends who are well endowed with sight and hearing,

Are unequal in the quickness of their mind.

Some look like pools that reach to the mouth or the armpit,

And some like lakes on which a man can bathe. ||7||

When, with the mental impulse shaped by the Spirit,

Friends who know the Speech perform rituals together,

Some are left back with much they still need to know,

While others move onward, regarded as adepts. ||8||

Those, who go neither backward nor forward,

Are no men of knowledge!

Nor performs of the sacred rites, they, the inept ones,

sinfully seize the Speech,

And spread it out as weavers weave the thread. ||9||

All a delighted when a friend comes,

Crowned with fame, a victor in the Assembly.

He wards off their sins, wins for them nurture,

And is always prepared for the tribulations of life. ||10||

One is strong with the power of the verses,

The second sings the song in the Sakvari measure.

The third, an adept, speaks of the knowledge of the Spirit,

And the last lays down the rules of the sacred rites. ||11||

4. Purusha Sukta (Rigveda X.90.1-16)

Purusha is 1000 headed, 1000 eyed, 1000 footed;

And, pervading the earth on all sides

He exists beyond the 10 directions. ||1||

(Purusha = Immanent, Creator God)

Purusha indeed is all this,

What has been and what will be,

And the Lord of immortality

Transcending by mortal nurture. ||2||

Such is his magnificence, but

Purusha is greater than this;

All beings are a fourth of him,

Three fourths- his immortality-lie in heaven. ||3||

Three-fourths of Purusha ascended,

The fourth part was here again and again,

And, diversified in form, it moved

To the animate and the inanimate world. ||4||

From him was Viraj born, and

From Viraj was born Purusha;

And, as soon as born, he spread over

The earth from behind and front. ||5||

When with Purusha as offering

The Devas performed a sacrifice,

Spring was the molten butter, summer

The fuel, and autumn the oblation. ||6||

On the grass they besprinkled him,

The Sacrifice Purusha, the first born,

With Him the gods sacrificed,

And those Sadhyas and the Rishis. ||7||

From that sacrifice, fully offered,

Was gathered the mixed milk and butter.

And animals ruled by Vayu arose

The sylvan and the domestic. ||8||

From that sacrifice, fully offered,

The Rik and the Saman were born,

The Chhandas was born of that,

And from that was the Yajus born. ||9||

From that were born horses, and the

Animals with two rows of teeth;

Yea, kine were born of that, and

Of that were born the goat and the sheep. ||10||

When they divided the Purusha,

Into how many parts did they arrange him?

What was his mouth? What were his two arms?

What are his thighs and feet called? ||11||

The brAhmana (priest) was his mouth,

If his two arms were made the rAjanya (kshatriya - warrior),

His two thighs the vaishya (merchant and agriculturist),

From his feet the shudra (laborer class) was born. ||12||

From his mind was born the moon, and

From his eye the sun. From his mouth

Were Indra and Agni born,

And Vayu was born from his breath. ||13||

From his navel came the mid-air,

From his head the sky was fashioned,

From his feet the earth, and from his ear,

The quarters. Thus they formed the worlds. ||14||

Seven were the sticks of the enclosure

Thrice seven the logs of wood prepared,

When the gods, performing the rite,

Bound, as their victim, Purusha. ||15||

With sacrifices the gods worshipped the Sacrifice,

Those were the earliest holy ordinances.

The mighty Ones attained the height of heaven

Where the ancient Devas, the Sadhyas, abide. ||16||

5. The Nasadiya Hymn (Rigveda X.129-1-7)

Neither Being nor nor-Being existed then;

There was no sky, nor the heaven, which is beyond.

What covered? Where was it and in whose shelter?

Was the water the deep abyss in which it lay? ||1||

There was no death, hence neither was anything immortal;

There was no distinction between night and day.

By its inherent force the One breathed windless;

Nothing other than that existed. ||2||

Darkness there was,

In the beginning all this was a sea without light;

That which, becoming, by the void was covered,

That One by the force of heat came into being. ||3||

Desire entered the One in the beginning,

It was the earliest seed, the product of thought.

The Sages searching in their hearts with wisdom

Found the bond of Being in non-Being.

Their ray extended light across the darkness;

But was the One below or was it above?

Creative force and fertile power was there;

Below was energy and will, above. ||4-5||

Who knows for certain? Who shall declare it here?

When was it born and when came the creation?

The Gods came later,

Who then knows when it arose? ||6||

None know when creation has arisen;

Whether he made it or did not make it,

He who surveys it in the highest heaven,

Only He knows, or maybe even he knows not! ||7||

6. Samjnana Sukta (Rigveda X.191.2-4)

Walk together in harmony, speak in harmony

Let your minds be of one accord,

As the gods of old, being of one mind,

Accepted the share of sacrifice

(so may you share your belongings). ||2||

May your counsel be common, your assembly united,

Common the mind, and the thoughts of these- united.

A common purpose do I lay before you,

And worship with your common oblation. ||3||

Let your aims be common,

And your hearts of one accord,

And all of you be of one mind,

As you may live well together. ||4||

B. From Atharvaveda Samhita (Shaunaka Shakha)

1. Abhaya Sukta (freedom from fear)- XIX.15.1-6

Free us Indra, from the fear of all that we are afraid of,

May Thou, with thy saving power,

Turn away the hater and the enemy. ||1||

We beseech Indra, the bounteous Giver,

We will be prosperous on men and cattle.

Let not the evil powers approach us;

Turn the hostiles who surround us, away. ||2||

Adorable Indra, our Savior,

The slayer of Vritra, fulfiller of our highest ambitions;

May he be our protector from yonder,

From the middle, from behind and from the front. ||3||

Lead us to a free world, Wise One!

Where lie the divine luster, sunlight and security.

Valiant are Thy arms of Thee, the Almighty,

And we seek shelter in them. ||4||

May the mid regions free us from all fear,

And both the Heaven and Earth make us secure.

Let there be for us, no fear from the west,

No fear from the east, no fear from the north and no fear from the south. ||5||

Let there be no fear from friend, no fear from foe,

No fear from the known, no fear from that which lies before us unkown.

Let there be no fear for us from night, no fear from day,

May all the directions be my friends! ||6||

2. Sabha Sukta VII.12.1-4

May the Assembly and the Council

the two daughters of Prajapati, be in concord and protect me!

May every one I meet guide me;

Fathers, may I speak finely in the meetings. ||1||

I know thy name, O Assembly,

“The Desired of Men” is the name thoy hast;

May all those who are thy members

Agree with me in my opinion. ||2||

Let us receive the brilliance

And the wisdom of those seated here together;

And among those people assembled here

Make me the illustrious, Indra! ||3||

Whether your thoughts are turned away

Or are bound fast here and here,

I turn those thoughts of yours around,

In me may your thoughts delight. ||4||

C. Paippalada Atharvaveda Samhita

1. Brahmasukta (AVP VIII.8.1-12)

“(It is) The Supreme Being (Who) first spread out the mighty powers collected in Him

(It is) The Supreme Being (Who) first spread out the heavenly lights everywhere

Verily, The Supreme Being was born as first Lord of all that exists

Who, then is fit to be this Supreme Being’s rival” ||1||

“These Heaven and Earth are Supreme Being,

The seven currents are The Supreme Being

All the Adityas are Supreme Being

(Verily) All the divine beings contemplate upon the Supreme Being.” ||2||

---

**“**The Brahmanas speak of (the glories of) the Supreme Being (during the day)

(But) The Supreme Being verily is present (also) in the night.

From The Supreme Being is born the {light} (of the Sun that brightens the day),

By the Supreme Being does fire shine with great splendour (at night). ||3||

“The Supreme Being abides in food producing plants

And it is He who causes the rains (which give life to these plants) to descend.

(Indeed) The Supreme Being is inner animating Soul of all this

As long as the sun shines bright. “ ||4||

“ The Supreme Being is the priest who recites the chants during the ritual,

The Supreme Being is (also) the ritual

As well as the chants being recited with great precision.

From the Supreme Being arises the priest who pours the oblation into the fire

{Within} the Supreme Being {is present} the oblation.” ||5||

“The Supreme Being is the fire altar, brimming with clarified butter,

The Supreme Being are the bulls possessing the beneficent seed,

The Supreme Being are the cows, that yield the oblation going into the ritual fire,

The Supreme Being is he who, seated in the divine chariot, attains the well performed magnificent ritual.” ||6||

“By the (will of the) Supreme Being the inert (thing) moves (and thus becomes dynamic)

By the (will of the) Supreme Being does the body unite (with life).

By the (will of) Supreme Being does the outward breath return to the man with great trembling.” ||7||

“From the Supreme Being arise the Holy Seers

From the Supreme Being (arise) these Kshatriyas

From the very same Supreme Being are born the Brahmanas

From the Supreme Being (arise) the {food producing third caste (vaishyas). }”

“{The Supreme Being are indeed these Shudras serving the Kshatriyas,

The Supreme Being are all they who perceive.}

The Supreme Being are all these benevolent officials

{The Supreme Being are all these members of the assembly.}” ||8-9||

“The Supreme Being are the fishermen,

The Supreme Being are the servants,

The Supreme Being indeed are these gamblers.

Man as well as woman originate from the Supreme Being

Women are God and so are men.” ||10||

“ The Supreme Being is in the highlands, the Supreme Being is in the lowlands, (indeed) the Supreme Being envelops from all directions.

Trees, mountains and in shrubs or creepers,

(Verily) The Supreme Being abides in these all.

The Earth and the Heavens

The Supreme Being abides in both” ||11||

D. Madhyandina Yajurveda Samhita

I take refuge in the Rik, the word;

I take refuge in the Yaju, the mind;

I take refuge in the Saman; the breath;

I take refuge in sight and hearing.

Energy of speech with strength and my in-breath and outbreath! 36.1

Whatever defect I have of eye, of heart, of mind,

Or whatever excess there is,

May Brihaspati remedy it.

Gracious to us be the Lord of the Universe! 36.2

Indra is King over all;

May there be grace on the biped, grace on the quadruped. 36.8

May the wind blow us health,

And the sun shine cheer on us,

And may the clouds with loud thunder

Rain their grace on us. 36.10

The peace in the sky, the peace in the mid-air,

The peace on the earth, the peace in waters,

The peace in plants, the peace in forest trees,

The peace in All Devas, the peace in Brahman,

The peace in all things,

The peace in peace-

May that peace come to me! 36.17

Strong One! Make me strong!

May all beings look on me with the eye of friend!

May I look on all beings with the eye of friend!

May we look on one another with the eye of friend! 36.18

That eye of the sky, divinely placed, rising bright before us-

May we see for a hundred autums!

And may we live for a hundred autums,

And may we hear for a hundred autums,

May we hold our heads high for a hundred autums,

Yea, even more than a hundred autums. 36.24

E. Taittiriya Samhita

“Yonder sun was in this world. The gods seizing it on all sides with the Prishtha (lauds) made it go to the world of heaven. They seized it with Para (Samans) from below. And with Divakirtya (Saman), they placed it in the world of heaven. With Para (Saman), they seized it from above, and with the Prishtha (lauds), they descended from heaven. Yonder sun, indeed, in this world of heaven is seized on all sides by the Para (Samans).” 7.3.10

F. Kathaka Samhita

“Apah (waters) certainly were such in which everything was dissolved. He, Prajapati, assuming an air like form moved to and fro on a lotus leaf. He did not find a resting place. He saw his net or nest of waters. He arranged this Agni in the midst of water. It became this earth. Then he took its seat. This earth is Agnih”. 22.9

G. From the Aitareya Brahmana

“Some ask- ‘If a man establishes the sacrificial fire and then dies while touring abroad, then how does one do his Agnihotra. To this, we reply that it is to be performed by offering the oblation of the milk of a cow which has been suckled by a calf that is not its own. This is because the milk of such a cow is akin in nature to the Agnihotra of such a dead man. Alternately, perform the Agnihotra with the milk of any cow. Others state the relatives of the dead man should keep the alters of that man fired up without offering sacrificial oblations till the bones of the dead man have been collected after cremation of his corpse. And if the corpse is not traceable, then twigs from 360 ‘flame of the forest’ trees should be cut and fashioned into a human figure. This should then be cremated with full ceremony and at that time, the fires from the altar established by the dead man should be extinguished by a transfer to his funeral pyre. The likeness of the corpse should be created in this manner- 150 twigs for the torso, 140 for the twigs for the two thighs. 50 for the legs and the rest should be placed above its head. Thus ends the procedure for the atonement performed for a man who establishes a sacrificial fire in the altar but dies while touring abroad.” XXXII.1-2

I. Tandya Brahmana

“Prajapati certainly was alone before this Universe. The word certainly was his only possession. Therefore, the word was the second. He desired: ‘Let me emit this very word, it will pervade this whole (space). He emitted the word and it pervaded the whole (space). It rose upwards and spread, as a continuous (well joined) stream of water.” 20.14.2

J. Shankhayana Aranyaka

Chapter XIII: Thereafter, when the body is made fit for a state of desirelessness, he should be bent over the offering to Brahman. In this way, he will drive repeated deaths away. “The Soul is to be envisioned, to be heard, to be thought of and to be meditated upon.” “Him (the Soul) they aspire to know by reciting the Vedas, by practicing the rigors of studentship (including celibacy), by asceticism, by faith, by ritual sacrifices and by fasting” says Sage Mandukeya. “Therefore, he who knows this should, becoming tranquil, restrained (in senses), still in meditation, enduring of the opposites and immersed in faith, perceive the Soul in his own soul,” thus says Sage Madavya. That Purusha, who lives in the midst of life forces, and is a repository of consciousness, is incomprehensible and ought to be distinguished (form the animate and inanimate creation) as ‘Not this, Not this’ this.” “This Soul alone is the Kshatriya, it is the Brahminhood, it is all the divine beings, the Vedas, all the worlds, it is all beings, indeed it is all! This Soul is that is designated by ‘Tat tvam asi’ (That Thou are). This Soul is to be comprehended in ‘I am Brahman’. This Brahman (the Supreme Soul), without any predecessor, without any superior, without another equivalent, immanent in all, without an exterior (i.e. all pervading), is this Soul- the Brahman (the Supreme Being), the entity that experiences everything in the Universe- such is the doctrine”- says Sage Yajnavalkya.

Chapter XIV: The best of the Riks, the best of the Yaju mantras, pinnacle of the Saman chants, the crown of the head of the Atharvans- he who studies not the Veda is indeed called ignorant. He (as if) cleaving is head himself, becomes a corpse.” (And) he is but a (lifeless) pillar that bears a burden, who recites the Veda without knowing the meaning of his chants. (But) he who knows the meaning along wins prosperity. He rises to Heaven, shaking off his sin through Spiritual Knowledge.”

K. From the Taittiriya Aranyaka

1. “He by Whom all this Universe is pervaded- the earth and the mid region, the heaven and the quarters and the sub-quarters, that Purusha is fivefold and is constituted of 5 elements. He who has attained the Supreme Knowledge through Samnyasa (renunciation) is indeed this Purusha. He is all that is perceptible in the present, was perceptible in the past and will be perceptible in the future. Though apparently human, His true nature is that which is settled by the Vedas and what is attained by his new birth is in right knowledge. He is firmly established in the richness of knowledge imparted by His teacher, as also in his faith and in Truth. He has become the self resplendent. Being such a one, He remains beyond/separate the darkness of ignorance. O Aruni! Having become one possessed of knowledge by realizing Him, the Supreme, through Samnyasa, and with your mind fixed in your heart, do not again fall a prey to death. Because Samnyasa is this the supreme means of spiritual realization, therefore wise men declare that to be above all the means of salvation.” X.79.16

“O Supreme Being! You are the bestower of the wealth of supreme saving knowledge to us. You have become this entire Universe. You unite with the individual soul as the Sutratman (the inner pervading Soul of all individual souls). You pervade the entire Universe. You impart luster to fire. You impart heat and light to the sun. You impart the treasure of light to the moon. You are taken in the Upayama vessel as Soma Juice for oblation. We worship Thee, the Supreme, who are such for manifestation of light.” X.79.17

2. Narayana Sukta (Prapathaka X, Anuvaka 13)

“This universe is the Eternal Being (Narayana), the imperishable, the supreme, the goal, multi-headed and multi-eyed (i.e.,omnipresent and omniscient), the resplendent, the source of delight for the whole universe. This universe is the Supreme Being (Purusha) alone; hence it subsists on That, the Eternal which transcends it (in every way), -the omnipresent Absolute which destroys all sins. The protector of the universe, the Lord of all Souls (or Lord over Self), the perpetual, the auspicious, the indestructible, the Goal of all creation, the Supreme object worthy of being known, the Soul of all beings, the Refuge unfailing (is He). The Lord Narayana is the Supreme Absolute; Narayana is the Supreme Reality; Narayana is the Supreme Light; Narayana is the Supreme Self; Narayana is the Supreme Meditator; Narayana is the Supreme Meditation. Whatever all this universe is, -seen or heard of, -pervading all this from inside and outside alike, stands supreme the Eternal Divine Being (Narayana). He is the Limitless, Imperishable, Omniscient, residing in the ocean of he heart, the Cause of the happiness of the universe, the Supreme end of all striving, (manifesting Himself) in the ether of the heart which is comparable to an inverted bud of the lotus flower. Below the Adams apple, at a distance of a span, and above the navel (i.e., the heart which is the relative seat of the manifestation of Pure Consciousness in the human being), effulges the Great Abode of the universe, as if adorned with garlands of flames. Surrounded on all sides by nerve-currents (or arteries), suspends the lotus-bud of the heart in an inverted position. It is in a subtle space (a narrow aperture, the Sushumna-Nadi), and therein is to be found the Substratum of all things. In that space within the heart resides the Great Flaming Fire, undecaying, all-knowing, with tongues spread out in all directions, with faces turned everywhere, consuming food presented before it, and assimilating it unto itself. His rays, spreading all around, side ways as well as above and below, warm up the whole body from head to foot. In the center of That (Flame) abides the Tongue of Fire as the topmost of all subtle things. (Note: Due to the attachments and entanglements of the Jiva in worldly enjoyment and suffering, the Consciousness is enshrouded in potential as well as expressed objectivity, and hence it appears like a tiny streak of flame within the dark clouds of ignorance. But when the Jiva rises above worldliness the Consciousness is realized as he Infinite.) Brilliant like a streak of lightning set in the midst of the blue rain-bearing clouds, slender like the awn of a paddy grain, yellow (like gold) in colour, in subtlety comparable to the minute atom, (this Tongue of Fire) grows splendid. In the Middle of That Flame, the Supreme Self dwells. This (Self) is Brahma (the Creator), Siva (the Destroyer), Hari (the Protector), Indra (the Ruler), the Imperishable, the Absolute, the Autonomous Being. Prostrations again and again to the Omni-Formed Being, the Truth, the Law, the Supreme Absolute, the Purusha of blue-decked yellow hue, the Centralised-Force, Power, the All-Seeing One. Prostrations again and again to the Omni-Formed Being, the Truth, the Law, the Supreme Absolute, the Purusha of blue-decked yellow hue, the Centralised-Force, Power, the All-Seeing One. We commune ourselves with Narayana, and meditate on Vasudeva, may that Vishnu direct us (to the Great Goal).

Om. May there be Peace, Peace, Peace!”

L. Maitrayani Aranyaka

“They said: ‘Revered one, you are the teacher, you are the teacher. What has been said has been duly fixed in mind by us. Now answer a further question. Fore, air, sun, time, whatever it is, breath, food, Brahma, Rudra, Vishnu- some meditate upon one, some meditate upon another. Tell us- which one is the best for us?’ Then he replied to them: “All these are merely the manifest/frontal forms of Brahman, the Immmortal, the Formless. To whichever form each man is devoted here, in the realm of that deity does that man rejoices. For it has been said- ‘Verily, this whole is Brahman. Verily, these, which are its manifest forms that one meditates on, worships and discards. For by meditation upon these forms, one moves into higher and higher realms. And when all things perish, he attains unity with the Purusha!” IV.5-6

Family Values in the Veda

Husband and Wife

As vigorous Sindhu won himself imperial lordship of the streams so be the imperial queen, when you have come within your husband’s home. AVS 14.1.43

The Purpose of Our Lives

Vedic Concept of Life

A hundred autumns may we see that bright eye, i.e., the sun, beneficent to gods; a hundred autumns may we live. RV 7.66.16

The gods have made the life of a man a full hundred years; this is the time of old-age when sons become fathers in turn. O Lord, do not break the course of life in the midst. RV 1.89.9

May the auspicious favour of the gods be ours; may the bounty of the gods descend on us; we devotedly seek the friendship of the gods; so may the gods extend our life that we may live here. RV 1.89.2

O gods! May we hear good with or ears; may we see good with our eyes; with firm bodies and limbs eulogizing you O ye all, we may attain the hundred year’s life. RV 1.89.8

That bright eye, placed in the east by the gods, has arisen.

May we see for hundred years; May we breath for hundred years.

May we hear for hundred years. May we speak for hundred years.

May we not be poverty trodden.

And if provided so, we would like to live even after a hundred years. MV 26.24

Ethical Teachings of the Veda

Gospel of Non-Violence in the Vedas

O Rudra! Do not kill our men, do not kill our cows, do not kill our horses. RV 1.114.8

I proclaim to the wise man not to kill a cow which is sinless, the mother of the Rudras, the daughter of the Vasus, sister of the Adityas and the navel of immortality. RV 8.101.15

Charity and Friendship

O Pusan! Urge even him to give, who does not want to give. Melt even the mind of the miser so that he gives. RV 6.53.3

May all the people of the world see me with the eye of a friend.

May I see all people with the eye of a friend.

May we all see each other with the eyes of a friend. MYV 36.18

Political Concepts in the Veda

Vedas and Nationhood

May Varuna, Vayu and Agni provide us a great Nation fit for living. AVS 3.8.1

May I be best amongst all persons of the Nation AVS 3.5.2

The all-wise seers, desiring good of all, performed penance in the beginning and resolved firmly, as a result of which the Nation became endowed with all powers. AVZ 19.41.1

People are the Nation, Animals are the Nation, whatever is the excellent, that is the Nation. TS 3.4.8.2

Where the Brahmanic splendour and Kshatra spendor go together, where god-like people perform their religious duties without any hindrance, where Indra and Vayu move together – that region should be considered a good Nation. MYV 20.25-26

I have taken birth in this Nation, may the Lord make me glorious and prosperous here. RVKh 2.6.7

Vedas on Universal Brotherhood of Mankind

Religious Tolerance

May this Earth, bearing people speaking varied languages, and performing diverse rites, as one dwelling place, pour, like a constant cow that never refuses o be milked, a thousand streams of treasure, to enrich me. AVS 12.1.45

World is one Family

The entire Universe has become a Nest. MYV 32.8

References

A. General References on Vedic Hermeneutics

1. CHAUBEY, B. B. 1997. Vedic Concepts. Katyayan Vedic Sahitya Prakashan: Hoshiarpur (Punjab). pp. viii + 80
2. KHOSLA, Inder Dev. 1993. Chips from a Vedic Workshop. D. A. V. College Managing Committee: New Delhi

|| OM Shantih Shantih Shantih OM ||

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The Upanishads: An Alphabetical List

The Upanishads are the best known, and the most authoritative texts of Hindu spirituality. They form the core of Vedanta, a school of philosophy now generally taken as a synonymn for Hindu philosophy and spirituality.¹⁶⁸ Generally, the Upanishads are taken to mean the 10 odd texts, which have been commented upon by by notable Vedantins like Sri Sankaracarya and Sri Madvacharya¹⁶⁹. However, Hindu tradition recognizes more than 200 texts as Upanishads. Collectively, these texts deal with a wide variety if topics – spirituality, devotion, yoga, asceticism, sectarian worship and meditation, esoteric meanings of rituals and even magical charms¹⁷⁰.

This paper lists, in an alphabetical order, the names of all texts designated as ‘Upanishads’, ‘Brahmana-Upanishad’ and ‘Upanishad-Brahmana’ by the Hindu tradition. Under each name, the following additional information will be provided –

1. Alternate names of the text¹⁷¹

2. Major recensions of the text¹⁷²

3. Some good printed editions of the text.

4. Relationship with Vedic literature, if any.

5. A few major Sanskrit commentaries

6. A brief survey of contents, except when the text under consideration is well known, or too large and heterogenous.

The following important pieces of information have been omitted in this paper. –

1. An exhaustive list of translations and commentaries on the text
2. Chronological information
3. Category or class under which the Upanishad is included¹⁷³ These will be dealt with in other papers, that are currently under preparation.

In addition to the texts designated by tradition as Upanishads etc., I have added information on those specific hymns, chapters, and longish sections from four Vedic Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas, whose contents are similar to the ideas of the ten major Upanishads.

The four Samhitas that I have considered here are: Rgveda Samhita¹⁷⁴ (together with the Khilmantra collection¹⁷⁵), Vajasneyi Samhita (in its Madhyandina and Kanva versions¹⁷⁶), Atharvaveda’s Shaunakiya Samhita⁹, Atharvaveda’s Paippalada Samhita¹⁷⁷. The Samhitas of Samaveda are left out because they have very little original material¹⁷⁸. The Samhitas of Krshna Yajurveda are also ignored by and large¹⁷⁹, because their ‘Upanishadic’ matter is minimal, and is found in isolated, short sections, embedded in the larger ritualistic material¹⁸⁰. There is considerable Upanishadic material in the Jaiminiya Brahmana, Shatpatha Brahmana¹⁸¹, Taittiriya Brahmanas and the Gopatha Brahmana, with some of their ‘Upanishadic’ sections being quite long¹⁸², as long as some Upanishads themselves. The Brahmanas have dozens of ad-hoc cosmogonical legends¹⁸³ and theories embedded in their ritualistic matter. These have been ignored, and so have been the numerous short sentences or sections having a spiritual tinge. This paper considers only those sections of the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas that are ‘Upanishadic’ and are fairly long.

Some scholarly readers might consider my selection of individual ‘Upanishadic’ sections from the Samhita-Brahmana-Aranyaka literature as idiosyncratic. Such readers must appreciate the fact that any such selection is bound to be subjective. This is because the subject matter covered by the Upanishadic texts is very large, and there is a great overlap of their doctrines with those found in other Hindu texts. With some justification or the other, it is even possible to treat the entire Rgveda as a spiritual text. Tarkateerth Lakshman Shastri Joshi has already done a very comprehensive collection¹⁸⁴ of ‘Upanishadic’ passages, from the Samhita-Brahmana-Aranyaka literature. He has included the cosmological legends and short sections omitted in this paper. Numerous smaller anthologies of ‘speculative’ hymns from Vedic texts have also appeared in print¹⁸⁵. In the preparation of this paper, these published works have been of immense help, and I request the interested reader also to refer the same.

It is reasonable to assume that several Upanishads have also been lost over the last three millennia, much like the bulk of Vedic literature. Occassionally, one encounters quotations from these lost Upanishads in later literature. Appendix I lists these lost Upanishads, along with with references to later texts that cite them¹⁸⁶.

Achamana Upanishad

Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]

Advaita Upanishad

Advayataaraka Upanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

**Adhyatma Upanishad: **There are two versions of this text. On the first version, we have the dipika of Appayadiksita. Of the second version, the colophon of a manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:134] indicates that it is a dialogue between Narada and Narayana in the Himvat region. The text enumerates 42 pilgrim centers of Hindus, and then locates them in different parts of the human body. For instance, Varanasi is located between the eye-brows, Prayaga in the top of the nose, the Sarasvati in the Sushumnaa and so on.

Aitareya Upanisad (Comprising Aranyakas 2-3 of the Aitreya Aranyaka).

Also called Atmashatakopanishad because it is often divided into 6 khandas in traditional commentaries.

1. Shankaracharya: Only the commentary on Aranyaka 3.4-6 is normally printed. Manuscripts at Calcutta, RAS (#217) however cover the entire Aranyaka 2-3 and the entire commentary has actually been printed.
2. Shadagurushishya: He has written a commentary called ‘Mokshaprada’ on the entire Aitareya Aranyaka. The commentary has been published only partially.
3. Madhvacharya: This Bhashya is on entire Aranyakas 2-3
4. Anandagiri: Tika on the Bhashya of Sri Shankaracharya
5. Anantandagiri: Tika
6. Shankarananda: Advaitic commentary on the entire Aranyakas 2-3
7. Balakrishnananda: Bhashya from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
8. Sayanacharya: Dipika on the Aitareya Upanishad and also ‘Vedartha Prakasha’ on the entire Aitareya Aranyaka
9. Swami Vidyaranya: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
10. Vyasatirtha : Tika on the Bhashya of Madhvacharya
11. Vedeshatirtha, the disciple of Vyasatirtha: Commentary from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective.
12. Vishveshvara Tirtha, the 14^th Pontiff of Pejawar Matha: Tika on the Upanishad from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
13. Shrinivasathirtha: Khandarthaprakashika on the Upanishad
14. Shrinivasatirtha, son of Vitthala: Ratnamala on the Upanishad
15. Shrinivasatirtha, pupil of Vedesha and Yadavarya: Bhavapradipa on the Upanishad
16. Shrivnivasacharya: Bhashyartha Vichara on the Upanishad from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
17. Narasimhabhikshu, pupil of Vidyatirtha: Khandarthaprakashika on the Upanishad from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
18. Krishnacharya, pupil of Raghavendrayati: Khandarthasamgraha, from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
19. Pupil of Venkatavarahacharya: Khandartha, from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
20. Gopala Yati: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
21. Bhaskarananda Saraswati: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
22. Jnanamrta Yati, the disciple of Uttamamrta (mansuscript RAS, Calcutta # 212 and 213): Tippana on Bhashya of Shankaracharya
23. Ramanuja, son of Jagannatha: Vivarana on Aitareya Upanishad
24. Narsimhacharya: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
25. Abhinava Narayanendra Saravati, the disciple of Jnanendra Sarasvati and grand disciple of Kaivalyendra Sarasvati (Manuscript at RAS, Calcutta #214): Vivarana on Shankaracharya’s Bhashya from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
26. Appaya Dikshita: Vivarana on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective
27. Narayana, disciple of Ramendra Sarasvati: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
28. Bhagavantaraja: Bhashya on Aitareya Upanishad
29. A Disciple of Tirtharaja: Tippani on Aitareya Upanishad
30. Vasudeva: Prameyavyakhyasamgraha on Aitareya Upanishad
31. Nrsimhacharya: Bhashya on the Upanishad
32. Damodara Sastri: Manuscript of ‘Nigudarthaprakashanam’ at RAS, Calcutta (#216)
33. Amaradasa Udasin: Commentary called Maniprabha.
34. Appayadikshita (d. 1901), following his Anubhavadvaita Vedanta philosophy.
35. Max Mueller
36. Arthur B. Kieth: English translation, a part of the entire translation of the Aitareya Aranyaka (1905)
37. Damodara Satavalekara: Commentary in Hindi
38. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan: English translation with notes from various traditional commentaries
39. Swami Gambhirananda: Translation and notes in English based on the commentary of Shankaracharya. The Swami belongs to the Ramakrishna Mission
40. Swami Chinmayananda: Text and word for word translation and commentary in English
41. Patrick Olivelle: Text and English translation, with notes on and a mention of the relevant Indological publications on various passages of the Upanishad.
42. Valerie Roebuck.

Aksamalikopanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadikshita at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:123] exists in a manuscript at Adhyar.

Aksyupanishad

The text has two northern and 1 southern versions. Of the northern version, there are two tyoes – a shorter one called the Netropanishad, and a longer one titled the Asyupanishad. In the version that is prevalent in southern India, there are two parts. The first part is called the ‘Cakushmati vidyaa’ and is practically identical with the entire text of the northern version. The second part is a brahmavidyaa of the seven Yogabhumikas, and is absent in the northern version. This brahmavidyaa comprises of 38 or 39 shlokas.

There is a Bhashya of Appayadikshita (d. 1901) available in manuscript, at the Adyar Library [SCHRADER 1908:123-4]. The colophons attach the text to Sukla-Yajurveda.

**Allopanishad: **According to SCHRADER [1908:136-7], the text was composed in the reign of Akbar, to propagate his idea of a universal religion. The text is considered spurious in southern Indi, but is considered sufficiently authoritative in northern India, to be recited by Brahmins in the house of a twice-born Hindu at the Vasantotsva or similar occasions when a few select texts from the four Vedas are read. Interestingly, Swami Dayanand Sarasvati (d. 1883) closes the discussion of Islam (in chapter XIV of his magnum opus, the Satyartha Prakasha) with a comment on the authenticity of this text. He emphasizes that the text is spurious, and that therefore the religion of Islam cannot be derived from any Vedic roots.

The Upanishad as such does not admit that Allah is the deity of another religion. Rather, the word is taken as a synonym of Varuna. Prominent deities mentioned in this text are Mitra, Varuna and Allah. SCHRADER [ibid.] notes that Allah is introduced through the medium of Vedic personages such as Ila or Ida. The text is marked with Vedic accents, but the printed versions as such show several faults of grammar and accent.

Attempts to integrate this spurious text with the Vedic tradition are seen in the existence of even a jaTaapaaTha manuscript, with accents [SCHRADER 1908:68].

**Amrtabindu: **See also Amrtanaada Upanishad below.

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta (1275-1350 CE)
2. Dipika of Sankarananda
3. Dipika of Sadasivendra Sarasvati [Thangaswami 1980:6-7]. He lived around 1550-1650 CE. Manuscript at the Madras Government Ancient Manuscripts Library.
4. Vivarana of Upanishad Brahmendra
5. Dipika by Narayana, son of Ramendra Sarasvati
6. English translation by Alladi Mahadeva Shastri
7. English translation by
8. Hindi translation by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya

**Amrtanaada Upanishad: **In north India, the manuscripts generally call it the Amrtabindu Upanishad. Rarely, the text is also called the Yogopanishad. There are two versions of the text: Northern and Southern.

The northern version has the dipika of Narayana on it. The Southern version has the dipika of Shankarananda and the bhashya of Appayadiksita on it.

There is a separate text titled Amtrabindu Upanishad as well, which is also called the Brahmabindu Upanishad at times.

1. Dipika of Samkarananda
2. Vyaakhya of Narayana [Thangaswami 1980:6]. Published in the Ananda Asrama Series
3. Vivarana of Upanishad Brahmendra

Annapurnopanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiskita

**Apastambiya Adhyatmapatala: The sutra quotes some verses from a lost Upanishadic text, clearly introducing them with the words – “for that end we quote some verses which bring about the attainment of the Self.” Traditional commentaries are by Sankaracharya and Haradatta. **An English translation of the Adhyatmapatala, together with that of Sankaracharya’s commentary on it, is given by Trevor Leggett¹⁸⁷. He considers the commentary as genuine.

Aranya Upanishad

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta (aka Narayana Ashrama), son of Ratnakara Bhatta

Aruneya Upanishad

1. Dipika of Shankarananda
2. Bhashya by Sankarananda
3. Bhashya by Narayana (?)
4. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
5. Dipika of Narayana, disciple of Ramendra Sarasvati: It is unclear if he is identical to the Narayana listed earlier.
6. Bhashya called Upanishadmangalabharana
7. Vivarana by Upanishadbrahmayogin

Arsheya Upanishad

1. Persian translation by Dara Shikoh

2. English translation by Bhandarkar

Aruni Upanishad

1. Dipika of Sankarananda (1275-1350 CE)
2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta – it appears that this commentary was written after the author had read the Dipika of Shankaranand [Thangaswami 1980:7].
3. Vivarana of Upanishad Brahmendra
4. Bhashya of Appayadiksita: Manuscript at Adyar library.

**Asramopanishad: **The text is unknown traditionally in south India, except for the fourth chapter, which is titled ‘Bhiksukopanishad’ [SCRADER 1908:145].

**Atharvanopishad: **This is just another name for the Mundaka Upanishad.

**Atharvashirupanishad: **This text is often called Atharvashiropanishad. It exists in two recensions also – northern and southern.

The northern recension is also known by the following titles – Atharvasirsham, Aatharvasirsham, Atharvasirshopanishad, Sivatharvasirsham, Sivopanishad, Rudraatharvasiras, Rudraatharvaangirasam etc. [SCHRADER 1908:127]. This version has the Dipika by Narayana on it.

The southern recension has the Dipika of Shankarananda and the bhashya of Appayadiksita on it.

1. Bhashya of Shankaracharya. Spurious work, commentary available at the Adyar Library [Thangaswami 1980:6].
2. Bhasya of Rangaramanuja Muni
3. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta (1275-1350 CE), son of Ratnakara Bhatta, disciple of Ramendra Sarasvati
4. Dipika of Sankarananda (1275-1350 CE)

**Atharvasikha: **The text exists in two recensions, Northern and Southern.

The former has the dipika by Narayana on it, and colophons of manuscripts indicate that it belongs to the Saunakiya Sakha of the Atharvaveda. The latter has the Dipika of Sankarananda on it, and may belong to the Paippalada Sakha. The southern recension also has the bhashya of Appayadiksita (d. 1901) on it. Sometimes, this text is also called the Atharvashiropanishad in manuscripts belong to both the recensions. The Atharvashiras is a separate Upanishad however.

1. Bhashya of Shankaracharya: Referred to by Narayana Bhatta, but a spurious work [Thangaswami 1980:5]
2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta (1275-1350 CE), son of Ratnakara Bhatta and disciple of Ramendra Sarasvati. This is on the Northern recension.
3. Dipika of Sankarananda (1275-1350 CE): This is on the southern recension of the text.
4. Vivarana of Upanishad Brahmendra, published by the Adyar Library

Atharva Sirsha Upanishad

1. Dipika of Sankarananda

2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta (1275-1350 CE), son of Ratnakara Bhatta and disciple of Ramendra Sarasvati.

**Atma Upanishad: **This text has two versions. The northern version is completely in prose and has a dipika on it by Narayana. These have been published by Anandasrama, Poona. The Southern version adds 29 shlokas to the prose text, and has been commented upon by Appayadiksita and by Sankarananda.

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
2. Dipika of Sankarananda (1275-1350 CE)
3. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

Atmabodhopanishad: The text exists in two versions. The Northern version is entirely in prose and has a dipika by Narayana (son of Ratnakara Bhatta and pupil of Ramendra Sarasvati) on it, that has been published by Colonel Jacob. The southern version adds 30 shlokas to the former text [SCHRADER 1908:141]

Atmapuja Upanishad

Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]

Avadhuta Upanishad: Several different texts bear this name [SCHRADER 1908:137-9].

Version I is presented as a dialogue between Sri Dattatreya and Samkrti. Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:137-8]. This has a bhashya by Appayadiksita on it.

Version II comprises of verses that give a poetical definition of the eight limbs of Ashtangayoga. A manuscript exists at Adyar.

Version III defines the state of an Avadhuta as the ‘fifth asrama’, and describes the glory of this state.

Version IV is identical to Trisikhibrahmanopanishad.

Avyaktopanishad: A manuscript with the bhashya of Appayadiksita exists at Adyar [SCRADER 1908:139-140].

Bahvrchopanishad: A bhashya by Appayyadiksita exists in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:223-224]

**Bashkala Mantra Upanishad: **SCHRADER [1908:v] thinks that it might be the precursor of all known Upanishads.

There is an anonymous Vrtti (commentary) on the text. The commentary was first published by SCHRADER [1908:307-305] from a manuscript at the Adyar library.

**Batukopanishad: **According to this text, the entire Universe, including the Trimurti, is a manifestation of Lord Batukesvara.

**Bhasmajaabaala Upanishad: **This exists in two versions – Northern and Southern, which have very minor differences.

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iii].

1. Tika by Sivananda-yati: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:102]

2. Anonymous vyaakhyaa [SCHRADER 1908:102]

3. The bhashya of Appayyadiksita on the southern version exists in manuscript at Adyar [1908:235-236].

Bhavana Upanishad

1. Bhasya of Bhaskararaya
2. Bhaskararaya’s ‘prayogavidhi’ [SCHRADER 1908:iii].
3. Bhashya by Appayyadiksita

**Bhiksukopanishad: **This is a different version of the fourth chapter of the Asrama Upanishad. A manuscript of a commentary by Appayyadiksita on it exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:240].

Bilvopanishad

**Brahma Upanishad: **It exists in two recensions – the Northern and the Southern. The latter emits the first section of the former.

1. Commentary by Damodara Sastri
2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta and pupil of Ramendra Sarasvati on the northern recension
3. Dipika on the southern recension by Sankarananda
4. Bhashya on the southern recension by Appayyadiksita – manuscript exits at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 232].

Curiously, the colophon of a manuscript in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1883] starting with the words ‘athaasya purushasya chatvaari…’ says that the text belongs to the Svetasvatara Sakha.

**Brahmabindu Upanishad: **It is alternately known as Amrtabindu Upanishad (especially in South India), and as Bindustokopanishad, Manasopanishad etc., in Western India. It exists in two recensions –

Nothern recension, that has a dipika by Narayana on it.

Southern recension, that has a dipika by Sankarananda, and a Bhashya by Appayyadiksita on it.

Brahmajijnasa Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iii].

**Brahmavidya: **Exists in two recensions – the northern and the Southern version. The later omits the forst verse of the northern recension, but adds 97 of its own.

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta on the northern recension.
2. Bhashya of Appayyadiksita, in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:231], on the southern recension.

Brhadaranyaka Upanisad

1. Bhartrprapanca (Bhedabheda): This was on the Madhyandina version of the text
2. Disciples of Bhartrprapanca: In his Varttika, Suresvara refers to interpretations of # 1 by disciples of Bhartrprapanca
3. Hariswami: Portion of a commentary on the entire Satapatha Brahman. The relevant portion is lost
4. Samkaracarya (Advaita): This and all others subsequently are on the Kanva version of the text
5. Suresvaracharya: A voluminous commentary in approximately 12,000 verses. It is a Varttika
6. Bhasya of Madhvacharya
7. Anandagiri’s commentary on the Varttika of Sri Suresvaracharya
8. Anandagiri’s independent commentary on the Upanishad called ‘Nyayamrita’
9. Dipika of Sankarananda
10. Tippana on # 6 by Jayatirtha
11. Aloka of Sri Vijnana Bhiksu
12. Bhasya of Rangaramanuja Muni
13. Mukhyaartha Prakaasika of Dviveda Ganga on Madhyandina version
14. Vasudeva Brahma on Madhyandina version
15. Nilakantha on Madhyandina version. The author Nilakantha was the son of Ranganatha Saiva and Laksmi. His teachers were Kasinatha and Sridhara. He referred to the previous commentaries by Sri Samkaracharya and Sri Suresvaracharya on the Kanva version but omitted to comment on the first two Brahmanas although they were commented upon by Sri Samkaracharya. Nilakantha gives a reason for this omission and states that these two Brahmanas strictly belong to Asvamedha Karmakanda and are dealt with in the 10th prapathaka of Madhyandina Satapatha Brahmana. Therefore, they should not be dealt with in a commentary on the Upanisad.
16. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) following his Anubhavavedanta school of philosophy. Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:11].
17. Bhasya of Upanishad Brahmayogin
18. Hindi Bhasya by Pt. Satavalekara
19. English translation by Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
20. English translation by Patrick Olivelle
21. English translation by Valerie Roebuck

**Brhajjabala Upanishad: **The text exists in two recensions –

1. The Northern Recension consists of 10 Brahmanas, which are northern equivalents of what is called in the South as Brhajjabalopanishad, Rudraaksajaabaalopanishad and Bhasmajaabaalopanishad, along with some additiona matter. It is only in this conglomeration that Brhajjaabaalopanishad (and also the Rudraksajaabaalopanishad, as it appreas, but not the Bhasmajaabaalopanishad) is found in Northern India.

2. The Southern Recension. A Bhashya on this text by Appayyadiksita exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 226-227].

**Chakra Upanishad: **Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]. It deals with the abhisheka and mantra-nyaasa (the latter with reference to the six mystic circles) to be daily performed in honour of Devi Kali.

**Chaksuroga Upanishad: **See Aksyupanishad.

**Chaksurupanishad: **See Aksyupanishad.

**Chaakusa Upanishad: **See Aksyupanishad.

Chaturveda Upanishad: It is an abbreviated version of the Mahopanishad, with some additions from the Atharvasiras.

Chhagaleya Upanishad

It belongs to the Chhagaleya sub-recension of the Maitrayani Sakha of Krshna Yajurveda.

1. Translation into Persian by Dara Shikoh
2. Paul Duessen’s German rendering of Dara Shikoh’s translation

Chhandogya Upanishad

1. Vakyakara Brahmanandin: A brief comment, called the ‘Vakya’. The work is considered lost but extensive quotations from it are encountered in the works of Advaitins and Vishishtadvaitins. I have collected these.

2. Bhasyakara Dramidacarya: A commentary on # 1 above. Large and small extracts from the Bhashya are encountered in works like Vedarthasamgraha and Shri Bhashya of Shri Ramanujacharya, subcommentaries thereon by Sudarshana Suri, Rudraskanda’s vrtti on Drahyayana Kalpa; Parashara Bhattar’s commentary on the Sri Vishnu Sahasranama and so on. I have collected these.

3. Shankaracharya (Advaita): He terms his Bhashya as a short ‘Vrtti’ in the introductory portion. Anandagiri explains that the word ‘short’ is used to contrast it with the massive commentary of Dramidacharya. The commentary refers to some textual variants.

4. Bhaskara Bhatta (Bhedabheda perspective): Lost, and referred to in Bhaskara’s own commentary on the Brahmasutras. Numerous citations from this work are actually encountered with in the Tippana of Narottama Puri (see below). From these extracts it is clear that Bhaskara pre-supposed the Bhashya of Shankaracharya on this Upanishad, and criticized it in his own commentary. This might be taken as conclusive proof for the genuine character of Shri Shankaracharya’s commentary on the Chhandogya Upanishad.

5. Narendra Puri: A brief comment (‘Tippana’) on Shankaracharya’s commentary. It criticizes the Bhashya of Bhaskara in a very vitriolic language.

6. Madhvacarya (Dvaita perspective): Characteristic of his style, he interprets numerous passages in a very different manner than other traditional commentaries on the text. Significant philosophically is his unique interpretation of the mahavakya ‘Tat tvam asi’ in the 6^th chapter of the Upanishad. Madhvacharya interprets it as ‘atat tvam asi’ and marshals numerous reasons for doing so.

7. Anandagiri: A gloss (= Tika) on Shri Shankaracharya’s Bhashya. It follows the Tippana of Narottama Puri very closely, especially in the identification of allusions to the Dramida Bhashya in Shankaracharya’s commentary. The Tika is written in the characteristic lucid style of Anandagiri, and contains some original citations from the Dramida Bhashya as well, indicating that the Dramida Bhashya was available to him.

8. Sudarashana Suri: Bhashya on the Upanishad from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective.

9. Jnananananda: ‘Chandrika’ on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective

10. Balakrishnananda: ‘Vivarana’ on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective

11. Shankarananda: Dipika on the Upanishad from an Advaita Vedanta perspective

12. Abhinava Narayanendra Saraswati: Pupil of Jnanendra Saraswati. The Tika is written from an Advaita Vedanta perspective.

13. Swami Vidyaranya: 3rd, 4th and 5th chapters of Swami Vidyaranya’s anubhUTiprakAsha. It’s not strictly a commentary, though. The chapters are called shvetaketuvidyA-prakAsha, sanatkumAravidyA-prakAsha and prajApatividyA-prakAsha. Pl. see Godabarisha Mishra’s critical edition published by the Univ of Madras.

14. Sayanacharya (Advaita): The commentary has been published on the basis of 2 manuscripts- one from Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute and the other from the Oriental Research Institute at Mysore (ref. 1). The Dipika, as the commentary is called, is a very lucid paraphrase that follows the Bhasya of Sri Shankaracharya very closely. From the colophons, it is apparent that Sayana wrote this work after completing his commentary on the Samhitas of Rigveda, Samaveda and Yajurveda. In addition to Sri Samharacharya’s Bhasya, the Dipika has relied heavily on the Vaiyasika Nyayamala of Swami Bharati Tirtha, and quotes the same very frequently. In fact, the Dipika might be regarded as a very lucid gloss on the Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya, and supplements the latter with additional quotes from a plethora of Vedic and Pauranic texts, and gives additional examples, textual analysis etc. to clarify the Upanishadic sentences. At the same time, the Dipika condenses the polemical sections of the Bhashya so that they are more comprehensible.

15. Vyasatirtha: A sub-commentary on Shri Madhvacharya’s Bhashya on the Chhandogya Upanishad, written obviously from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective. Like his other works, the sub-commentary is marked by acute fidelity to Madhvacharya’s Bhashya, and is superb for its logical acumen.

16. Vedesha Bhikshu, disciple of Vyasatirtha: ‘Padarthakaumudi’ on the Chhandogya Upanishad, from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective.

17. Rangaramanuja: Written from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective. Like his commentaries on most Upanishads, this is also a brief one and tries to incorporate comments on the relevant passages as far as they occur in the works of Shri Ramanujacharya. A noteworthy feature the work is that it cites all the Brahmasutras which refer to a particular passage of the Upanishad, while commenting on that passage. It is well known that the Brahmasutras do deal with only representative passages of the Upanisads and the principles enunciated in the text can be applied to many other parallel Upanisadic texts. This has been well demonstrated by Sri Rangaramanuja and he has applied the Brahmasutras profusely to arrive at a meaning of numerous passages of the Upanisads. Unfortunately, and contrary to expectations, Rangaramanuja does not give any new original citations from the Vakyagrantha or the Dramida Bhashya.

18. Dara Shikoh: A Persian translation written with the assistance of Sarvavidyanidhana Kavindracharya and other Pundits of Varanasi during the reign of Emperor Shah Jehan. The work was translated into German by Paul Duessen, and thereafter into English by Palsule and Bedekar (“Sixty Upanishads of the Veda”).

19. Raghavendra Yati: Written from the Dvaita Vedanta perspective.

20. Appaya Dikshit: Bhashya on the Upanishad written from the Advaita Vedanta perspective.

21. Advaitananda Tirtha: He composed a commentary called the Tatparya Dipika on the Upanishad.

22. Bhaskara Parivrajaka: ‘Padartha Vivarana’ on the Upanishad

23. Nityananda Ashrama: Pupil of Purushottama Ashrama. His work is called the ‘Artha Prakasha’. Written from an Advaita Vedanta perspective.

24. Nityananda Ashrama: Same person as the author of the ‘Artha Prakasha’. Wrote another commentary called the ‘Mitakshara’. Written from an Advaita Vedanta perspective.

25. Vyankatesh Ramachandra Sharma: Tika on the Upanishad

26. Bhagavadbhavaka: Vrtti on the Upanishad.

27. Upanishad Brahmayogin: Vivarana on the Upanishad. He is the celebrated author of commentaries on numerous Upanishads written from a Kevaladvaita perspective.

28. Vidyadhirajatirtha: Vyakhyana on the Upanishad

29. Nigudhartha Prakasana of Damodara Sastri

30. Ramasubrahmanya Shastri: ‘Vilasa’ on the text.

31. Ramanya, son of Jagannatha: Vyakhya on the Upanishad

32. Haribhau Shukla: Prakashika on the Upanishad

33. Vidushekhara Bhattacharya: Vyakhya on the Upanishad

34. Pandit Aryamuni: He wrote a commentary on all the ten major Upanishads from an Arya Samaj perspective, with a view to controvert Advaitic interpretations¹⁸⁸.

35. Damodara Satavalekara: Commentary in Hindi, cited in the catalog of the Swadhyaya Mandala, but never encountered

36. Pundit Shivashankara Kavyatirtha: A very scholarly Hindi-Sanskrit metrical commentary that employs the Vedangas profusely. Written from the Arya Samaj perspective. The work was first published by the Paropakarini Sabha of Ajmer and has been reprinted several times.

37. Pandit Rajaram Shastri: He wrote a commentary on eleven Upanishads¹⁸⁹.

38. Mahatma Narayana Swami: He wrote a simple but insightful Hindi commentary on the ten major Upanishads from an Arya Samaj perspective¹⁹⁰.

39. Swami Nikhilananda: English translation with extensive notes, based on the Bhashya of Shri Shankaracharya

40. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan: English translation with notes from various traditional commentaries

41. Swami Chinmayanada: An English gloss on the Chhandogya Upanishad

42. Patrick Olivelle: Text and English translation, with notes on and a mention of the relevant Indological publications on various passages of the Upanishad.

43. Valerie Roebuck: English translatiom

**Chityupanishad: **This is another name for Taittiriya Aranyaka prapathaka III. Commentaries on this text are by

1. Bhatta Bhaskara

2. Sayanacharya

3. Maheshvara¹⁹¹

**Chulika Upanishad: **The southern recension of this Upanishad is called the Mantrika Upanishad. In some manuscripts, the Chulika Upanishad, in combination with the Yogasikha Upanishad is termed as the Mantrika Upanishad or the Mantra Upanishad.¹⁹²

1. Bhasya of Rangaramanuja Muni
2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
3. Dipika of Narayanashramin
4. Dipika of Shankarananda
5. Commentary of Mukunda
6. Vivarana of Upanishadbrahmayogin

Daksinamurti Upanishad: According to the colophons of three manuscripts of the text at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:198], it belongs to the Kausika Sakha of Atharvaveda.

Darsanopanishad: It has a bhashya on it by Appayyadiksita, a manuscript of which exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 200-201].

Dasasloki Upanishad: It is a short text of 10 shlokas said to have been uttered extempore by Sri Sankaracharya when he met his teacher Govindapada on the banks of Narmada.

Dattatreya Upanishad: A Bhashya on it by Appayyadiksita also exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:199-200].

**Dattaatrayottaratapiniya Upanishad: **Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iii]. This text is an exposition of various Dattatreya mantras – of six syllables, eight syllables, twelve syllables, and so on, together with the fruit of meditation upon them.

**Devi Upanishad: **It is one of the five texts constituting the Atharvsirsa-panchaka. Other names of this text are Devyaatharvasirsam, Devyaatharvasiram and Devyaatharvaangirasam. A commentary by Appayadiksita exists on it, in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 201].

**Dhyanabindu: **The text exists in two recensions – the shorter Northern Recension, and a 7 times longer Southern Recension.

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta on the Northern Recension.
2. The Bhashya of Appayyadiksita on the Southern Recension, existing in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 203].

Dvayopanishad

**Ganapati Atharvatapini Upanishad: **In north India, it is popularly known as the Ganeshaatharvasisrsam or as Sriganapatyatharvasirsam. It is recited with Vedic accents by Maharashtrian Brahmins. Other names of the same text are Ganesha Upanishad and Vighnesvara Upanishad. Sometimes, it is divided into two parts – the Ganeshapurvatapini Upanishad (also called Varadapurvatapini) and the Ganesha Uttaratapini (also called the Varada Uttaratapini).

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
2. Bhashya by Appayyadiksita – manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:170].

Garbha Upanishad

1. Dipika of Shankarananda
2. Bhasya of Rangaramanuja Muni
3. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
4. Persian translation commissioned by Dara Shikoh
5. Bhashya by Apayyadikshita
6. Dipika by Upanishadbrahmayogin
7. Hindi translation by Sriram Sharma Acharya

**Garuda Upanishad: **There are two recensions of this text –

The Northern Recension, of which there are two versions again. The short version, on which we have a Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta. And a longer version, 5 times in extent, published by Weber¹⁹³.

The Southern Recension is longer than even the text published by Weber. A commentary on this Recension by Appayyadiksita exists in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:174-175].

Gayatri Upanishad

It is the first half of the first Upanishad of the Tripuraataapiniyaupanishad I [SCHRADER 1908:99]. Other versions also exist.

Gayatrirahasya Upanishad: This is virtually identical with a version of the Gayatri Upanishad. No further information is available.

**Gopala Tapani Upanishad: **Has an Uttaratapini and a Purvatapini.

1. Commentary by Visvesvara

2. Dipika by Narayana

3. Commentary by Krishnachaitanya

4. Commentary by Jiva Gosvami

5. Commentary by Vidyabhushana

6. Anonymous Vivrtti, manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 178-179].

7. Commentary by Prabodha Yati¹⁹⁴.

8. Bhashya by Appayyadiksita, manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 178-180].

Gopichandana Upanishad

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

Guhyakali Upanishad

This Upanishad purports to be an esoteric portion of the Mahaakaala Samhita. It teaches the Viraat-dhyana in which parts of the Universe are meditated upon as different parts of the body of the Great Devi. The splendour and majesty of the latter is described in beautiful poeti terms, although the bulk of the text consists of slightly modified quotations from older metrical Upanishads, particularly the Svetasvatara. Interestingly, the opening verses state that the principal Sakhas of Atharvaveda, in serial order, are Vaaratantavi, Maunjaayani, Taarnabaindavi, Saunaki, Paippaladika and Saumantavi, and that the Upanishad belongs to all the six of them.

**GuhyashoDhaanyaasa Upanishad: **It purports to be the esoteric portion of the Shodhopanishad. According to the colophons of the manuscripts containing this text, it belongs to the SaubhaagyakaaNDa of the Atharvaveda.

Hamsa Upanishad: The text has two recensions – the northern recension with the dipika of Narayana and the bhashya of Appayadiksita, and the southern version, with the bhashya of Shankarananda.

1. Dipika of Shankarananda
2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
3. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

Hayagriva Upanishad

Herambopanishad: SCHRADER [1908:304] notes that this text is encountered only in conjunction with the Ganeshatapini Upanishad. The text gives an etymology for the name ‘Heramba’, which is a synonym for Lord Ganesha. Thereafter, Paramesvara teaches the esoteric Heramba-tattva to Parvati. According to this teaching, Sri Ganesha is the god of gods, or the Supreme God. The text is composed in Indravajraa (Upajaati) meter.

Isavasya Upanishad

1. Bhartrprapanca (Bhedabheda Vedanta): Was probably on Madhyandina recension of Yajurveda. No longer extant. Hiriyanna interprets a statement in Anandagiri’s gloss on Suresvara’s Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Varttika to mean that Bhartrprapanca also wrote a commentary on this Upanishad.
2. Samkaracarya (Advaita Vedanta): This is on Kanva recension of Yajurveda
3. Uvata (Vaidik commentary): This is a part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyandina recension). According to the colophons of this work, Uvata hailed from Anandapura in Gujarat, but wrote his commentary while living in Avanti (= Ujjain) during the reign of Raja Bhoja (996-1051 C.E.). According to some, Uvata and Kaiyata were brothers of the Kashmirian scholar Mammata, and were therefore Kashmiri Pundits. However, this view is untenable because the colophons clearly state that he was the son of Vajrata, who was from Gujarat. At the commencement of his commentary, Uvata lists the exegetical principles (vyakhya dharmas) that he will employ. The commentary is brief and precise.
4. Kuranarayana (Visistadvaita Vedanta)
5. Tippana of Narendra Puri
6. Madhvacarya (Dvaita Vedanta)
7. Tippana by Anubhutisvarupacharya (manuscript at Bikaner)
8. Anandagiri: Sub-commentary on # 2 above. It is called Tattvaloka and criticizes the views of Bhaskara.
9. Venkatanatha (Visistadvaita Vedanta)
10. Sayanacarya (Advaita Vedanta): Manuscript at Central Library at Baroda
11. Vijnanabhiksu (Samkhya-Vedanta)
12. Jayatirtha: Sub-commentary on # 5 above
13. Tippana of Sivananda Yati. Unpublished manuscript available at the Madras Government Oriental Library. The author lived around 1650-1750 CE [Thangaswami 1980:8]
14. Anantabhatta: part of his commentary on Kanva Yajurveda Samhita. The text has been published in the Ananda Asrama series. Ananta was the son of Nagadeva Bhatta, and another of his work titled Vidhaana-paarijaata, was written around 1625 CE [Thangaswami 1980:9].
15. Bhashya of Ananda Bhatta: Published in the Ananda Asrama series. The author was the son of Jataveda Bhatta and Jahnavi and was the disciple of Vasudeva Puri. He quotes Shankarananda in his work and therefore was posterior to him [Thangaswami 1980:9].
16. Mahidhara: Vaidik commentary. This is a part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyandina Sakha) Samhita.
17. Chintamani by Sadananda
18. Anandabodha: Commentary on the entire Kanva Yajurveda Samhita
19. Bhashya of Appaya Dikshita
20. Dipika of Raghavendra Yati (Dvaita Vedanta)
21. Dipika of Samkarananda, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma, on #2 above. Published by Ananda Asrama (Pune)
22. Dipika of Balakrishnananda
23. Bhashya by Kika, the son of Narayana (date unknown)
24. Bhashya by Gopalananda, disciple of Sahajananda. Manuscript available at Baroda.
25. Chandrika by Hridayarama (date unknown)
26. Tippana by Jnanananda (date unknown)
27. Manuprabha commentary by Amaradasa (date unknown)
28. Viveka by Sridharananda (date unknown). Manuscript available at the Adyar Library
29. Prakashika by Srivatsanka – Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]. This is just another name for Kuranarayana [ibid: 145]
30. Upanisadbrahmayogin (Paramadvaita Vedanta): Manuscript at Central Library, Baroda (1765-1850 CE)
31. Commentary by Damodararya (date unknown)
32. Commentary by Narasimha Bhatta (date unknown)
33. Vrtti by Devendranatha Thakur (1862)
34. Commentary by Gangadhara Kaviratna Kaviraja
35. Vimala by Taracharana Tarkaratna (1880)
36. Vyakhya and Rahasyavrtti by Ramachandra Pandit, disciple of Siddheshvara. He authored the work around 1817 CE. [Thangaswami 1980:10]. The author was a follower of the Madhyandina Yajurveda Sakha, of Atreya Gotra, son of Srisiddhi. His commentary is metrical, each mantra of the Upanishad being followed by several shlokas. The text has been published by Ananda Asrama.
37. Dayanand Saraswati: Vaidik commentary. Part of the commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyanadina Sakha) Samhita
38. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an ‘Anubhavadvaitavedanta’ perspective.
39. Vivarana by Swami Prakashananda
40. Commentary by Gobhila published by Suddha Dharma Mandala
41. Damodara Satavalekara: Vaidik commentary. In Hindi
42. Swami Gambhirananda
43. Swami Nikhilananda
44. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
45. Paul Thieme
46. Shrila Prabhupada Bhaktivedanta: Written from a Gaudiya Vedanta perspective. Highly popular due to widespread dissemination by the followers of ISKCON.
47. Swami Jagadishwarananda: Written from an Arya Samaj perspective
48. Swami Chinmayananda:
49. Rajavira Shastri- Hindi gloss comparing the commentaries of Shankaracharya and Dayanada Saraswati. Written from an Arya Samaj perspective, in a very scholarly manner.
50. Ekanath Easwaran
51. Patrick Olivelle
52. Valerie Roebuck

**Jabala Upanishad: **It is also alternately called the Laghujaabaala Upanishad, or the Yajnavalkya Upanishad.

1. Dipika by Samkarananda, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma
2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
3. Bhashya by Appayyadiksita, manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 184].
4. Commentary by Bhaasuraananda
5. Commentary by Jnaanaananda
6. Arthaprakaasha by Digambaraanuchara¹⁹⁵ Jaabaali Upanishad: A manuscript of a Bhashya by Appayyadiksita exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 184].

**Kaalaagnirudra Upanishad: **It is the name of two entirely different texts, which share only their name, and the main theme (tripundravidhi) discussed. The first text is considered a part of the Nandikeshwara Purana.

The second text has two versions, the northern with the Dipika of Narayana¹⁹⁶, and southern, with the Bhashya of Appayadiksita – manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 138].

Kaalikopanishad

A shorter recension of the text, titled Syaamopanishad [SCHRADER 1908:68] also exists. According to a manuscript in the devanagari script [ibid:88], the Upanishad belongs to the saubhaagyakaaNDa of the Atharvaveda.

Kaalimedhaadikshita Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]. It discusses the marvelous transformation produced in the worshipper who meditates on Kali in the form of ‘medhaa-diksita’.

**Kalisantarana Upanishad: **This text is the source of the famous mantra recited by the Hare Krishnas (“Hare Rama, Hare Rama…..”) and is also termed as the ‘Naamopanishad’.

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita: Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:153].

**Kaamakalopanishad: **See Tripuropanishad.

KaamaraajakIlitoddhara-Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]. It is a tantric text that discusses how one can enjoy sexual pleasure completely, which itself is considered a way to salvation [ibid, 155].

**Katha Upanisad: **This text is also called the Kathaka Upanishad, Kathakamantra Upanishad and especially in southern India, also as the Kathavalli Upanishad.

7. Bhartrprapanca (Bhedabheda)
8. Samkaracarya (Advaita)
9. Commentary by Anubhutisvarupacharya
10. Anandagiri: Sub-commentary on # 2 above
11. Gopalayatindra or Gopalayogi: Sub-commentary on # 2 above
12. Rangaramanuja (Visistadvaita)
13. Madhvacarya (Dvaita)
14. Commentary by Balakrishnananda
15. Vyasatirtha: Sub-commentary on # 6 above
16. Bhasha by Achyutakrishnananda
17. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
18. Dipika by Shankarananda
19. Nigudhartha Prakasika by Damodara Sastri
20. Bhashya by Narayanendra Saraswati
21. Bhashya by Nrsimha Saraswati
22. Bhashya by Nrsimha Bharati
23. Vivarana by Balagopalendrayogin
24. Bhashya by Vedeshatirtha
25. Bhashya by Varadatirtha
26. Tippana by Shivanandayati
27. Bhashya by a disciple of Shrinivas of the Shrivatsagotra
28. Bhasya of Appaya Dikshit
29. Prakashika (anonymous)
30. Dipika of Narayana,son of Ratnakara Bhatta
31. Bhashya of Bhasurananda alias Bhaskaracharya
32. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an Anubhavadvaitavedanta perspective. Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 154-155].
33. Upanisadbrahmayogin -manuscript in Central Library- Baroda (Paramadvaita)
34. Bhashya by Anandachandra Vedantavagisha
35. Prabha by Krishnakavi
36. Nigudartha Prakasha by Damodara Shastri
37. Damodara Satavalekara (Vaidik): In Hindi
38. English translation by Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
39. Hindi Bhashya by Acharya Rajvir Shastri
40. English translation by Patrick Olivelle

The text is also included in manuscripts containing the collection of 52 Atharvana Upanishads, and may be called therein, the Atharvavalli Upanishads [SCHRADER 1908:103].

Katharudra Upanishad: It is the southern recension of the Kanthasruti Upanishad, with the following two differences: First, the first two sections of the Kanthasruti do not occur in the Katharudra. Second, the Katharudra ends with 42 verses whereas the Kanthasruti ends with 5 verses only.

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

Kathasruti Upanishad: See the Katharudra Upanishad.

**Katha Siksa Upanishad: **Published from the first time recently. It is a part of the Kathaka Aranyaka.

Kathasruti Upanishad

53. Bhashya of Appaya Dikshit
54. Vivarana of Upanishad Brahmayogin

Kaulopanishad: Manuscript, with a commentary by Bhaskararaya exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii].

Katyayana Upanishad: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]. It deals with the Urdhvapundra – what materials are used for it, how to apply it on the forehead, and the merit of bearing it on the forehead.

Kaivalya Upanishad

North Indian manuscripts begin with the Santimantra ‘bhadraM karNebhiH…’ whereas South Indian manuscripts begin with the Santimantra ‘saha naavavatu…’

1. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
2. Upanishad-Sarartha Prakasa of Shankarananda
3. Tika by Vidyaranya Muni, the disciple of Shankarananda
4. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
5. English translation by Alladi Mahadeva Sastri.
6. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) from a Anubhadvaitavedanta perspective.
7. Hindi translation by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya.

Kanthasruti

8. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

Kaulopanishad

1. Bhashya of Bhaskararaya: Manuscript in Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:167].

Kaushitaki Upanishad

55. Anandagiri: Tika

56. Sayanacharya: Bhashya

57. Dipika of Shankarananda: The text was first published by E. B. Cowell with a translation of the Upanishad proper¹⁹⁷.

58. Rangaramanuja

59. Rangaramanujadasa

60. Rangacharya

61. Vasudeva Yati: Bhashya

62. Narayana: Dipika

63. Appaya Dikshit: Bhashya

64. Nagara Narayana, pupil of Ramendra Saraswati: Jnanamala on the Upanishad

65. Upanishadbrahmayogin: Vivarana

66. Shyamala Goswami: Anvayamukhavyakhyana

67. Sitanatha Tattvabhushana: Shankarakripa

68. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan

69. Patrick Olivelle

**Kausitaki Samhita Upanishad: **In the Shankhayana Aranyanka, the Kausitaki Upanishad in four chapters is followed by the Samhita Upanishad. This work also has a commentary on it by Shankarananda¹⁹⁸.

**Kena Upanisad: **The text is known by the following alternative names – Talavakaropanishad, Talavakaarabrahmanopanishad, Brahmanopanishad, Keneshitopanishad.

1. Bhavatrata (unkown): Portion of a commentary on the entire Talavakara Aranyaka- manuscript preserved at the Vishvesvaranand Vedic Research Institute at Hoshiarpur, India

2. Samkaracarya (Advaita): Wrote two commentaries- the more extensive ‘Padabhasya’ and the shorter ‘Vakyabhasya’.

3. Anandagiri: Sub-commentaries on # 2 above

4. Dipika by Narayana, pupil of Ramendra Sarasvati

5. Madhvacarya (Dvaita)

6. Vyasatirtha: A sub-commentary on # 4 above

7. Rangaramanuja (Visistadvaita)

8. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagvat

9. Nigudhartha Prakasika by Damodara Sastri

10. Krishnalilashukamuni authored a ‘Shankarahridayangama’ commentary following Shankaracharya’s commentary on the text.¹⁹⁹

11. Upanisadbrahmayogin (Paramadvaita): Manuscript preserved at Central Library at Baroda

12. Bhashya of Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an Anubhavadvaitavedanta perspective – exists in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 165-166].

13. Satya Deva: Kenopanisad-Darpana published by the Vishveshvaranand Institute of Vedic Studies, Hoshiarpur, in 1952

14. Damodara Satavalekara

**Khilasamhitopanishadrahasya-parivraajakopanishad: **This is the same as Parivraajaka Upanishad.

Krshna Uttaratapani Upanishad

15. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

**Krshna Upanishad: **It exists in two versions –

The northern version has only verses, and is available with the dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta.

The southern version adds a second section in prose to the northern version. It has a bhashya by Appayadiksita on it.

Kshurika

16. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
17. Bhashya by Appayyadiksita – manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 169].

Kundikopanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita, manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 163].

Laghujaabaalopanishad: This is the same as Jaabaalopanishad.

Langulopanishad: Deals with the worship of Lord Hanuman.

Lingopanishad: This deals with the necessity of wearing the Shivalinga on one’s person.

**Maha Upanishad: **The text exists in numerous recensions, the shorter one belonging to the northern India [SCHRADER 1908:96].

18. Dipika of Shankarananda
19. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

Mahaavaakya Vivarana Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii, 246] with a commentary by Appayyadiksita.

Mahavakyavivarana Upanishad: It contains an explanation in prose of the Upanishadic Mahavakyas.

Mahaachakraavaranopanishad: This is same as Tripuraataapinyupanishad.

Mahanarayana Upanishad

20. Bhatta Bhaskara: It follows the Andhra recension.

21. Sayanacharya, following the Andhra recension.

22. Bhasya of Kesava, a disciple of Sri Madhvacharya: It follows the Andhrapatha of the text.

23. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta. It follows the Atharvanika recension of the text.

24. Vivarana of Vijnanatman

25. Commentary by Rangaramanujamuni, along Visishtadvaita lines. This is on the Dravida text.

26. Vivarana by Purushottamaanandatirtha, disciple of Sivaramaanandatirtha. It is composed of verses, with a prose sentence here and there. The work has been published from a solitary manuscript in the Adyar library.²⁰⁰ The author himself states towards the end, in verses 543 ff., that he has merely abridged the elaborte commentary of Sayanacharya and that he has followed the DravidapaaTha of the text.

27. English translation by Swami Vimalananda

28. English translation by P. Lal

29. Hindi translation by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya

30. French translation by Varenne

Mandukya Upanishad

31. Karikas if Gaudapadacharya

32. Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya on the Upanishad and the Karikas

33. Bhasya of Sri Madhvacharya

34. Tika of Anandagiri (on #2 above)

35. Tika of Vyasatirtha (on # 3 above)

36. Aloka of Sri Vijnana Bhiksu

37. Tika of Srinivasatirtha (Visistadvaita)

38. Bhasya of Rangaramanujamuni

39. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagvat, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma

40. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

41. Commentary by Brahmaanda Sarasvati

42. Commentary by Raaghavendra: This is a commentary on Madhvacharya’s commentary on the Upanishad and is called Mandukya Upanishad Bhashyasamgraha. He also wrote an independent commentary on the Upanishad.²⁰¹

43. Commentary by Mathuraanaatha on Shankaracharya’s commentary on the text.

44. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an Anubhavadvaitavedanta perspective.

45. Pandit Gurudatta Vidyarthi:

Maitrayaniya Upanishad: Also called Maitrayaniya Aranyaka or Brhadaranyaka of Maitrayaniya Sakha. Other names are Maitrayaniya Brahmanopanishad, Maitrayanopanishad, Maitryupanishad and so on. In some manuscripts, it occurs as a part of the Maitrayaniya Samhita²⁰². It exists in two versions –

The northern recension comprising of seven prapathakas, with the dipika by Ramatirtha on it, and the southern recension comprising prapathakas 1-6.8 of the northern recension. There is another southern recension containing only the first four prapathakas of the northern recension, and this has the bhashya of Appayyadiksita on it.

46. Bhashya of Sri Samkaracharya
47. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
48. Dipika of Ramatirtha
49. Dipika by Narayanabhatta: This seems to be on the Maitreyi Upanishad.
50. Dipika by Prakasatman
51. Hindi translation by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya
52. English translation by Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
53. English translation by Valerie Roebuck

Maitreya Upanishad: Two entirely distinct texts go by this name –

Text 1: This is a detailed treatise on Rudrakshas, and quotes authorities like the Katyayana Sakha, Baudhayana Sakha, Rudropanishad etc.

Text 2: This is a Vedantic text, itself existing in two recensions. The Northern recension is the shorter one, and forms the middle chapter of the longer, Southern recension, which has 3 chapters. The latter has a commentary on it by Appayyadiksita while the northern recension has been commented upon by Narayana, the pupil of Ramendra Sarasvati.

Mandalabrahmanopanishad: It has a commentary on it by Appayyadiksita [SCHRADER 1908:242] that exists in manuscript at Adyar.

Mantropanishad: This is Bhagavata Purana VIII.1.9-17 [SCHRADER 1908:243].

Mantrikopanishad: This is the southern recension of the Chulikopanishad. It has a commentary on it by Appayyadiksita [SCHRADER 1908: 242-243].

Mathaamnyaaya Upanishad

Mudgala Upanishad

It has the commentary of Appayyadiksita on it.

**Muktika Upanishad: **It has the Bhashya of Appayyadiksita on it.

Mundaka Upanisad

54. Samkaracarya (Advaita)
55. Bhaskara Bhatta: Manuscripts mentioned by Oppert. It is clear which Bhatta Bhaskara this is since several scholars of this name are known in Hindu history
56. Anubhutisvarupacarya: A sub-commentary on # 1 above
57. Madhvacarya (Dvaita)
58. Anandagiri: A sub-commentary on # 1 above
59. Vyasatirtha: A subcommentary on # 4 above
60. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
61. Commentary by Abhinavanaraayanendra Sarasvati, on Shankaracharya’s commentary on the Upanishad.
62. Tika of Srinivasatirtha (Visistadvaita)
63. Rangaramanuja (Visistadvaita)
64. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
65. Nrsimhacaryya Chhalari (Dvaita)
66. Nigudhartha Prakasika of Damodara Sastri
67. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagavat, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma
68. Upanisadabrahmayogin (Paramadvaita): Manuscript at Central Library at Baroda
69. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an Anubhavadvaitavedanta perspective.
70. Commentary by Damodaracharya
71. Commentary by Narahari
72. Mundakopanishad Khandaartha by Narasinha Yati
73. Damodara Satavalekara
74. Patrick Olivelle

MrtyulaangalaUpanishad: This text was first published by Colonel Jacob in the Indian Antiquary (1887). There are several versions of this text.

Naaraayana Upanishad: It is also called the Vishnu Upanishad, and is counted as one of the five Atharvasirsa Panchaka. A Bhashya by Appayyadiksita exists on the text in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 206]. Another commentary due to Narayana, pupil of Ramendra Sarasvati also exists.

**Nadabindu: **There are two recensions of the text – A shorter Northern Recension containing 20 shlokas, and a Southern Recension that adds another 36 shlokas to the former.

75. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta, on the Northern Recension.
76. Bhashya of Appayadiksita on the Southern Recension, existing in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:203]

Naamopanishad: This is another name for Kalisantantarana Upanishad [SCHRADER 1908: 204].

Naaradaparivraajaka Upanishad: A manuscript of a commentary on it by Appayyadiksita exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 204].

Netropanishad: It is the shorter version of the Caksusopanishad, that is prevalent in northern India. The Caksushopanishad exists in a slightly different version in southern India (see Aksyupanishad above). Writing at the beginning of the 20^th century, SCHRADER [1908:123] wrote that the text was still used in Amritsar against the diseases of the eye – eight Brahmins were called in to the house of the patient for the recitation of the text over a particular length of time.

These Upanishad texts are also termed as Aksikopanishad.

**Nilarudra: **Although considered a ‘late’, ‘sectarian, Shaivite’ text, it is actually an integral portion of the Paippalada Samhita of Atharvaveda – itself the second oldest Hindu scripture.

77. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

**Niralamba Upanishad: The Upanishad consists of questions such as ‘Who is Brahman’, ‘Who is Paramatman’ and so on. **There are two recensions of this text – the Northern and the Southern. The Northern recensions itself exists in two versions – a shorter and a longer version. The former is published in Indische Studien, vol.XVII by Weber. The longer version is three times longer than the shorter one because the answers to the questions therein are much more complete, and are embellished with quotations from other texts. According to SCHRADER [1908 1908:207], this longer version rather looks like a commentary on the core text. It is the southern recension that is typically printed in collections of 108 Upanishads, and has a commentary on it (in manuscript) by Appayyadiksita.

There is even a ‘middle’ recension of the text, that is midway between the Northern and the Southern Recension.

78. Commentary of Sayanacharya (Ref. 1, Pg. 1394, no. 1765)

Nirvana Upanishad: Two distinct texts go by this name. One has a commentary by Appayyadiksita at Adyar, in manuscript. Another is merely an Advaitic hymn related to the Svarupopanishad [SCHRADER 1908:210-211].

Nirukta Upanishad: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iii]. It appears to be an older version of the Garbha Upanishad, and is identical with the sixth and seventh paragraphs at the beginning of the 14^th chapter of Yaska’s Nirukta.

Nrsimhapurva Tapiniya Upanishad

79. Commentary by Sri Samkaracharya (considered spurious)
80. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
81. Dipika of Sankarananda
82. Commentary by Purushottama

Nrsimhottara Tapaniya Upanishad

83. Commentary ascribed to Gaudapadacharya (considered spurious)
84. Commentary of Samkaracharya (considered spurious)
85. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
86. Dipika of Sankarananda
87. Commentary by Purushottama

Paasupatabrahma Upanishad: It has a bhashya by Appayyadiksita on it.

**Paingala Upanishad: **There are two distinct recensions of this work. The shorter recension is merely the first third of the fourth chapter of the longer recension.

70. Bhashya of Appayyadiksita on the longer version.
71. Dipika of Upanishad Brahmayogin on the longer version.

Panchabrahmopanishad: A manuscript of a bhashya by Appayyadiksita exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:214].

Parabrahma Upanishad

There are two distinct texts that bear the same name. One lists the various denominations of Brahman and is a prose text. The other has a commentary on it by Appayyadiksita, existing in manuscript [SCHRADER 1908:214-215].

Paramahamsa Upanishad

1. Dipika of Samkarananda, the disciple of Acharya Anandatman
2. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
3. Bhashya by Appayyadiksita, in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 216-217].

Paramahamsaparivraajaka Upanishad: It has a bhashya by Appayyadiksita on it, in manuscript [SCHRADER 1908:216].

Parivraajaka Upanishad: It is identical with the seventh section of the Naaradaparivraajaka Upanishad.

PaaraayaNa Upanishad: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iii]. It treats with the mahaakaaligaayatri mantra, that is claimed to secure the complete study of mantra, naaman and chakra, and leads to miraculous effects.

Pitambara Upanishad: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iii]. It is basically a meditation on Mahadevi whose clothes and ornaments are described as yellow (hence the name of the work). She is said to be the progenetrix of the Universe. [SCHRADER 1908: 218-219].

Pinda

4. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta. Maniscript in Jammu in the collection of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir²⁰³.

Pranagnihotra

5. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
6. Bhashya by Appayyadiksita.

Pranava Upanishad

Two distinct texts go by this name. The first is identical with the northern recension of the Brahmavidyopanishad. The second version is identical with Gopatha Brahmana I.1.16-30

1. Translation into Persian by Dara Shikoh

Prasna Upanishad

7. Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya
8. Tika of Anandjnana: This is merely a subcommentary on # 1 above
9. Bhasya of Sri Madhvacharya
10. Vivritti of Balakrishnananda
11. Bhasya of Vyasatirtha: This is a subcommentary on # 3 above
12. Aloka of Sri Vijnana Bhiksu
13. Bhashya of Jnanendra Saraswati
14. Vivarana of Narayanendra Saravati, the disciple of Jnanendra and the grand-disciple of Kaivalyendra Sarasvati: This is a sub-commentary on # 1 above
15. Bhasya of Rangaramanuja Muni
16. Vivarana on Shankaracharya’s Bhashya by Abhinava Naranayanendra Saraswati
17. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
18. Dipika of Samkarananda Bhagvat, the disciple of Acharya Anandatma
19. Bhashya of Appaya Dikshit, the disciple of Sundaresatatapada
20. Dipika of Narayana
21. Tika of Shrinivasa
22. Bhashya (Dvaita) of Kandalandacharya
23. Bhashya (Dvaita) of Chalari Sheshacharya
24. Khandartha of Raghavendrayati
25. Shatapashnopanishad Khandarthaprakashika of Narasimha Bhikshu, pupil of Raghavendrayati
26. Shataprashnarthaprakashika by Nrsimha, pupil of Vidyadhisha
27. Vivarana of Shrinivasacharya, pupil of Shrimat Tirthacharya and son of Vitthalacharya
28. Bhashya of Satyaprajnatirtha
29. Bhashya of Chalar Nrsimhacharya
30. Bhashya of Makali Dharmacharya
31. Vivarana of Shrinivasacharya, disciple of Yadupatyacharya
32. Bhashya of Shrivivasa, pupil of Konerayacharya
33. Commentary by Damodara Shastri
34. Bhashya of Dharmaraj
35. Upanisadabrahmayogin, the disciple of Vasudevendra (Paramadvaita): Manuscript at Central Library at Baroda
36. Bhashya by Anandachandra Vedantavagisha
37. Bhashya by Anandashrama
38. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an Anubhavadvaitavedanta perspective.
39. Hindi Bhasya of Damodara Satavalekara
40. English translation by Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
41. English translation and commentary (Advaita) by Swami Gambhirananda
42. English translation by Ekanath Eswaran
43. English translation by Patrick Olivelle

Rama Purvatapaniya Upanishad

44. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

45. Commentary called ‘Anandanidhi’ or ‘Ramakasika’of Anandavana, the disciple of Raghava and son of Krishna

46. Tika by Visvesvara: Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:64].

47. Bhashya by Appayaadiksita [SCHRADER 1908:262].

48. Padavibhushana by Janakinathabhakta²⁰⁴. Manuscript in Jammu in the library of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.

49. Commentary by Nagesvara: Manuscript in GOL, Madras²⁰⁵.

50. Commentary by Rama Yati: Manuscript in GOL, Madras²⁰⁶.

51. Commentary by Laala Pandita: Manuscript in Jammu in the library of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir²⁰⁷.

Rama Uttaratapaniya Upanishad

1. Anandanidhi by Anandavana, son of Krishna and disciple of Raghava.

2. Padavibhushaa of Janakinathabhakta²⁰⁸: Manuscript in Jammu in the library of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.

3. Commentary by Nagesvara: Manuscript in GOL, Madras²⁰⁹.

4. Commentary by Mudgala Suri: Manuscript in GOL, Madras²¹⁰.

5. Commentary by Rama Yati: Manuscript in GOL, Madras²¹¹.

6. Commentary by Laala Pandita: Manuscript in Jammu in the library of the erstwhile Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir²¹².

7. Ramachandrajyotsna by Suresvaraashrama²¹³.

Rama Upanishad

57. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

Ramarahasyopanishad: This text is also alternately known as the Hanumaduktopanishad and Hanumaopanishad. The latter two names are apparently not used in South India. It exists in two versions –

The Northern Recension: This is published by Albrecht Weber in Abhandlungen der Koenigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1864).

The Southern Recension: This is a longer version, consisting of 5 chapters of which the northern recension is the first one. The ending of this chapter is however different from the ending of the northern recension. This version has a commentary on it by Appayyadiksita [SCHRADER 1908:262-263].

Rgveda-Jabala Upanishad: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]. The text is identical to the Bhasmajaabaalopanishad, with the first section excluded in the former excluded in the latter.

Rudra Upanishad

The Upanishad advocates the necessity of devotion to Lord Shiva, without which even a Brahmin becomes a Chandala. It enjoins the wearing of sacred ashes, the shivalinga, and plaits of hair.

Rudra Sukta or Rudradhyaya

1. Abhinava Sukracharya

Rudraaksajaabaalopanishad: This text exists in two versions –

The northern version.

The Southern Version that has a commentary by Appayadiksita on it.

Rudrahrdayopanishad: The work has a commentary on it by Appayyadiksita [SCHRADER 1908:264].

Rudraksopanishad of Katyayana Sakha: A manuscript of this text exists in Calcutta [HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 1425-1426]. The text consists of Sanatkumara’s questions addressed to Bhagavana Katyayana on the origin of Rudraksa, method of wearing Rudraksha beads accompanied by recitation of mantras, and the criteria of determining who can wear them and who cannot wear them. The extent of the text is 50 shlokas. The colophons of the manuscript indicate that the text belongs to the Katyayana Sakha, and the manuscript is written by an Aghori Saivite monk.

Saktayana Upanishad

1. Bhasya of Samkaracharya (In Sringeri Matha)

SaaNDilyopanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

2. Hindi translation of Sri Ram Sharma Acharya

Sammkhaayana Upanishad:

Several texts in the Shankhayana Aranyaka.

Saarirakopanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita [SCHRADER 1908:278].

Saatyaaniyopanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

2. Hindi translation by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya

3. English translation by Patrick Olivelle

Sadananda Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv]. It deals with the inner and outer bearing of the Linga as the way to liberation.

Samhitopanishad: Each Vedic Samhita has a ‘Samhitopanishad’ that discusses the esoteric meaning of the text, of its letters and sounds, of the ways of combining words and so on.

The Samhitopanishad of Rgveda exists in two versions – the Aitareya version is Aranyaka III.1-2 of the Aitareya Aranyaka. There is a second version embedded in the Sankhayana Aranyaka.

The Samhitopanishad of Samaveda exists as a Brahmana or an Upabrahmana text titled ‘Samhitopanishad Brahmana’. This text is attached to the Kauthuma and the Ranayaniya Sakhas of Samaveda.

The Krshna Yajurveda has two Samhitopanishads – The Kathasiksa Upanishad (see above), and the Taittiriya Siksa Upanishad comrpsing the Siksavalli or Prapathaka VII of the Taittiriya Aranyaka. For details, see under ‘Taittiriya Upanishad’ above.

**Samnyasopanishad: **The text exists in two versions –

Version I is the northern version of the Kundikopanishad, which however does not contain the first chapter of the present text. This has the dipika of Narayana on it.

Version II The first adhyaya corresponds to the first two sections of the Kanthasruti Upanishad. The second adhyaya is of the extent of 160 Granthas, and is mainly in verses [SCHRADER 1908:291].

Sarabha Upanishad: Exists in a northern and a southern recension. Often called Paippalada Upanishad in manuscripts from North India.

Bhashya by Appayadiksita

Hindi translation by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya Sarasvatirahasya Upanishad: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:105].

1. Bhashya by Appayadiksita

**Sarvopanishatsara: **It is also known by alternative names such as Sarvasaara Upanishad, Sarvosaara, Sarvopanishad.

This text exists in two versions –

Version I is identical the Svaruponishad

Version II is a distinct text, and exists in two recensions – The shorter and the longer. The shorter recension has the dipika of Narayana on it, and the colophon at the end of a manuscript [SCHRADER 1908:290] ascribes the authorship to Shankaracharya. The longer version is found mainly in south India. It comprises the entire text of Version I, to which it adds a prose sentence and 6 verses (similar to those in the Svarupopanishad) at the end. This longer recension has a bhashya by Appayadiksita on it.

Saubhagyalaksmi Upanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

Saunaka Upanishad

1. Translation into Persian by Dara Shikoh

**Savitri Upanishad: **This is Gopatha Brahmana 1.1.31-38

1. Bhashya by Appayadiksita

Shatachakra Upanishad

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta

**Shodhopanishad: **This deals with the six-fold nyaasa (dedication) of the Kaali-mantra.

Siddhantashikhopanishad: This text is like a Purva-tapini or a prologue to the Siddhantasaaropanishad. Like the Rudropanishad, it enjoins the necessity of devotion to Lord Shiva. The Upanishad maintains that the the manifestation or appearance of this devotion happens only when the votary wears the ashes and rudraksha beads on his persona, and therefore the text prescribes the method of wearing them. The text is in shloka meter [SCHRADER 1908:293-294].

Siddhantasaaropanishad: SCHRADER [1908:203] says that the name is not at all appropriate to the contents of the text.

Siddhantasaaropanishad: The text presents an Advaitic perspective of the Pauranic description of the temple of Lord Shiva on the summit of Mt. Kailash.

Siddhanta Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv].

Sitopanishad

1. Bhashya by Appayadiksita

Sivaatharvasirsha: Identical with Atharvasirupanishad

Sivopanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv, 279-280]. This text is a compendium of the Saivagamas, comprising of 7 chapters that deal with the following topics respectively with 1) Nature of bondage, spiritual Siva worship; 2) The Sivalinga, how to construct a Siva temple; 3) Domestic arrangements, the crystal and the earthen linga; 4) Prescripts for the Santigrha, the enclosed space for the Saiva fire, the fire offerings, etc.; 5) The ‘fiery bath’, the sacred ashes, the ten baths etc.; 6) Offerings to Lord Siva and to his devotees, their respective merits; 7) Rules of living for a Saivite devotee.

Sivopanishad-stotra

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv].

Skandopanishad

1. Bhashya of Appayadiksita

**Srijaabaaladarsanopanishad: **See Darsanopanishad.

Srikrishnapurushottama-siddhanta Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv]. It advocates that Lord Krishna is Purusottama and that the entire Universe is born from him.

Srividyamnaya Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv, 285]. It is a tantric text divided into 2 major sections – purvatapini and uttaratapini, which are further divided into 3 khandas each. The Upanishad is in the form of a teaching of Yajnavalkya to his disciple Saamasravas. The contents of the 6 khandas are as follows –

1. Pranava, maNidvIpa, sricakra
2. Creation
3. sricakra-yantra
4. srividyaa and brahmavidyaa
5. mantras
6. order of dhyaana, mantras and devatas

The adhishThaana devataas of the four Vedas are identified with the aamnaaya-saktis which are in the four doors of the diamond palace of maNidvIpa.

Srividyataaraka Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv, 284-5]. The text is in the form of a teaching on Srividya, a salvific knowledge, of Hayagriva to Sage Agastya. The relationship of the vidyaa with Pranava, the svapna state, the sushupti state and the turiyaa state is also explained.

Subala Upanishad

1. Vyakhya of Samkaracharya (Ref. 3, Pg. 346)

2. Bhasya by Sri Sudarsana Suri on only first 5 sections

3. Bhashya by Appayadiksita

**Sukarahasyopanishad: **The other names of the text are Atharvanarahasyopanishad, and Rahasyopanishad.

1. Dipika of Appayadiksita: Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:281-2].

SumukhIupanishad: Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv]. This is a tantric text that enjoins a meditation on the Mahadevi as a beautiful 16 year old chandala lady, followed by a mantrodhdhara and puja with fish and meat.

Suryopanishad: Also called as Adityopanishad and Suryatharvangirasopanishad [SCHRADER 1908:106].

1. Bhashya by Appayadiksita

Suvarnadharmopanishad: This is the 11^th anuvaka of the third prapathaka of the Taittiriya Aranyaka [SCHRADER 1908:297].

Svarupa Upanishad

Manuscript exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv]. The text is available in versions that have 25-28 shlokas. Its central theme is ‘I am Brahman’. Some manuscripts also call the text as Brahmanuchintanika, and as Sarvaopanishadsara, and ascribe it to Sri Shankaracharya.

Svasamvedyopanishad: According to SCHRADER [1908:300-301] – “This Upanishad, inspired as it seems, by the Mahayanist doctrine of vacuity (sunya-vaada), proclaims a most radical agnosticism by asserting in four chapters: (1) that there is no reincarnation (existence being bubble-like), no knowledge, no god (isvara), no world; that all traditional literature, Sruti and Smrti, is the work of conceited fools; (2) that Time the Destroyer and Nature the Originator are the rulers of all existence, but not good an bad deeds, and that there is neither hell nor heaven (nirvana); (3) that, ‘deluded by flowery speech, people cling to gods, teachers, sacred places, though there is, in reality, no difference at all between high, middle. And low, Vishnu and a dog; (4) that, though all words are untrue and all ideas mere illusions, yet liberation (jivan-mukti) is possible by a thorough realization of Bhavadvaita.”

Svetaamrittaka-upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iv]. It is an urdhvapundra vidhi.

Svetasvatara Upanishad

1. Commentary ascribed to Sri Samkaracharya: considered spurious by many scholars
2. Prakasika by Vidyaranya (Ref. 2, Pg. 70)
3. Comemntary by Shankarananda
4. Commentary by Balakrishnananda
5. Aloka of Vijnana Bhiksu
6. Commentary by Vijnanatman, the disciple of Jnanottama
7. Bhashya of Rangaramanujamuni.
8. Dipika by Narayana
9. Commentary by Varadaacharya
10. Dipika of Appayadikshita
11. Commentary by Nrsimhaacharya, on Shankaracharya’s Bhashya
12. Pandit Tulsiram Swami published a Sanskrit-Hindi commentary on this text, to demonstrate the distinction between the Jiva and Brahmam. The work was published in 1897²¹⁴. Syaamopanishad: The text is practically identical to the first 1/3 of the Kaalikopanishad.

**Taittiriya Upanisad: **The Atharvana version of the text lacks the first valli, as well as the section following ‘suvarNajyotiH ya evaM veda ityupanishat’.

1. Vrtti of Kaundinya: According to Taittiriya Kandanukramani and the Grhyasutras of Apastamba, Baudhayana and Hiranykeshi, Kundin or Kaundinya wrote a Vritti on the Taittiriya texts. The nature of this vritti is not made clear, although a ‘Kaundinya Kalpa’ is mentioned in the Tantravarttika of Kumarila Bhatta. Therefore, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that Kaundinya indeed wrote a commentary on the Taittiriya Upanishad. The Siksha text of Kaundinya on the Taittiriya Shakha however survives and has been printed.
2. Bhashya of Guhadeva: The explanation of Guhadeva on a mantra occurring in the Taittiriya Aranyaka is quoted in a commentary on Nirukta. Since the Vedantin Shri Ramanujacharya recalls Guhadeva as his ideological predecessor in his work ‘Vedarthasangraha’, it is often surmised that Guhadeva must have authored a commentary on the Taittiriya Upanishad. However, the evidence is clearly insufficient to warrant such a conclusion.
3. Bhashya of Kapardiswamin: He is the famous author on numerous texts of the Apastamba and Bharadvaja sub-schools of the Taittiriya Yajurveda. Although Shri Ramanujacharya remembers him as his ideological predecessor. However, he is not known to have written commentaries on any Upanishad or even on the Apastamba Dharmasutra (which has the Vedanta like Adhyatmapatala). His works do show however that he was a Vaishnava. Hence Shri Ramanujacharya invoked his authority to demonstrate that followers of Vedic religion can be Vaishnavas as well and therefore the Shri Vaishnava doctrine is not unorthodox.
4. Bhasya of Sri Shankaracharya: According to tradition, this was the first Upanishad on which Shri Shankaracharya commented because he himself belonged to the Taittiriya Shakha. The Bhashya starts with mangalacharna shlokas, which is uncharacteristic of Shankaracharya’s works. Perhaps, the tradition is indeed true and Shankaracharya intended these shlokas to be construed as the mangalacharana shlokas for all his works. In one of these shlokas, he reverentially bows to his predecessors and states that he is following their views in writing his commentary on the Upanishad. It is unclear however which predecessor he is referring to.
5. Varttika of Sri Suresvaracharya on Shankaracharya’s commentary on the Upanishad.
6. Kuranarayana: Commentary written from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective.
7. Vijnanatman, disciple of Jnanottama
8. Bhatta Bhaskara’s Jnanayajna Bhashya: Portion of commentary on the entire Taittiriya Yajurveda Samhita/Brahmana/Aranyaka
9. Bhasya of Sri Madhvacharya: Chief exponent of Dvaita Vedanta
10. Tika of Anandagiri on Shankaracharya’s Bhashya on the Taittiriya Upanishad
11. Anandagiri’s Tika on Taittiriya Upanishad Bhashya Varttika of Sureshvaracharya
12. Tika of Vyasatirtha on Madhvacharya’s Bhashya on the Upanishad
13. Shankarananda: Dipika on the Taittiriya Upanishad
14. Madhavacharya: He wrote a commentary on 12 Upanishads called the Anupamaprakasha. He was the elder brother of Sayanacharya.
15. Sayanacharya’s Bhasya (part of commentary on the entire Taittiriya Aranyaka)
16. Sudarshana, disciple of Vadhula Shrinivasa (15^th cent. C.E.): Written from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective
17. Taittiriya Upanishad Aloka of Vijnana Bhikshu
18. Govindaraja: He wrote a commentary called Mitakshara on the Taittiriya Upanishad from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective. He lived in the 16^th cent. C.E.
19. Rangaramanuja: A brief commentary written from a Visishtadvaita Vedanta perspective.
20. Shrinivasa Yajvan
21. Bhashya of Balakrishnanada: Written from a Shuddha Advaita Vedanta perspective
22. Dara Shikoh: Translation into Persian with the help of Pundits of Varanasi
23. Bhaskararaya (early 17^th cent. C.E.): Commentary on Taittiriya Upanishad
24. Ramasubrahmanya Shastri (17^th cent. C.E.): ‘Vilasa’ on the Taittiriya Upanishad from a Vishistadvaita Vedanta perspective
25. Vyakhya of Krishnananda
26. Anonymous commentary called Laghudipika by the pupil of Krishnananda and Rama
27. Narasimhayati (d. 1707 C.E.): Disciple of Vidyadhishatirtha. His name as a householder was Satyabhinava. His commentary is written from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
28. Narayanamuni (early 18^th cent. C.E.): Disciple of Ramendra Saraswati. Wrote commentaries on 43 Upanishads from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective
29. Raghavendrayati: Prakashika on the Upanishad from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
30. Vivarana titled ‘Vanamaalaa’ of Achyuta Krishananda Tirtha (18^th cent. C.E.): This is a subcommentary on Shankaracharya’s commentary on Taittiriya Upanishad. The author was a disciple of Svayamaprakashayati, as indicated by colophons of his commentary [SCHRADER 1908:41].
31. Tatparyadipika by Advaitananda
32. Anonymous commentary by a disciple of Shrinivasa of Shrivatsa gotra written from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective
33. Vadhula Varadacharya: Commentary from a Vishishtadvaita Vedanta perspective
34. Vishvanubhavayati: Sangati on the Taittiriya Upanishad
35. Anandasvarupayati: Vyakhya on the Upanishad
36. Vijnanatmabhagavat: Vivritti on the Upanishad
37. Bhashya by Appannacharya: Published from Adyar and from Mysore.
38. Anonymous commentary by the son of Appannacharya and pupil of Yadupatyacharya
39. Shrinivasa Bidarhalli pupil of Yadupatyacharya: His commentary is called ‘Padarthadipika’. Written from a Dvaita Vedanta perspective
40. Anandajnana: Different from the Anandagiri mentioned above. He was a native of Kerala and eventually ascended the Kanchi Kamakoti Matha. He wrote commentaries on all the Upanishad Bhashyas of Shankaracharya
41. Bhashya by Deshikacharya
42. Varadatirtha: Commentary called Taittiriyakasara
43. Govindaraja: Commentary on Taittiriya Upanishad. Different from his namesake above.
44. Balabhadra Sharman: He wrote a commentary on the Taittiriya Upanishad from a Shuddha Advaita perspective.
45. Jnanamritayati: Written from Advaita Vedanta perspective
46. Tarakabrahmananda Saraswati: Disciple of Raghavananda and Gopalanathayati. His commentary is called ‘Arthasamgraha.’ At Adyar, there is a manuscript of a subcommentary titled ‘Atha-saara-samgraha-prakasika’ comprising of 39 verses in Salini meter. The author of this metrical subcommentary is Raghavananda, and he pursues the double aim of giving the Advaitic essence of Taittiriya Upanishad and celebrate Rama as the impersonal Brahman as in the Ramatapini Upanishad [SCHRADER 1908: 191].
47. Upanishadabrahmendra Yati: Manuscript of his commentary exists. Kevaladvaita Vedanta perspective.
48. Shivanandayati: Tippana on Taittiriya Upanishad
49. Venkataramachandra Sharman: Marathi Tika published from Poona in 1814
50. Damodara Shastri: A manuscript of his commentary is available at Calcutta
51. English translation of Max Mueller
52. Pundit Bhimasena Sharma: His commentary (in Hindi) was published by the Sarasvati Press of Allahabad in 1895
53. Bhashya by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) written from an Anubhavadvaitavedanta perspective.
54. Satyapriyatirtha: Vivarana on Taittiriya Upanishad
55. Kanthamati Sharma: Commentary is written from a Shuddhadvaita perspective
56. Shyamalal Goswami: Tika published from Calcutta in 1907
57. Sitanatha Dattabhushana: His commentary, called ‘Shankarakripa’ is written from an Advaita Vedanta perspective and was published from Calcutta in 1908 C.E.
58. Vidhushekhara Bhattacharya: Vyakhya published in 1910-1911
59. Jayagopala Bhatta: Commentary written from a Vallabha Vedanta perspective. Commentary is in Gujarati and was published in 1919 from Bombay.
60. Hindi translation by Pt. Satavalekara
61. Swami Sharvananda: English translation
62. Swami Gambhirananda: English translation
63. Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan: English translation
64. Eknath Easwaran: English translation
65. Patrick Olivelle: English translation and notes on related Indological literature.
66. Valerie Roebuck: English translation

Talavakaaropanishad or Talavakaara Brahmanopanishad: This is another name for the famous Kena Upanishad.

Taarasaara Upanishad: A manuscript of a Bhashya by Appayyadiksita exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:185].

**Tejobindu: **There are two recensions of the text -

1. The Northern Recension with the Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta. This is a very short text of 14 verses only.
2. The Southern Recension which is much longer than the Northern Recension. This text adds 448 slokas to the Northern Recension. The first 36 slokas transfer the subject of Yoga to a more ideal plan, followed by a discourse of Lord Siva to Kumaara (Chapter II of 42 verses) on Akhandaikarsachintmatrasvarupa. The third chapter, of 74 slokas deals with Atmanubhava, and the fourth chapter, consisting if 81 slokas, deals with Jivanmukta. The fifth is an explanation to Nidaagha by Rbhu on Atmaanaatmaviveka in 105 verses. The sixth chapter, consisting of 110 verses is another Advaitic discourse by Rbhu and the text finally concludes with a warning that the great Shaiva/Shaankariya teaching should not be repeated to an unworthy person. This longer version has a commentary on it by Appayaadiksita, that exists in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 187-188].

**Tripuraa Upanishad: **Attributed to Sri Samkaracharya, the 3 ‘puras’ being the 3 chapters. It is a digest of the entire Upanishadic thought along Advaita lines. Other names of the text are Traipuropanishad, Tripuraamahopanishad, Srividyopanishad, and Sricaturthasatapathe Purvashatke Kaamakalopanishad. A manuscript of the text at Adyar also has Vedic accents on it.

1. Tripuraamahopanishad Bhashya by Bhaskararaya Agnicit [SCHRADER 1908:10].

2. A manuscript of a a Bhashya by Appayyadiksita also exists at Adyar [1908:195-196].

Tripuraasundari Upanishad: This is the same as Tripuraataapinyupanishad.

Tripuraatapinyupanishad: This text is commonly known as Sundaritapinyupanishad and Tripurasundaryupanishad in northern India. The text has six chapters, each of which is called an ‘Upanishad’. The first four ‘Upanishads’ are sometimes clubbed together into a ‘Purva’ Upanishad, and the last two into an ‘Uttara’ Upanishad. The last Upanishad is a very short section, often missing in manuscripts from Southern India. In some manuscripts, the six Upanishads are numbered as sixtieth to sixty fifth, perhaps in an attempt to augment the collection of fifty-two Atharvana Upanishads [SCHRADER 1908: 194]. A manuscript of a Bhashya by Appayyadiksita on the first five Upanishads exists at Adyar.

Trisikhibrahmanopanishad: This text exists exists in two recensions – a Southern Recension, and a shorter Northern Recension that lacks verses 32b- 161 of the former [SCHRADER 1908: 197-198]. A manuscript of Appayyadiksita’s commentary on the Southern Recension of the text exists at Adyar. A manuscript of a Bhashya by Gopaalaashrama Yogindra is also reported²¹⁵.

**Tulasi Upanishad: **This Upanishad deals with the secretive power of the Tulasi plant. The Tulasi leaves are considered indespensible during the performance of sraaddhas, and the text warns that it is dangerious to pluck the leaves for any other false/non-religious purpose or at the wrong time. Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii].

**Turiya Upanishad: **Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii]. The text seems to have an intimate relationship with the famous Mandukya Upanishad.

Turiiyatiita Upanishad or Turiiyatiitaavdhuta Upanishad: A manuscript of a Bhashya by Appayyadiksita exists at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908: 185].

Urdhvapundra Upanishad

Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:ii].

Uttarajaabaalopanishad: The same text is also known as Bhasmajaabaalopanishad.

Uttaranarayana Upanishad

This is actually anuvakas 13 and 38 of the Andhra recension of the 10^th prapathaka of the Taittiriya Aranyaka [SCRADER 1908:148].

Vajrasuchika Upanishad: Often attributed to Sri Samkaracharya, but really speaking, based on an older work of Asvaghosha- a Buddhist scholar.

1. A subodhini tika ascribed to Shankaracharya also exists in manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:77, 97].
2. A commentary by Asvaghosha, written from a Buddhist perspective, also exists in manuscript [ibid: 112]
3. A refutation of Asvaghosha’s commentary titled ‘laghu-tankaa’ also exists in the same manuscript as listed above. The Laghutanka is said to have been authored by Pandit Subajee Bapoo.
4. Commentary by Appayadikshita (d. 1901) from an Anubhadvaitavedanta perspective, exists in manuscript at Adyar [ibid., 117]

The text exists in three recensions.

The Northern recension²¹⁶ is titled ‘Sri Shankaracharya’s Vajasuchyupanishad-subodhini’ in manuscript colophons and has three parts. The first part defines who is a Brahmin. The second part discusses the nature of moksa while the last part explains the Mahavakya.

The Southern recension is practically identical to the first part of the northern recension. It has a commentary by Appayadiksita.

The Vajrasuci by Asvaghosha is actually a Buddhist commentary on the text by Asvaghosha. It cites numerous texts from Sruti and Smrti. Vanadurga Upanishad: It is a lengthy text containing the mantras, meditations, eulogies (staves), prayer-rituals connected primarily with the Vindyavasini Durga. Included also are a Vishnu Puja, a Rudra Gayatri, a Garuda mantra and also the accented text of Allopanishad [SCHRADER 1908:272-273].

Varaaha Upanishad

Two versions of this text exist [SCHRADER 1908:271-2]. The first version has the commentary of Appayadiksita on it. The second version is the teaching of Varaaha avatara of Lord Vishnu to Sage Sanatkumara on the Urdhvapundravidhi.

Vastusutra Upanishad

Vasudeva Upanishad

1. Dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta. Ed. by Colonel Jacob in the collection titled ‘Eleven Upanishads’.
2. Bhashya by Appayadiksita.

Vishnu Upanishad: Another name for the Narayana Upanishad [SCHRADER 1908:274]. It is one of the Atharvasirsa Panchaka Upanishads.

Vishraama Upanishad: Manuscript at Adyar [SCHRADER 1908:iii]. Also known as Vedantavisranta Upanishad, Visrantopanishad and Manovisramopanishad. It is basically the last section of Sankaracharya’s Samnyasa-grahana-paddhati.

Visvakarma Sukta: This is Rgveda X.81.1

Vrddhajaabaala Upanishad: The text exists in several versions.

Yajnopavita Upanishad: It is a Vishnava text.

Yajnavalkyopanishad: This text exists in two versions. One is identical with the Jaabaalopnaishad. The second corresponds to sections 4-6 of Jaabaalopanishad, but adds 24 shlokas. This version has a bhashya by Appayyadiksita on it.

Yogachudamani Upanishad

This has the bhashya of Appayyadiksita on it.

**Yogakundali Upanishad: **This has a bhashya by Appayyadiksita on it.

Yogaraaja Upanishad: This text describes the laya-yoga which comprises of meditation on the nine charkas.

**Yogasikha: **This text has two versions:

1. The shorter Northern version, with the dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta.
2. The longer Southern version comprising of 6 chapters containing 392 shlokas. The northern version is merely the first chapter of the southern version [SCHRADER 1908: 260-261]. This version has the bhashya of Appayyadiksita on it.

Yogatattva

The text exists in two versions -

1. The shorter version, that has a dipika of Narayana Bhatta, son of Ratnakara Bhatta
2. The longer version, which begins with the first two verses of the shorter version, ads 127 new verses and then concludes with the complete smaller text omitting only the penultimate verse of the same [SCRADER 1908:259]. This version has a Bhashya of Appayyadiksita on it and appears to be confined to South India.

References

1. Shastri, Mahamahopadhaya Haraprasad; 1923; A descriptive catalogue of Sanskrit manuscripts in the Government collection under the care of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. II–Vedic Manuscripts; Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta
2. Oppert, Gustav; 1885; Lists of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Private Libraries of South India; Vol. 1; Govt. Press; Madras; Gustav Oppert; Lists of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Private Libraries of South India; Vol. 2; Govt. Press; Madras
3. Raghavan, V. et al; New Catalogus Catalogorum; Adyar Library; Madras
4. Pathak, Meena P.; 1999; A Study of the Taittiriya Upanishad; Bharatiya Kala Prakashan; Delhi
5. Thangaswami, R.; 1980; Advaita-Vedanta Literature – A Biographical Survey; University of Madras

DEUSSEN, Paul. Allgemeine Geschiste der Philosophie I

LEGGETT, Trevor. 1978. The Chapter of the Self. Routledge & Kegan Paul: London and Henley.

SCHERMAN, L. 1887. Philosophische Hymnen aus der Rig-und Atharvaveda-Sanhita. Strassburg

SCHRADER, F. Otto. 1908. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Adyar Library (Theosophical Society), Vol. I (Upanisads). Oriental Publishing Co., Ltd.: Mylapore and Georgetown

WINTERNITZ, Maurice. 1962. A History of Indian Literature, Vol. I, Part I, (Introduction and Veda). Third Edition. Translated from the Original German Edition (1907) by S. Ketkar. University of Calcutta: Calcutta

Notes

Pantula, M M. Skandasvamin. Gurukul Kangri Patrika 20(10), May-June 68, 501-504

Pantula, M M. Skandasvamino vaidusyam. Gurukul Kangri Patrika 21, 361-366

HALL, F. Edward. 1862. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol, XXXI, page 129

Numerous manuscripts from this library were transferred to Vishvesharanand Vedic Research Institute (Hoshiarpur, Panjab) and subsequently to Chandigarh, but this particular manuscript does not appear to have been one of them. GUPTA did make an attempt to find more details about the manuscript from former librarians of this collection but was told that the owner of the manuscript hailed from Uttar Pradesh and was willing to show the Padapaatha of only one Ashtaka at a time. The owner refused to part with the manuscript and the Library did not make any transcript from the same.

Published by the Gujarat Printing Press, Bombay in 1912 [GUPTA 1967: 9].

The edition has numerous appendices, tables, and other useful data such as comparison of Ravana’s interpretations with those of other commentators, his grammatical analyses of Rgvedic text and so on.

According to Bijaganita of Bhaskara, Daivajna Pandit Surya was 31 years old when he wrote this commentary on Lilavati [GUPTA 1967: 6].

This adds up to 5649 mantras of the Rgveda Samhita.

According to Arya Samaj traditions, Swami objected to his host, the Maharaja of Jodhpur’s courtship with a Muslim prostitute named Nanjijaan. Fearing that the Swami might prevail and would succeed in getting her ousted from the Palace, she bribed Swami Dayanand’s cook, who apparently mixed a poison (or finely ground glass according to some accounts) in Swamiji’s milk, resulting in his death after a few weeks.

Subscribers included Max Mueller and Monier-Williams.

The work was reprinted several times by the Sabha, and also by other organizations such as the Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha (the apex organization of Arya Samaj). The initial portion of the commentary was published with extensive annotations and footnotes by Ramlal Kapoor Trust. Arsha Sahitya Prachar Trust translated the Sanskrit text of the initial portion of the commentary into Hindi afresh (since the Hindi translation of the original translators is not very polished, and sometimes deviates from the Sanskrit text) and published it in two volumes, which contain approximately 35 initial hymns of Rgveda.

He permitted patrons to buy the Introduction separately from the commentary however.

According to Swamiji, the RV, YV, SV and AV were respectively revealed to Sages Agni, Vayu, Aditya and Angira. He rejected the traditional view that the four Vedas initially constituted one book that was divided into four parts by Veda Vyasa.

His complete commentary on the entire Yajurveda (Madhyandina) Samhita also survives and has been published several times.

However, for the first five adhyaayas of the Samhita, the topics are given for each individual anuvaaka, not for each varga.

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 39

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 32

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 34

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 92

R. N. DANDEKAR. 1946. Vedic Bibliography, vol. I. Karnatak Publishing House: Bombay, p. 2

R. N. DANDEKAR. 1946. Vedic Bibliography, vol. I. Karnatak Publishing House: Bombay, p. 2

R. N. DANDEKAR. 1946. Vedic Bibliography, vol. I. Karnatak Publishing House: Bombay, p. 2

R. N. DANDEKAR. 1961. Vedic Bibliography, vol. II. University of Poona: Pune, p. 1

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 109

Vedic Bibliography, Vol. IV, p. 1

ibid

ibid

ibid

ibid, p. 2

ibid

ibid

Despite the availability of Dandekar’s Vedic Bibliography, it is surprising that some scholars say that no none has translated the Rgveda completely after Geldner.

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 72

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 72

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 75

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 83

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 56

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol. III, p. 11

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol. III, p. 11

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol. I, p. 11

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 16

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 197

E. B. Cowell. 1861. Kaushitaki-Brahmana-Upanishad with the Commentary of Sankarananda edited with an English Translation. Bibliotheca Indica, N.S. fasc. 19, 20: Calcutta, pp. v-ix. The variant readings in the two recensions are noted by Cowell in footnotes, and the entire chaps. 3-4 of the alternate recension is also included separately as an appendix.

Cowell, p. viii, fn

E. B. Cowell. 1861. Kaushitaki-Brahmana-Upanishad with the Commentary of Sankarananda edited with an English Translation. Bibliotheca Indica, N.S. fasc. 19, 20: Calcutta

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol. II, p. 26

E. B. Cowell. 1861. Kaushitaki-Brahmana-Upanishad with the Commentary of Sankarananda edited with an English Translation. Bibliotheca Indica, N.S. fasc. 19, 20: Calcutta, p. iv

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 168

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 152

Catalogus Catalogorum vol II, p. 205

Catalogus Catalogorum vol II, p. 229

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 158

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 152

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 152

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 31

Vedic Bibliography, vol. I, p. 320

See for e.g., Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 102, 169 etc.

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 122

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 122

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 17

Vedic Bibliography, vol. I, p. 316

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 54

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 72

The edition consulted by me is SHARMA, Jaidev. Samvat 2019. Yajurveda-Samhita Bhasha-Bhashya (in Hindi/Sanskrit), 4^th reprint. Arya Sahitya Mandala Limited: Ajmer

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 127

Vedic Bibliography volume V. BORI 1993, p. 63

R. N. DANDEKAR. 1961. Vedic Bibliography, vol. II. University of Poona: Pune, p. 52

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 92

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 20

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 78

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 35

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 132

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 91

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 334

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 210

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 157

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 230

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 230

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 59

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 160

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 745

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 82

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 235

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 235

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 235

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 14

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 268

Vedic Bibliography, vol. I, p. 316

HARAPRASAD SHASTRI 1923: 424

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 160

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 79

Catalogus Catalogorum vol.. III, p. 11

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. III, p. 11

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. III, p. 11

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. III, p. 11

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 26

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. III, p. 11

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. III, p. 5

According to Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 82, following are the works authored by Karka: Katyayana Srautasutra Bhashya, Paraskara Grhyasutra Bhashya, Snanasutra Bhashya, Hautralaparisishta Bhashya, Ishtakapuranabhashya, Kanvasutra Bhashya, Katyayana Sulbasutra Bhashya, Katyayana Shraddhakalpa Bhashya and Trikandamandana Bhashya.

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 26

Catalogus Catalorogum vol. I, p. 79

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 406

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 766

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 469

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 464

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 472

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 530

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 664

Vedic Bibliography, vol. III, p. 66

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 32

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 54

Vedic Bibliography, vol. I, p. 315

Vedic Bibliography, vol. III, p. 66

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, pp. 93-94

R. N. DANDEKAR. 1961. Vedic Bibliography, vol. II. University of Poona: Pune, p. 40

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 103. This was not published till 1974, and to my knowledge, it is still in manuscript today (2004).

E.g., Some Psalms of the Samaveda Samhita, 1966. This work was incorporated in his commentary on the complete Samhita.

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 119

Vedic Bibliography, vol. I, p. 27

Vedic Bibliography, vol. I, p. 26

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 223

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 223

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 532

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 164

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 33

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 13

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 191

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 54

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 187

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 187

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 29; Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 187

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 29

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 16

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 20

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 76

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 32

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 210

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 212

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 708

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 177

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 676

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 190

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 225

R N Dandekar. Vedic Bibliography vol II. University of Poona: Poona (1961), p. 88

The Anupada Sutra is still unprinted, and exists in manuscript.

ZMG vol. 42, p. 151

Stein, Aurel. 1894. Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Raghunatha Temple Library of His Holiness the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir. Luzac & Co.: London

This possibility is also highly probably because the Maharajas of the state were devoted Hindus and expended great amounts of money to have manuscripts copied from other parts of India for addition to their own collection.

Shriram Sharma. 1982. A Descriptive Bibliography of Sanskrit Works in Persian. Abul Kalam Azad Oriental Research Institute: Hyderabad, pp. 1-2

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, pp. 28-30

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, pp. 50-51

Vedic Bibliography, vol. I, p. 315

Vedic Bibliography, vol. III, p. 51

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 92

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 88

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 7

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 198

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol. III, p. 63

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 240

Manuscript at Bikaner. See Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 667

A Vedantic text in eight chapters. See Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 718

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 304

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 43

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 20

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 20

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 7

Catalogus Catalogorum, vol I, p. 7

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 190

Historically however, other schools of Hindu philosophy, such as Samkhya and Vaiseshika, have also traced their doctrines in these texts.

These 10 Upanishads are: Isa, Katha, Kena, Mundaka, Mandukya, Prasna, Chhandogya, Brhadaranyaka, Aitareya and Taittiriya. Very often, the following texts are added to this list of the most hallowed Upanishads – Kausitaki, Maitrayaniya and Svetasvatara.

For instance, the Garuda Upanishad.

A listing of the Upanishads, such as the present paper, is somewhat difficult because different texts are often known by the same name, while the same text might have several different names. In many cases, a particular section(s) of one text is classed as a separate text. The reader will encounter examples of all these scenarios in this paper.

This is important, because the same Upanishad often exists in multiple recensions having a few or several differences amongst them.

For instance, the Narayana Upanishad is classified as a ‘Vaishnava Upanishad’, the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad is classified under ‘Older Upanishads’ and so on.

Ed. by Pandit Damodara Satavakelara, published by the Swadhyaya Mandala (dist. Valsad, Gujarat). Numerous reprints of this text have appeared, and the one used by me is dt.

VSM edition

Again, the editions by Damodara Satavalekara were used.

This Samhita has still not been published satisfactorily. It comprises of 20 books (called ‘kandas’). For kandas I-XV, I have used the edition of Dipankar Bhattacharya (1997, Asiatic Society of Bengal: Calcutta). For the remaining five kandas, comprising more than half the Samhita, the devanagari script edition by Raghuvira (Asha Sahitya Prachar Trust: Delhi

For e.g., of the 1875 mantras in the Kauthuma Samhita of Samaveda, 1800 are found in the Rgveda Samhita. The originality of Samaveda lies in its sacred melodies (samans), which cannot be ‘described’ like here as one would describe a spiritual text.

The extant Samhitas are: Taittiriya, Maitrayaniya, Kathaka and the fragmentary Kapishthala Samhita.

I want to emphasize here that there is no clear distinction between ‘ritual’ and ‘spirituality’ (or ‘karmakanda’ and ‘brahmakanda’) in the Vedic texts. Many portions of the Upanishads are quite ritualistic, while the ritualistic Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas have ‘spiritual’ ideas scattered in them.

In fact, the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad itself is the concluding portion of the Satapatha Brahmana. Earlier books of the Satapatha (for instance Kanda X in the Madhyandina version of Satapatha Brahmana) also contains very long sections resembling Upanishads.

E.g., the initial sections of Jaiminiya Brahmana and the concluding sections of Taittiriya Brahmana, long sections of the Gopatha Brahmana etc.

Interestingly, Paippalada Samhita appears to be a precursor to all these cosmogonical sections of the Brahmanas.

Dharmakosa, Upanisatkanda, Volume II, Part I. 1950. Ed. by Tarkateerth Lakshmanshastri Joshi. Prajna Pathasala Mandala: Wai (Maharashtra)

E.g. Louis RENOU, P. DEUSSEN, L. SCHERMAN [1887]

A particularly large number of lost ‘srutis’, often with an Upanishadic quality about them, are found quoted in the works of the pre-eminent Dvaita Vedanta teacher Sri Madhvacharya. His critics have alleged that many of these ‘srutis’ are the teacher’s own fabrications. I personally do not subscribe to these allegations against him. The omission of texts cited by him will be made up for in a later edition of this paper after I have devoted some thought to this question.

LEGGETT, Trevor. 1978. The Chapter of the Self. Routledge & Kegan Paul: London and Henley.

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 40

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 51

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 56

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 187

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 431

WEBER, Albrecht. Indische Studien, Vol. XVII.

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. III, p. 35

Catalogus Catalogorum vol.I, p. 206

Colonel Jacob’s Eleven Atharvana Upanishads.

E. B. Cowell. 1861. Kaushitaki-Brahmana-Upanishad with the Commentary of Sankarananda edited with an English Translation. Bibliotheca Indica, N.S. fasc. 19, 20: Calcutta

E. B. Cowell. 1861. Kaushitaki-Brahmana-Upanishad with the Commentary of Sankarananda edited with an English Translation. Bibliotheca Indica, N.S. fasc. 19, 20: Calcutta, p. iv

Subrahmanya Sastri, S. Kenopanisad-vyakhya Sankarahrddayangama Krsnalilasukamuni-viracita. Annals of Oriental Institute, Madras. Vol. 9, pp. 1-2 (1952)

Krishnamacharya, Pandit V. and Pandit K. Ramachandra Sarma. 1949. Yajnikyupanisad-Vivarana by Purusottamanandatirtha. The Adyar Library Series – No. 71. The Adyar Library: Madras

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. I, p. 447

Noted by WINTERNITZ [1962:207, fn. 5]

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 75

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 120

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 120

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 121

BHARATIYA, Bhavanilal. 1974. Arya-Samaj ke Veda-Sevaka Vidvan. Ramalal Kapoor Trust: Sonepat, p. 32

Catalogus Catalogorum vol. II, p. 51

WEBER. 1859. Abhandlungen der Koenigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften.