pUShaN

PÜSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD OF THE VEDA

Vedic gods often seem to possess very complex characters The descriptions in the Vedic hymns usually bring forth so many different traits of a single god that it is not always easy to deter mine the original nature and trace the later development of his personality In this respect Pusao may be regarded as being a particularly curious and enigmatic figure in the pantheon of Vedic gods This god is celebrated alone in ciglit hymns of the Rgveda, with Indra in one hymn, with Soma in one, and is mentioned with several other deities in about fifty eight hymns, his name thus being mentioned about 120 times He is also glorified in the Atharvaveda and the Bralimanas, and seems to have played a distinctive role in the Vedic ritual The picture of Pusan derived from all these manifold literary and ritual references is, indeed, puzzlingly composite Even a casual glance at the statistical analysis of the RV references to Pusan’ will suffice to bring out prominently a peculiar feature of the way in which this god has been celebrated in that Veda Out of the eight complete hymns glorifying Pusan, five occur in the sixth mandala of the RV which primarily reflects the literary and religious activities of the clan of the Bhāradvājas That portion of the sixth mandala (hymns 53-58, hymn 48 15-19), which is dedicated exclusively to Pusan, is so conspicuous that HILLEBRANDT chooses to call it a small Pusan-sambitā’in itself 2 This fact cannot be regarded as just an accident On the contrary it seems to indicate that the Pusan cult was a special possession of the family of the Bhāradvājas No discussion regarding the essential character of Pusan can be said to be complete and conclusive, unless the real significance of this impor Pusan 1 mentioned 36 times in the sixth mandala, while hic is referred 10 3 times in the second, 5 tubes in the third, 3 times in the fourth (at none of these places in the vocative ), 8 times in the filth, 6 times in the seventh, 6 times in the cighth, and more often in the first and the tenth mandalas, 2 Vedische Afythologie II, 330 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS tant feature of the Puṣan religion in the RV is clearly explained Equally significant is the fact that the Panis are most prominently mentioned in the sixth mandala and that Pusan is the god who is specially invoked to put down those nasty mischief mongers of the Vedic times Another point that would strike a student of Vedic mythology is that Pusan is coupled rather predominantly only with two gods from the Vedic panicon, namely, Indra (VI 57) and Soma (II 40) A critical study of the passages referring to Indrā pusanau (11152 7, VI 57) leads one to the conclusion that originally the Indra religion and the Pusan religion were in independent religious cults and that a special effort was made to bring them together similar appears to have been the case also with regard to the coupling together of Soma and Puṣan The traces of this artificial blendıog together of two distinct religious cults are too clear in the RV to be missed The anthropomorphic traits in the descriptions of Pusan are also noteworthy Vedic re ferences to Pusan’s braided hair (VI 55 2 ) and beard (X 26 7), to his awl (VI 53 6 ) and goad (YI 53 9), to his special food, karambha (VI 56 1), to his car being driven by goats instead of horses (I 138 4, VI 55 3, 4, 57 3)- all these present before us quite a distinctive personality, that is to say, the personality of a god belonging to a world more or less different from that of many Vedic gods as we know them But by far the greatest emphasis is laid by the Vedic poets on the prominent role played by Pusan in the pastoral life of the people Indeed, Pusan is the only Vedic god who has been given the epithet paśupā, protector of the cattle (VI 58 2) durectly (and not in comparisons) He increases the cattle (VI 53 10, 54 5-6, 56 5) and brings back those that have strayed (VI 54 7, 10) He eats the food which is common among the pastoral communities (VI 56 1 ) and bears the goad (VL 53 9 ) which is typical of a shepherd as a cowherd It is said of him that he commands large amounts of wealth (1 89 6, VIII 4 15) and bestows great bounty (VI 584) On his worshippers, particularly in the form of the increase of cattle Another characteristic feature of Pusan’s personality is his close association with paths. He is the lord of paths and helps PŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 93 the nomadic tribes on their ways (X 17 3-6) As has been pointed out, Pusan knows the paths, shows the paths, leads on the right paths, and guards the people and cattle against missing the ways 3 Apart from all this, as is quite common with Vedic mythology in general, Pusan also is endowed with features connected with brightness and splendour He is brought into contact with several phenomena of light (VI 48 17, 56 3, 58 I) Expressions are used with reference to Pusan which are similar to those which are used with reference to Agnis and Surya 5 The part which he is made to play in the Suryā myth (X 85 26 ) is, indeed, very peculiar This brief statement would give the impression that Pusan was a god of intrinsically complex personality, characterised as it is by apparently inconsistent and unconnected traits So far scholars have either cmphasised only one sjogle aspect of this god’s personality by making him the sun god, or the god of paths,e etc, thereby almost overlooking his other traits which do not fit in with their respective theories, or, otherwise, they have tried to strike a compromise by making him represent, from the very beginning an inherently mixed conception such as that of the beneficent power of the sun manifested chiefly as a pastoral deity” As a matter of fact, we have to approach such problems $ Cť OLDENBERC Rdl, 234 4 CF III 62 9 and X 187 4, VI 55 4-5 and . 3 3 5 Cr vi 55 4-5 and I 115 2 6 The similarity of Puṣan in various respects, 10 Hermes ( LEITII RPIU, 107) Pan (W SCHULZE, KZ 42 81, 37+), and Thor (GUNTERT. Der ansche 1 duten 41) is often emphasised It is customary 10 identify Thor exclusively with the Vedic god, Indra But there appear, in Thor: character, certain features which do not fit in well with the personality of Indra as represented in the Veda 7 KEMI RPIU 107 8 OLDENBERG, Rd1, 234-37 9 MACDONELL, VAI 37 Also cf ED PERRY “Mates on the Vedic dcity ligan’, CI Stud Drusler 240 fr ( According to Stella KRANRISCH (J405 81 104 22 ), Plan refers to the sarre symbol in the cosmos namely, the sun and the main image in which the presence and cuvity of Paran a invoked 19 that of hu potk Incidentally, hRARISCH regards Sayt also as a sun god ] 94 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS of Vedic mythology from the point of view of what may be called evolutionary mythology’ It ought to be realised that the nature of the Vedic gods had been changing with the vicissitudes in the Vedic life And corresponding to the different stages in the course of this evolution different traits came to be added to the essential character of the Vedic gods Their original nature was modified, their relations among themselves were altered, their worshippers also did not necessarily remain always the same As the result of all this the final picture became complex and full of apparent inconsistencies Keeping in mind this important feature of Vedic mythology let us attempt a fresh approach to the Pusan problem Let us see if it is possible to present the whole evolu tion of the personality of Pusan in such a manner that all the apparently inconsistent and unconnected details of his nature referred to in the Vedic texts and indicated by Vedic religious practices are shown to be logically and historically connected and consistent It has to be remembered that the Pusan mythology had passed through all the stages of its development even before the RV Samhita was finally formulated A critical analysis of the textual references and ritual indications mentioned above: followed by a constructive synthesis will however, help us to distinguish those stages markedly from one another 10 Let us begin by examining the earlier theories regarding Pusan’s essential character The most common view is to regard Pusan as a solar divinity This has been the opinion of the Indian scholiasts themselves Yāska, for instance, regards Pusan as a celestial divinity (dyusthana devata) and emphasises his solar character by pointing out that Pusan is the sun god who bears an abundance of rays 11 The same view has been developed by the Brhaddevata (2 63 ) which describes Pusan as the sun god who helped (from pus) the earth by dispelling the darkness by means of his rays A majority of early Vedists have paturally followed 10 An attempt of this k nd has been made in the case of the Ved c god VIDU See v gnu in ul e Veda publ shed elsewhere in this Volume 11 17 12 16 aha yad rafm poṣan putyan lal paid bharat Air 7 9 characteriscs Puṣan as Ād tya POSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 95 the lead given by these Indian cxcgctical texts 1? The solar theory is mainly based on certain epithets of Pusan, which are sugges tive of light and splendour As a matter of fact, however, out of the scicral cpithets attributed to Pusan, only one, namely, aghrni (VI 48 16, 53 3,55 1,3), may be said to be suggestive of the sun god Indeed, BLOOMFIELD claims for this god a clearly solar character on the strength of that very ancient epithet, aghrni (glowing, being specifically used with reference to him 13 But it will be seen that this cpithet is quite general in sense and may be made to indicate any resplendent divinity For example it is used with reference to Agni also (VIII 60 20) This single epithet cannot, therefore, bc regarded as a decisive proof regarding Pusan’s fundamental character ! If this epithet had been really characteristic of Pusan, why should it have been dropped out in later literature? The very fact that it disappears completely in later times would suggest that it was only superficially attributed to Pusan Further, the bright aspect of Pusan’s personality which is referred to in some stray cases (VI 48 17, 58 1) may be regarded as being indicative merely of the light symbolism, which is commonly superimposed by Vedic poets on their gods Bright ness and splendour are considered to be thic external manifestations of divine power Puson’s part in the Suryi myth has also been put forth as strongly supporting the solar theory But that whole myth is so puzzling that, by itself, it does not offer any substantial A BAVOLO19-23, Paris, le rog 36. 12 C&A LAVOLON R iido trad du Sanktit 1848–51, Allment sur d. 21!! lugu analia Sord, Par 18.32 Var VuLLER, Irito. 112at cant it tru ? 197, Yarns 11 mdr Arbolv 3G, Romi in Plt under en VADONILL SAI, 37, hum RPIU, 107 13 MLOOMTITLD The Rilner of the Irlar 172 14 It may also be noted that there considerable d Nerence of opinion Igarding the exact meaning of the word, 184 The word occur IS and in the Ri Sayama explans stadgatal (in hus commentary on the passages motioned above) os polst Annlit 23 13 ) and as dph (111 62 7) IA Au coumratory on t 198 4 on the other hand, he uri a KOY Cortik Ingre ministar Awas in lots #tou OITEVINO think that the curt tran ng of the word u nof certain (rel 29. n. 4) Trnum in blinkment to CHAWATY dc Dctrony intcrprets at 31 1 bent or ’ netow'96 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS clue to solve the Pusan problem That myth points rather to Pusan’s having been included in it by way of an afterthought PERRY rightly suggests that this myth must be the result of the meeting of two different streams of legend, in one of which Pusan and in the other Surya plays the chief role It is also possible to explain the references to the mysterious relationships and to the motif of incest occurring in that myth on the assumption that certain elements of the original Pusan cult were integrated into that myth which was based on solar and light phenomena 18 Another piece of evidence produced by HILLEBRANDT? and PERRY18 jn support of the solar theory is the fact that Pusad is coupled with Soma both in the RV-Samhita (II 40 ) and in Vedic ritual 19 They argue that Soma represents the moon god and so Pusan must necessarily represent the sun god The very starting point of this seasoning is unconvincing The original nature of Soma was not lunar It will be shown later that this coupling together of Pusan and Soma is significant from quite a different point of view and forms an important stage in the evolution of the Pusan-religion In II 40, a reference is made to Pusan’s dwelling in heaven as well as to his wandering between the heaven and the earth ( also X 17 6) This is taken to indicate the sun’s daily journey from and back to heaven The fact that Pusan leads the dead from the earth to the other world (X 17 3 ) is also inter preted as supporting the above assumption 20 According to BLOOMFIELD, such references are typical of the familiar notion of the Vedic poets that the sun oversees everything 11 A critical examination of the Vedic passages cited above would, however, show that they are very casual references and do not at all point 15 Op atl, 243 16 For further elaboration of this point sce the sequel 17 HILLEBRANDT, I AI1, 332 18 PERRY (Op al) understands the dual divinity of II 20, namely, Somāpuṣanau, as representing the moun god and the sun god 19 CC NIS II 2 4 20 MACDOVELL (1 11 37 ) points to the further fact that in the post Vedic literature Pasan occasionally occurs as a name of the sun 21 BLOOMFIELD, Opel, 173. sorua pe CS COOKEELESORIA DO 373 PUSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 97 Ir the essential function of Pusap The close association of Pusan with Ago (1 122 5, II 1 6, X 17 3 ) also cannot be said to be suggestive of Pusan’s solar nature The ‘increasc facilitating’ faculty, which is prominent in Pusad s character, is again not exclusively solar On the other hand, assuming that the word, pūsan, really means Prospero’ (cf BLOOMFIELD, The Religion of the Vedas, 170), it may reaso nably be asked why the sun god, alone among the Vedic gods, should be glorified with that title Parjanya and Maruts also are represented as conferring prosperity on mankind Therefore, Pusan’s increase facilitating faculty cannot by itself be a proof of his solar character It should also be noted that the prosperity conferred by Pusan is obviously connected with cattle, this fact cannot be satisfactorily reconciled with that god’s solar nature The sun’s power of 10creasing cattle is evidently not direct and natural ?! In one of the myths (VI 56 3 ) Pusan is described as loading the suns wheel on some hairy speckled animal Eise where (VI 55 2,56 2) hc is called a chariotcer par excellence These references are said to be indicative of Pusan’s solar aspect, particularly as a solar charioteer But docs that not mean that Puṣan is here markedly distinguished from the sun god? There are several other passages where this distinction between the sun and Pusan is clearly brought out Pusan is called the messenger of the sun (VI 58 3 ) and is elsewhere mentioned as being different from the sun (e & VI 48 17): Further, it cannot be argued, on the strength of Pusans association with Savitr (V 81 5, X 139 1 ) and of the fact that the epithet agonya is peculiar to Savitr (1 110 3, IV 33 7) and Pusan (X 64 3)), that Pusan 22 kmit (RPI U, 107 ) compare Poran with the Iron fithra, who promotes the prosperity of cattle and brings lost animals home Atithra u, According to that scholar an almost undoubted tungod hc consequently argue that Papan also must be a sun god ‘Th s argumcut u baxu upon a dofinitely que onable concer uon of thras scntal personal ty (See • Asun ใณ 23 It has been asumed on the bras of Phan a close associat oa with the Afvat, that the former arcared in the sky with the Afrin very carly in the born og This (act us ford to be young agurt the solar theory 13 98 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS is an aspect of the sun-god, just as Savits is 21 It has been shown elsewhere25 that Savitr himself is essentially not a sun god Moreover, the reference in the Savitr-hymn (V 81 5), uta pūsä bhavası deva jāmabluh would rather suggest that Pusad is not basically connected with solar splendour but with paths and highways The various Vedic passages referred to above cannot, there fore, be said to indicate the essential solar nature of Pūsan Many other objections may be raised against the solar theory Certain epithets like ajāśva and karambhäd, which are exclusively attri buted to Pusan,28 do not even distantly hint at his solar character Further the anthropomorphic traits of Pūsan, mentioned in the RV, though scanty, are sufficiently individualistic The braided hair and beard are hardly suggestive of the sun-god 27 The peculiarities with regard to Pusan’s food (VI 56 1), weapon (VI 53 5), car (VI 54 3 ) and the animal driving it (I 138 4; VI 55 3,4), as also his other mannerisms, are so life like and realistic that they completely banish out of account any possibility of a naturalistic interpretation of his personality 29 It is also difficult to explain satisfactorily, on the basis of the solar theory, the peculiar relation that seems to have existed between the Pusan-religion and the clan of the Bhāradvājas it may further be asked if Pusan was originally the sun god, what exactly could be the significance of his being coupled with Indra and Soma only and that too by way of an afterthought? What, again, is the special significance of the sun god alone being invoked to pupish the Panis? In the hymn, VIII 29, where the distinctive features of several Vedic gods are mentioned in the form of riddles, the 24 HOPKINS ( The Religions of India, 41, 47, 52 even goes to the extent of saying that Pusan and Savits are almost identical so fas as their names and functions are concerned 25 “New light on the Vedic god Savit?”, published elsewhere in this Volume 26 Sec supra 27 As kapardın and parupa, Pusan 19 supposed by certain scbolars, to be representing the original of Rudra : characteristics 28 Also cf MACDONELL, VA, 37 PŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 99 solar aspect of Paṣan is not even hinted at ( VIII. 29.6). Taking into account the special characteristics of the Vedic Pisan one does not feel inclined to accept the conclusion arrived at by ATKINS, who has made a fresh study of the Pūṣan-problem od the basis of all the available material on the subject, namely, that, when considered in the aggregate the Vedic references lead us to the assumption that Puṣan was primarily a sun-god. 9 As a matter of fact, the emphasis put by the Vedic poets on the traits of Puṣan’s personality other than those connected with light and splendour is so conspicuous that even the supporters of the solar theory tend towards modifying their theory in various ways. Püṣan is made to represent the sun god in different positions and capacities. But this, in itself, may be regarded as an indication of the inherently untenable character of that theory. Such variations of the solar theory no doubt exhibit considerable ingenuity on the part of their authors; but on critical examination they are found to be quite unconvincing. GRASSMANN 50 for instance, makes Pūsan a god of prospe rity and growth related to the sun. SCHROEDERSI believes that Pūṣan was an original ancient sun.god bestowing bounty. While DE GUBERNATTS** and GRILL33 consider him to be speci fically the setting or the evening sun, FLENSBURG regards him as the sun acarest the carth, that is to say, the poon-sun 34 29. S. D. ATKINS, Posan in the Rigveda, 1941. Also see : “Pufan in the Sima, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas”, 240S 67, 274-95. It may be mentioned that Akry regards Savitr, Viṣnu, and Mitra also to have been fundamentally tolar divinities. The present writer docs not accept this view. See his papers on Savitr, Virpu, and Varuṇa, published cloc where io this Volumc. 30. GRASSXAVX, Rig-Vida, Uber, Leipzig, 1876-77. 31. dricre Argon it, tr. 32. Letture sopra la mitologia pedica, Florence, 1874, 82. 33. Junitat Lieder des Atharta-t’eda, Übers, Tubingen, 1879. 34. N. FLENSBURO, Didrag till Rigtedas mylologi. Om guder posar i Rigveda, Lund, 1909. ATXTYS (Pasar in the Rigordt ) gives the general outline of FLEYIDVRO’s vicw. On the cvidence of X. 139.2, FLENWURD considers Putan to be the sun in his central position brtween the eastern and the western horizon. He produces further evidence (1. 42. B, 138 I; VI. 48. 16, 17:363) in support of his asumption that Mad represents the sun when he is nearest to the earth, (Continued on the net rax) 100 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS PERRY) and MACDONCLL36 scem to cmphasise the pastoral aspect of Püsan’s character rather than the solar onc According to HILLEBRANDT also, Puṣan was primarily a sun-god with pastoral functions 87 HOPXINS asserts that Pusan is bucolic throughout, and yet a sun god 38 All this tends to prove that the solar traits in Pusan’s personality, whatever they are, arc vague and inconclu. sive The bright, glowing aspect of Pusan’s nature is so Ambi guous that some scholars have come forward with other explana tions of it SIECKE looks upon Pusan as an original moon god, later turned into a god of paths 31 GHOSE denies that Pusan could be a sun-god 40 According to him, Pūsan is the “presiding genius, at the same time, of Light which thawed, warmed and discriminated everything, and the even more pervasive Moisture which sustained and nourished everything “11 (Cortin sect from last page) It may, however, be mentiored, in this connection, that, even according to FLENSBURO, the solar aspect has beca a larer development in Pasan’s persona lity Fc bclicves that the figure of Pogan developed out of an apothcosid herdsman ideal, to which became attached the general folk-concepuon of the sun as the herdsman of the universe At the same time he asserts that the god function is solar 35 Opal 36 OD 616 37 HILLEARANDT, VAIT, 332-33 HILLEBRANDT u generally inclined to agree with PERRY hough he does not find the latter’s vicw entirely convincing According to him, PERRY’s hypothesis is better than several others including that of OLDENBERG 38 HOPKINS, OR cl, 52 HOPRINS says ( Op al, 50 ) “While under hus other names the sun has lost, to a great extent the attributes of a bucolic solar deity, in the case of Pushan he appears sull as a god whose characteristics are bucolic, war like, and pricstly, that is to say, even as he is venerated by the three masses of the folk’ He further says ( 50 ) that “anc need not read into the hyns more than they offer to see that, not to speak of the priestly view, there are at least two Pashars in the Rig Veda itself 39 E STECKE, Pashan Studies zur Idee des Hurrengofles im Anschluss an die Stud en uber Hermes den Arondgott’ Leipzig, 1914 About Paṣan, SECKE says that it us arrefutably clcar that in hum there lies hidden an ancient moon god OLDENBERG (RIV, 236 f n 4) considers the ticws of Sicky and HILLEBR ANDT to be inconnncing 40 N GHOSE, The Aryan Trail in Iran and India 42, f n 10, 78 41 Ibid, 38, PŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 101 It is said in support of the solar theory that Püsan was origi nally the sun god, but when his nature as a god of paths or a pastoral god came to be prominently emphasised in later Vedic times, the solar aspect in his personality became indistinct and vague This explanation, however, is not convincing It may be pointed out that the sun’s connexion with paths and pastoral life is not so very intrinsic that it should become the basis of the future prominent development of his character Why should the sun god alone be brought into such an organic relation with pastoral religion ? Many other Vedic gods seem to play an equally – if not more - important role in pastoral life Morcover, It may be asked If this pastoral aspect is a later development of the basic solar character of Pusan, why has it ultimately dis appeared ? In later times we find that the traces of the bucolic aspect are quite indistinct As a matter of fact, those traits in Pusan’s personality, which are supposed to have been the result of a later development, must be reasonably expected to be conspi cuously preserved That is, however, not the case It cannot be denied that the Vedic poets have made an obvious attempt to endow Pusan’s personality with some features connec ted with light and splendour But the above discussion leads one to the following conclusions Firstly, there is no clear evidence to show ibat Pusan represents a phenomenon of nature to Secondly, Pusan cannot at all be said to have originally represented a solar divinity In fact the light symbolism which is perceptible from the Vedic references to Pusan does not form an intrinsic and 42 See Also OLDEN DERC, OR “, 236 BERCAICNE (LRV II, 420-30 ) thinks that a complete explanation of Pisan, like that of Vippe, camot be found 7. by resorts to a cregory U Uw Woien art complicx, Yoat to say, una combination of naturalistic, mctcorological as well as solar myths, along with 1 turgical myths (p 420 ) An aspect of thc ‘Daturalist in the Pusan rel gion us explained by that scholar as follows Pasan s goad represent the lightning, and the herds which he said to be nourishing are heavcnly waters (P 424) The brief statement of the Posan mythology made above, however indicates that this could not have been the intention of the Vedic pocks, In this captext passing reference may be made to the view of I S Vodskov (Salalykels of maturdytaise, ICopenhagen 1890-97) who makes Papan a tain god 102 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS essential aspect of that god’s nature It is too flat, commonplace, and colourless for that Therefore, one may be justified in concluding further that the phenomena of light with which Pusan is associated in the Veda were introduced by way of an after thought and perhaps with some special purpose in view It has already been noticed that the traits in the Pusan mytho logy connected with light and splendour are so ambiguous that they have given rise to doubts as to whether the bright aspect of Pusan’s personality indicates his solar nature or the lunar nature or the stellar nature SIECKE believes that Pusan was origipally a moon divinity who later assumed the functions of a god of paths 43 HERTEL also seems to support this view 41 From the point of view of comparative mythology SIECKE assumes that the Similarity of Pusan with Hermes is undoubted 45 Accordiagly he regards both of them as moon gods As will be pointed out in the sequel, there are, indeed, certain characteristics in Pusan’s nature which appear to be unmistakably indicating bis lunar aspect It is also easily intelligible that the moon, and not so much the sun, should be brought into close contact with the lord ship of paths But to say that Pusan represents essentially and originally the moon god is quite unconvincing 46 On that assum ption it would be difficult to explain why a moon god should be invested with the peculiar features which characterise the Pusan mythology As a matter of fact, all that has been said above against the solar theory may with equal cogency apply to other 43 See foot-note 39 44 J HERTEL, Betrage zur Erklarung des Aweslas und des Vedas 89 45 SAROLDER ( Op et, 11, f = 1) rejects the ident fication of Papan with Hermcs suggested by OLDENBERG, who regards (OD 1 233 ) Pugan Hermes as a god of paths But he says that SIECKE effort to identify Pufan with the moon god deserves attention 46 It seems that SIECKL has fallen a victm to a popular trend of mytholog cal study which sees the moon propunently manifesting himself at the back of all being and doing of a god Many important Vedic gods including Varuṇa Yame, and even Vuou were regarded as representing the moon goc It was claimed that the moon played the most predominant role in primitive mythology PŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 103 theories seeking to make Pusan represent one or the other pheno menon of Light GHOSH starts with the assumption that the physical nature of a large number of RV deities can be interpreted from the astro pomical and meteorological poiots of view On the basis of the obscure Suryā myth, he believes that Pusan appears in the heaven at night towards morning with Asvins, and goes away before sunrise He consequently identifies Pusan with the constellation Auriga of the northern hemisphere 47 Apart from the highly questionable Oature of the Süryā myth, it will be seen that GHOSH has altogether neglected other more prominent features of Pusan’s character 49 The same may be said to be the case with GHOSE, who makes Pusan a god of Light and Moisture-the two principles sustaining the universe 49 No attention seems to have been paid here either to Pusan’s antbropomorphic traits, or to his peculiar connection with paths and pastoral life in general Even a casual study of the Pusan samlità in the sixth mandala would suffice to show how untenable such theories are on the very face of them! There were periods in the history of Vedic mythological studics when the Vedic gods were exclusively made to represent either some natural phenomena - particularly connected with heaven and light -or some ritualistic conceptions Naturalistic and ritualistic traits are superimposed upon the original Vedic mythology in many cases “But a critical study of the Vedic mythology soon makes it clear that these traits cannot have constituted the intrinsic nature of the gods ja question A reference has already been made to BERGAIGNE’s view That scholar even goes to the extent of ultimately identifying Pusan with Soma 50 Neither Vedic texts nor Vedic ritualistic practices seem to substantiate this view it need hardly be added that many objections raised above against 47 1 N Crosu, JASBm, NS, 20 99-92 (particularly p 91 ) 48 (On the basis of IV 57 6-7, B R KULEARNI suggests (DV Poldar Fil Tul, 1950 229-30 ) that the rise of Puṣan - the Revati naffairs – was once cocval with and a goal for sowing what (sila) ] 49 See supra 50 opal, 420 104 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS the solar theory are applicable with equal force even in this connection While dismissing the solar theory and the lunar theory51 as perfectly unsatisfactory, OLDENBERG emphasises yet another single aspect of Pusan’s character thereby ignoring the other ones 5’ Pusan is seen to be active in several distinct capacities, But, according to OLDENBERG, the most characteristic function of this god is in connection with paths. He knows the paths and leads others safely on them (VI. 49.8). He guards men and cattle from going astray (VI. 54. 5-7). Those who are lost he brings back intact (I. 23. 13) Indeed, he knows where and how to find the lost things (I. 23 14; VI, 48, 15) OLDENBERG argues that the fundamental nature of a god’s being is to be determined primarily on the basis of his post original and most essential function. Pūsan is, therefore, a lord of paths, regarded as a distinct dividity by the Vedic poets and celebrated by them as such. According to OLDENBERG, Pūsan is connected with agriculture only so far as he sees that the furrows of the plough are in the right direction (IV, 57. 7). Hts connection with cattle also is restricted to his leading them on the right path. Püsan’s astrā is called paśusādhani (VI 53.9) OLDENBERG understands the word paśusādhani in the sense of leading the pasu on the right path’ 5* The later development of this essential function of Pusan is to be seen in his being regarded as leading the bride, in a proper manner, from the father’s to the husband’s house 51. It 19 interesting to recall that OLDENBERG is usually in favour of the theory that the mood played a very prominent part in mythology It may also be noted that he identifies Varuṇa with the moon on the strength of a compara. tive study of Vedic and Semitic mythologies. Stecke too has referred to Semutic mythology in support of his theory that Pusan represents the moon god. But OLDENBERG finds SLECKE’s argumentation unconvincing. He also rejects V. HENRY’s vicw that AV VII 9 1 positively cstablishes Puṣan’s solar nature (Opal, 236, f n 4) 52 OLDENBERO, RAV, 234-37, 53 As against BERGAIONE who interprets pasusudhani as ‘procurog cattle (O 68, 424). OLDENBERG believes that the verb sudh is distinctive of Paṣan (VI 56 4-5, X. 26.4) and that it is appropriately connected with the god of patbs nncc sudhu as the standing epithet of path (Op. al, 234, f. n. !). PÜSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 105 (X 85 26) Püsan is also described as leading the dead to the other world (X 17 3) Himself the lord of paths, Pusan is born on the way (X 17 6) OLDENBERG interprets Pusan’s epithet, vimuco napas, 10 two seases first, as the lord of lodging’?), and, secondly, as the deliverer par excellence’ Both these concep tions are, according to him, promloent 10 Pusan s nature as the lord of paths Other features of the Pusan mythology, such as his being the messenger of the sun (VI 58 3 ) and his finding out Soma as well as Agnt, when they were lost (I 23 14, X 55), are also explained by OLDENBERG as supporting his theory Fur ther the connection of the lord of paths with the goat is quite natural because the goat is certainly the most sure footed animal In some Vedic passages ( 1 42, VI 534) Pusan is described as cleaning the paths of evil spirits, wolf, and highway robbers It is significant that in śānh GS II 14 9 he is represented as receiving offerings, in his capacity of the path finder, every morning and evening, on the threshold of the house So far as comparative mythology is concerned, OLDENBERG is of the opinion that Pusan 13 identical with Hermest and regards both of them as basically lords of paths That scholar even includes Pusan and Hermes, in this their original character, among such divinities as can be traced back to indogermanic antiquity So far as OLDENBERG asserts that Pusan cannot be the personification of any nature phenomenon it is easy to accept his View But his theory that Pūsan’s nature as a path finder or a lord of paths is the basic conception underlying that god’s perso nality cannot possibly be accepted without challenge The very conception of a god of paths is so general that it is, indeed, dificult to imaginc that such a god could have ever been invested with distinct anthropomorphic traits Pusan is represented in the Veda with a distinct individuality Why should god of paths be speciücally characterised as a haramblad? The aṣira and ara 51 Opat, 237, rni It may be pointed out here that this identification w based on a superficial a milarity between the two gods. SCHROEDER also doulits tic val dity of th aident fication Sec fm 45 ) MEITU ( Op al , 107), on the other hand, regards Pagans bilarity to llerma as undoubted.106 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS (VI 53 5,9) are, again, not particularly pertinent in OLDEN. BERG’s theory OLDENBERG seems to set aside completely the conspicuous bucolic pature of Pusan’s personality and to put an Over-emphasis only on one of its features A god of paths cannot be regarded to be intrinsically connected with the prosperity of cattle 56 It may further be asked Had Pusan been originally a lord of paths is it not natural to expect that his seat should have been on the earth rather than in the heaven? The Pusan-religion on the whole gives the impression that it was a special religious cult belonging to a particular Vedic tribe The attempts at associating that religion artificially with the Indra religion and the Soma. ritual, which are evident in the Veda, also seem to support this Impression Can one believe that a god of paths was made ibe central figure in an ipdependent religious cult? The name, Pusan, also cannot be regarded as being particularly appropriate for a lord of paths It may be specifically emphasised that it is not correct to determine the pature of a god only from one or another characteristic feature of his It will, however, be clear from the above discussion that it is exactly what OLDENBERG has done As a matter of fact, it is not necessary to make Pusan an indepen. dent god of paths This feature represents only a part of the essential function of Pusan and may not, therefore, be distin gutshed from it The common factor in the majority of the theories regarding Pusan’s original nature referred to above may as well be taken to be a reasonable starting point for a correct approach to this problem in the various attempts suitably to modify then original theories scholars seem to agree in making a pointed reference to the obvious bucolic traits wbich characterise that god The sustained impression, which the Vedic passages refer ring to Pusap in general and the Pusan samhitā in the stall mandala in particular produce, is that Pusan must have beca primarily and essentially a pastoral god He supervises the cattit and is responsible for the preservation and increase of herds 55 OLDENBERGS interpretation of the word, batasudhan shown to be unsatisfactory will bc 126 ÞŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 107 and flocks (VI 54 5-7) He is often referred to as a cattle giying god (cf VI 53 10 ) It is, indeed notcworthy that Pusan is concerned only with the prosperity of sheep and cattle The pastoral communities are represented in the Veda to bave been nomadic Naturally, they often emphasised one aspect of their special god, Pusan, namely, his lordship over the paths He leads his followers safely from one pasture to another He is celebrated as the knower of treasures (VIII 29 6), indicating thereby that he knows the right place where his pastoral followers should be taken In other words, he secures for them rich pasture lands But, at the same time, he is conscious of his other responsibility to his worshippers on the way he guards them În another passage (VI 56 5), Pusan is invoked to direct this cattle desiring band of ours’ to the attainment of its desired objects 58 Maoy were the occasions when the cattle went astray and were lost Under such circumstances, the pastoral worshippers often appealed to their god who readily recovered the lost property (VI 54 10 ) Pusan is predominantly characterised as anastapasu (X 17 3), anastavedas (VI 54 8), and paśupa (VI 58 257 Among the pastoral tribes there is a special class of people who distinguish themselves in the art of path finding and tracing the lost sheep and cattle 58 It is this peculiar faculty of an actually existing class among the shepherds and cowherds that is idealised 10 Pusan by his worshippers (VI 54 1) It is a very common feature of any mythology that several characteristics of a god are often derived from the way of living of that god’s worshippers The god of the warlıke tribes is often represented as a warrior god The anthropomorphic traits of a god in particular may be regarded as being very suggestive in this connection It is easy to imagine that the pastoral tribes made their god look impressive 56 The logical and natural extension of this invocation is that Püsan should allot to his worshippers their share of mandens (IX. 67 10) 57 As pointed out earlier Pigan is the only god who receives the cpitbct pafupa directly and not in comparisons 58 HILLEBRANDT (Op al 328-29) refers to the Whois of Panjab and the Paggi of Gujerat who are known even today for this special faculty which they are said to possess 108 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS with braided hair (VI 55 2 159 and graceful beard The weapons that he wields are those which are usually employed by his pasto ral worshippers, the only difference being that the goad (VI 539) and the awl (VI 53 5) of Pusan possess some divine power The astrā of Pusan was paśusādhani, that is to say, it helped his worshippers to acquire, preserve, and increase the cattle, and the āra cane in handy when he wanted to punish vitally the pasty mischief mongers, Panis, who harassed the pastoral communities in the course of their forward march to pastures new’ (VI 53 5) It is also very suggestive, in this context, that Pusan’s goad is described as go opasā ( VI 53 9), “haying its head or top adorned with the figure of a bull” This word, which, inciden tally, occurs only once in the RV (and whose meaning is accor dingly uncertain ), is also interpreted as “provided with a thong made of cattle skin” Anyway, it would seem to confirm the essentially pastoral character of Pusan The significance of Pusan’s peculiar connection with the goat (I 138 4, VI 55 3,4, 57 3, X 26 8) will be easily realised when we take into consideration the fact that the goat is the most surc footed animal and can traverse the most difficult paths Another very remarka ble example of how the distinctive features of a people are trans ferred to their god is to be found in the Vedic reference where Pusan is said to be weaving the raiment of sheep, and also make ing their raiment clean’ vasovaya ‘yinām ā vasumsi marmriat (X 26 6) This passage can hardly be considered to be apropos unless we assume that Pusan is essentially a god of shepherds Further, it is interesting to note that the god of the shepherds and cowherds eats the simple food which they themselves must be eating, namely, karambha (VI 561) Particularly striking is the fact 59 The word kapardırt us also understood in the sense of one who Weara string of cowry shells The Vedic references do not, however, sem to support this meaning BANERJEE SHASTRI suggesta (JBORS 18, 1-3) that Laperda was a kind of lcad dress, specially for females He also considers the word opafa (cf co-opaid motioned below), which too, according to him, dc. poted bcad-gear PŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 109 that these pastoral worshippers are not ashamed of their god being a karambhad On the other hand, they put forth a challenge that he’who aims at Pusan malignantly saying that he is merely a karambhad can never strike at him successfully’ ja enam ādideśati karambhād iti pūsanam na tena dela ādıśe (VI 56 1) Such evil efforts are bound to fail, because the epithet, karambhād, can never hurt the god of the pastoral communities So far as Pūsan’s own worshippers are concerned, karambhad is not a scorn ful cpithet 60 This god of the cattle breeding worshippers is praised in a manner quite befitting their general culture No high sounding phrases are used by the poets with reference to Pusan An appeal to him for his friendship (VI 48 18 ) almost creates the actual pastoral atmosphere It is, therefore, safe to conclude that Pusan was already in the Veda a full fledged pastoral divinity As a matter of fact, he represents a divine prototype of a cattle breeding people His pastoral worshippers have invested Pusan’s personality with a shepherd’s appearance, a shepherd’s food, and similar other conspicuously bucolic traits Onc may cven go to the extent of asserting that it is impossible to indicate an essen tially bucolic personality in a clearer manner than the Vedic Pusao An etymological study of the pame Pusan would also seem am nly to support the basic pastoral character of this god The word pūsan is usually derived from the root, pus, to increase, nourish, bestow bounty 61 This is, however, not satisfactory With that etymology it is not possible to explain why there should be a long pū in pisan 62 An attempt is made by BERGAIGNE63 to 60 A reference may be made in this connection to the controversy between EDOERTON and Fax (JAOS 40 81-102 ) with regard to the intcrprctation of VI 56! I accept EDGERTON 3 VICW 61 The words pussi ( 267) and posa (II 40 4) are employed 10 connect on y th P ṣan 62 PUSCHEL says (Ved Stud I 193 ) that there is no doubt that p7ian 15 pot connected with pus However, KUIPER, AD 12, 256, connccus Pusan with puf yalt) 63 Opal, 425, sa 3 Also PISCHEL 110 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS deriye pisan from the root, pů, to purify HERTEL connects the word with pū, to glow 64 These explanations also do not seem convincing SCHULZE connects the name Pusan philologically with * Pan’ or Arcadian Paon 65 CHARPENTIER correctly traces the word pūsan back to *psü san, and further to * pśū san, that is to say pasu san 66 The name thus indicates that god’s essential character as the ‘acquirer of cattle’ The reference that Pūsan’s astra is paśusādham fully supports this view Pusan seems to correspond, according to CHARPENTIER, with the Avestic fru-san Thus the etymology of the name also leads one to the conclusion that Pūsan was originally a pastoral god par excellence 87 Other characteristic features of the Pūsan mythology fit in well with this conception of that god’s essential personality and primary funcions From the Vedic references it clearly appears that the clan of the Bharadvājas was specially devoted to the Pusan cult The Bhāradvājas must have been one of the ancient tribes whose main occupation was cattle-breeding And Pusad was the patron god of these nomadic shepherds and cowherds The living Pusan cult can very well be realised only from the Pusan samhita of the Bhāradvājas The fact that the Panis too 64 HERTEL, Bertrage zur Erilarung des Aw.stas und des Vedas, 89 Hc regards pusan and aghrn almost as synonyms 65 KZ 42, 81, 374 GUNTERT Der ansche Weltkönig, 43 ) accepts the View of SCHULZE OLDENBERG (Opct 237, f n 1) regards the connection of Pufan with Pap as uncertain 66 J CHARPENTIER " Beitrage zur indoiranische Etymologie’, Oriental Sludus in honour of C E Paury, OUP, 1933, 81-85 It is perfectly understandable that the astra of pafu san Pusan should be pasuradhan 67 OLDENBERG suggests the possibility that originally this pastoral god, Puran, may have been celebrated in a goat form (op at 73 ) The beast specially connetted with a particular god is, in many cases, the remnant in the process of anthropomorphisation of the original beast form of that god. The Arcadians, indeed, have a goat footed pastoral god On the basis of a Similar possibility in the case of Pusan, DuONT (JA0S 53, 376-3+) connccis that god with another Vedic god, whose name indicates the goat foro namely, Aja Ekapıda Pasan’s beard and locks of bair are also considered to be suggestive of the goat form However, so far as the Vedic references are concerned we cannot find any clear traces of the goat form of Pusan IA Vedic mythology Paṣan $ represented as a full fledged anthropomorphic pastoral Juvnity PŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 111 are most conspicuously mentioned in the sixth mandala tends to support the above assumption regarding the Bhāradvājas It is quite certain that the word panı does not have a merely appellative sense The Panis represent a distinct community possessing a religious cult different from the official Vedic religion They always wandered with the Vedic cattle breeding tribes and often used to harass them References to their riches and thefts are quite common in the Veda The Panis were notorious cattle lifters and, therefore, particularly antagonistic to the clan of the Bhāradvājas Thus there was, in the early Vedic times, a con tinuous conflict going on between the Bbāradvājas and the Pants; and the former often invoked their patron god, Pusan, to puoish these mischievous cattie lifters 88 Naturalk, for the Bharad vājas, Püsan was more important than any other god from among the Vedic pantheon The ten gayatrı stanzas of VI 53 seem to have formed some sort of magic formulae belonging to the Pusan cult, which were directed against the Panis, perhaps accompanied by some magic practices It may, therefore, be concluded that the pastoral clan of the Bharadvājas developed the essential persona. lity of Pisan in a distinctive manner 89 Pūsan’s essentially pastoral personality thus represents the first stage in the evolution of the Pūsan mythology It is a common characteristic of the Vedic mythology in general that all gods are at some stage connected with heaven and light 68 From the references to the conflict between the Panus and the Bhara. dvajas, HILLEBRANDT attempts to determine the geographical locality of the samc His conclusion is that the sixth man ala generally belongs to the Westerly region that is to say, to the moutains of Afghanistan) and not to lada proper In support of this view he brings forth the evidence of Pisan’s special connection with Sarasvad, that is to say, with the twer Acarbstonen al , 335-36) 69 A staustical consideration of the Vedic references to Puṣan is believed to indicate that the Puṣan-cult was later adopted first by the Kanvas and then by the other clans In other words the pastoral elements in other inves also began to celebrate the pastoral god, Puan GUNTERT (De Grische Weltlong, 44 fT ) brings the evidence of certain nord c rock paintings to bear upon the problem of an indogermanic pastoral god He part cularly refers to the paintings found in middle and south Scandinavia la bu book ( 46), he reproduces the sketch of a god, in goat form, with hammers VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS This light symbolism is superimposed upon the original character of the Vedic gods and 15 therefore often casily distinguishable from it It gives an unmistakable impression of artificiality and superficiality This current of thought is clearly perccptible even in the case of an essentially pastoral god like Puṣan It has already been indicated that the light symbolism in Puṣan s pature is distinctly colourless and superficial It is also so vague and ambiguous that it is not easy to determine whether, in this second stage, Puṣan was regarded as a sun god or as a moon god A critical examination of such Vedic passages as are suggestivc of light and splendour, however, Icads onc to bclicic that Pusan was regarded as a moon god rather than a sun god It should first of all, be remembered that Pusan is often cicarly distinguished from the sun (VI 56 3) Then there is a passage ( VI 38 3) where Puṣan 15 described as the messenger of the sur Plying his golden ship in the ocean of the air Is this not clearly indicative of the moon? Further, onc of the aspects of Pusan’s original character namely as a path finder can, in the light symbolism, be best transferred to the moon and not to the sun when darkness and difficulties obstruct the way, the moon appears as the real path finder Pusan, in his original character is regarded as a divine shepherd In the mythology of heaven and light, it is common to look upon the moon as the shepherd of the herds of stars This fact will make it clear how very natural the transition from Pusan to the moon god must have been Is it, again not possible to suppose that the horns of the goat the special apimal of Puson gave rise to the imagery of the horns of the crescent moon 770 Further, it is the moon god who is usually regarded as the divine symbol of ‘growth’, which is Pusan s special gift One of the outstanding features of the Pusan mythology is the peculiar part played by that god in the obscure Suryā myth A critical analysis of that myth brings forth the following facts more or less prominently The basic conception underlying the myth is the representation of a typical heavenly marriage Surya 70 42-43 Cf SCHROEDER Aruche Rel goon II 12, GUNTERT, Dir anische Telskar PŪSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 113 the sun maiden, is the bride and three different gods, namely, Asyins, Soma, and Pūsan, are represented as her wooers While AŚvins are referred to, in one context, as the husbands of Surya (IV 43 6), Soma also is, in another context, said to have been the real bndegroom (X 85 9) This appareat contradiction is explained away by it being suggested that Soma was Surya’s first husband and that, in ber second marriage, which was a siayanıvara, she chose Aśvids as her husbands 7We are here concerned only with Pusan’s role in thus myth It is said that gods gave Pusao, who was subdued by love, to Surya in marriage (VI 58 4 ) Probably as the husband of Surya, Pusan is connected with the marriage ceremonial, being besought to take the bride’s hand and lead her away and to bless her in her conjugal relation (X 85 37) Pusan’s role as the wooer of Suryā has a two fold signi ficance - mythological and sociological From the point of view of the evolution of the Pusan mythology, we may assume that, in order to stabilize the fight symbolism superimposed upon the original character of Pusan, Vedic poets thought of introduc ing that god ja the Surya myth which must have then become very popular If we further assume that they regarded Pusan, in this second stage in the evolution of his personality, as the moon-god, it 15 casy to imagine how he is mode to play, in the Surya myth, & part similar to that of Soma, who too had come, by that time, to be regarded as the moon god Apart from this mythological sigoificance, Pusan’s introduction in the Suryā myth may have had a distinct sociological significance also By the side of the resplen. deot Süryā, the pastoral grucl eater Pusan certainly lends a peculiar touch to the whole myth Is it not likely that, on the strength of the precedent of this heavenly match between Surya and Pusan–the two divinitics belonging originally to two distinct 71 A myth almilar to the is found in latush mythology according to which the lovers of the sun maiden are God , sons’, whic, in many cases, the moon-god abo appcan us their triumphant rival 72 CT ICILLI edish Slutum 14-16 73 Indische Studien 1, 136, 100 15 114 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS mythological strata–, the pastoral worshippers of Pusan desired to assert their own claims to matrimonial relations with tribes which, presumably, had already passed beyond the pastoral stage? The inyocation that Pus28 should allot to his worshippers their share of maidens (IX 67 10) would seem to support such conjecture Pusan’s part in the Surya myth may then be regarded as the result of the impact of two Vedic communities having different social cultures It must be observed, in this connection, that myth building is not always based on clear cut issues But there cannot be much doubt that the Surya myth must have developed on the sociological background referred to above It is further not improbable that the adjustments which the Vedic poets found it necessary to make after having once intro duced Pusan in the myth of Surya, Aśvips, and Soma, reflect the manners and social customs of the pastoral worshippers of Pusan Such adjustments were necessary in view of the fact that Suryā, the bride, was the sun maiden (who was regarded, rather confusedly either as the consort or as the daughter of the sun god), and Pusan, the suitor, was the moon god, who was often regarded as the son of the sun god The epithets of Pusan, namely, mātut didhısu, suitor of the mother’, and svasur parah, lover of the sister’ (V 55 4–5), may be interpreted, on the one band, on the basis of the mythological imagery relating to Surya, the sun maiden, and Pusan, the son of the sun god On the other hand, these epithets which are suggestive of the motif of incest may be supposed to rcflcct the practice of Khveruk das marriages, that is to say, marriages among nicar relatives, which were current among some ancient Aryan tribes Such marriages must have formed a peculiat feature of the pastoral communities 74 The light aspect of Pusan s personality is, however, very super ficial and gives the impression of having been introduced by way of an afterthought It is also considerably hazy But, as point 74 On this subject see Irawati LARVE The kinshup usages and is family organisat op in Rgveda and Atb arvaveda , ABORI 20 213-31 About the practice of Khaelik das see N Gulose Thic Arın Trail in Iran and Ind a 110 49, 170, also West in SBE, Vol 18, 389 130 PŪŞAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 115 out so far, in this stage, Pūsan seems to have been regarded by the Vedic poets as the moon-god. In this context, a reference may be made to a peculiar phenomenon of ancient mythology. The trapsition from the moon-symbolism to the sun-symbolism has always been its characteristic fcaturc. Many imageries connected with the sun-mythology, such as the sun-boat, sun-shovel, sud-egg, etc, can be traced back clearly to the special features of the moon.76 The two cults were consequently brought quite close 10 each other and the transition from the one to the other was almost imperceptible. When, therefore, the light-symbolism was not particularly distinct and clear-cut, it was quite possible to mistake one god for another. Such was actually the case as regards the evolution of the Puṣan mythology. In the Veda itself there is no clear indication that Pūsan was regarded as a sun-god. But if, in later times, Pusan had come to be looked upon as a solar divinity, it must have been due to the usually imperceptible transition from the moon-symbolism to the sun-symbolism. As the result of another outstanding characteristic of the Vedic mythology, some more features came to be added to the original Pūsan-religion. It has already been observed that, in the Veda, Pusan is coupled rather conspicuously with Indra (VI, 57 ) and Soma (II 40) This fact has a special significance. The original Pusan-religion of the nomadic pastoral communities fike that of the Bhāradvājas was essentially different from the religion of the Indra-worshippers, which may be regarded as having been more or less the official’ religion of the Vedic people. Indeed, there are indications in the Veda that the pastoral god, Pūṣan, evoked mockery at the hands of certain other people – perhaps priests and warriors — who worshipped gods of a different order (I. 42. 10; 138, 4; VI.56.1).76 In order that the gods of different Vedic tribes should combine in one great paatheon, the usual 75. SAIROEDER has dealt with this question at length in various contexts in drische Religion 11. 76. It is suggested that the pastoral tribes, whose patron gol was Poran, camc to India with their herds a linie later than the carly warlike tribes who fought their way to the Indian plains,116 VEDIC MYTHOLOGICAL TRACTS method adopted by the Vedic poets was to bring all such gods in contact with Indra who represented, so to say, the official religion of the RV sanihula Pusan s association with Indra which is, on the very face of it, superficial and artificial, serves the same purpose Originally there was a marked difference between Indra and Pusad so far as their food (VI 57 2) and vehicles (VI 57 3) were concerned But then Pusan came to be regarded as Indra’s comrade and help-mate (VI 56 2,57 4) Not only that but Pusan and Indra came to be ultimately looked upon as brothers (VI 55 5) It will be thus seen that a position of honour in the Vedic paptheon was bestowed in this manner upon Pusan, the original pastoral god All this, however, is obviously late and artificial A similar purpose is served by Pusan’s associa tion with Soma (II 40) Hereby Pusan s place in the Vedic ritual was made secure Pusan did not originally have any share in the Soma offering (VI 572) Later, the Pusan cult was loosely connected with Soma it seems likely that Pusan was then offered only half a sacrifice (VI 50 5) and that, ultimately, he claimed his full legitimate share in the Soma offering (X 26 5) A reference may be made here to the peculiar complex on the part of the worshippers of Pusan, who, while claiming a Soma offering for their god, also made Indra participate in Pusan’s natural food karambha (III 52 7) This is obviously intended to assert the dignity of the original Pusan religion Ritual offerings are also said to have been made to both Soma and Pusan The Pusan cult is thus clearly one of the many appendages which have shot up in the Soma ritual Naturally, Pusan was also given several attributes in common with other gods in the Vedic pantheon He is called asura (V 51 11 ) and a ruler of heroes (1 1064) He becomes an unconquerable protector and defender (I 89 5) He is said to transcend mortals and is equal to the gods in glory (VI 48 19 ) There are thus primarily three kinds of impact that are reflected in the Pusan mythology The original pastoral religion of Pusan suggests that there was a tribal impact of an antagonistic character between the Bhātadvajas and the Panis An impact more or less of a social character is indicated by the Sūrya myth PÜSAN, THE PASTORAL GOD 117 And finally, there was a religious impact which resulted in a place of honour being conceded to Pusan in the Vedic religion and ritual It is also not unlikely that some such adjustment gave rise to a peculiar feature of the Pusan cult That god was Origibally a pastoral divinity, but later on he seems to have been connected with agriculture also (IV 57 7) 77 The later development of the Pusan-cult will be found to betray unmistakably certain traits of that god’s original character The fact that Pūsan is supposed to lead the bride to the bride groom’s house (X 85 26, Afvala yana GSI 81, Paraskara GS I 416) and also to lead the dead to the other world (X. 173) is the result of that god’s natural lordship over the paths and of his nature as a path finder 78 The memory of Pūsan’s special faculty to find lost things has survived in the myth that Pusan found the lost Soma (I 23 13-14) and Agni (X55) In Alvalayana GS III 79, a sacrifice to Pūsan is recommended for getting the lost things restored In the afvamedha sacrifice, a goat is offered as Pusan’s portion, in order to announce the sacrifice to the gods (I 162 2-4, TS V 612) This fact indicates, beyond doubt, the original pastoral character of Puṣan The description in the Salapatha Brāhmaṇa (I 747) that Pusan is a toothless god is certainly based on that pastoral gads natural fondness for karambla That Brāhmana (as also TS II 6 8 2-7) has tried to rationalize, by means of a myth, that peculiar feature of Püsan, the proper significance of which was perhaps not realiscd then The same myth is developed in the later epic literature where we are told that, on a certain occa $100, god Rudra destroyed the tceth of Pusan " [ Fint publwhed NIA 5, 1912, 49-66 ) 77 fo Afinaragrafas 7tra II 10 7, Pupan u included among the divinities who are celebrated at the eyjand–the ceremony of collecting together imple mcat for agriculture Puṣap part in the tyfolsarga xule may be supposed to indicate that he was also regarded as a god of fertility 78 About Posan connection with the marriage ceremony, also scc supre 79 Cf Bhigarala Puey 5 21-22, 74 A reference may be made in Dawing to the fact that in the 16tdiyopanised (at 15-16). Pisao u curiously caough, made almost Ideaucal with lia