संस्कृते विश्वासटिप्पन्यः

CHAPTER IX.

THE PRESENT-SYSTEM.

599. THE present-system, or system of forms coming from the present-stem, is composed (as was pointed out above) of a present indicative tense, together with a subjunctive (mostly lost in the classical language), an optative, an imperative, and a participle, and also a past tense, an augment-preterit, to which we give (by analogy with the Greek) the name of imperfect.

a. These forms often go in Sanskrit grammars by the name of “special tenses”, while the other tense-systems are styled “general tenses” — as if the former were made from a special tense-stem or modified root, while the latter came, all alike, from the root itself. There is no reason why such a distinction and nomenclature should be retained; since, on the one hand, the “special tenses” come in one set of verbs directly from the root, and, on the other hand, the other tense-systems are mostly made from stems — and, in the case of the aorist, from stems having a variety of form comparable with that of present-stems.

600. Practically, the present-system is the most prominent and important part of the whole conjugation, since, from the earliest period of the language, its forms are very much more frequent than those of all the other systems together.

a. Thus, in the Veda, the occurrences of personal forms of this system are to those of all others about as three to one; in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, as five to one; in the Hitopadeśa, as six to one; in the śakuntalā, as eight to one; in Manu, as thirty to one.

601. And, as there is also great variety in the manner in which different roots form their present-stem, this, as being their most conspicuous difference, is made the basis of their principal classification; and a verb is said to be of this or of that conjugation, or class, according to the way in which its present-stem is made and inflected.

602. In a small minority of verbs, the present-stem is identical with the root. Then there are besides (excluding the passive and causative) seven more or less different methods of forming a present-stem from the root, each method being followed by a larger or smaller number of verbs. These are the “classes” or “conjugation-classes”, as laid down by the native Hindu grammarians. They are arranged by the latter in a certain wholly artificial and unsystematic order (the ground of which has never been discovered); and they are wont to be designated in European works according to this order, or else, after Hindu example, by the root standing at the head of each class in the Hindu lists. A different arrangement and nomenclature will be followed here, namely as below — the classes being divided (as is usual in European grammars) into two more general classes or conjugations, distinguished from one another by wider differences than those which separate the special classes.

603. The classes of the FIRST or NON-a-CONJUGATION are as follows:

I. The root-class (second class, or ad-class, of the Hindu grammarians); its present-stem is coincident with the root itself: thus, अद् ad eat; इ i go; आस् ās sit; या yā go; द्विष् dviṣ hate; दुह् duh milk.

II. The reduplicating class (third or hu-class); the root is reduplicated to form the present-stem: thus, जुहु juhu from √हु hu sacrifice; ददा dadā from √दा dā give; बिभृ bibhṛ from √भृ bhṛ bear.

III. The nasal class (seventh or rudh-class); a nasal, extended to the syllable न na in strong forms, is inserted before the final consonant of the root: thus, रुन्ध् rundh (or रुणध् ruṇadh) from √रुध् rudh obstruct; युञ्ज् yuñj (or युनज् yunaj) from √युज् yuj join.

IV. a. The nu-class (fifth or su-class); the syllable नु nu is added to the root: thus, सुनु sunu from √सु su press out; आप्नु āpnu from √आप् āp obtain.

b. A very small number (only half-a-dozen) of roots ending already in न् n, and also one very common and quite irregularly inflected root not so ending (कृ kṛ make), add उ u alone to form the present-stem. This is the eighth or tan-class of the Hindu grammarians; it may be best ranked by us as a sub-class, the u-class: thus, तनु tanu from √तन् tan stretch.

V. The nā-class (ninth or krī-class); the syllable ना nā (or, in weak forms, नी nī) is added to the root: thus, क्रीणा krīṇā (or क्रीणी krīṇī) from √क्री krī buy; स्तभ्ना stabhnā (or स्तभ्नी stabhnī) from √स्तभ् stabh establish.

604. These classes have in common, as their most fundamental characteristic, a shift of accent: the tone being now upon the ending, and now upon the root or the class-sign. Along with this goes a variatior in the stem itself, which has a stronger or fuller form when the accent rests upon it, and a weaker or briefer form when the accent is on the ending these: forms are to be distinguished as the strong stem and the weak stem respectively (in part, both have been given above). The classes also form their optative active, their 2d sing. imperative, their 3d pl. middle, and their middle participle, in a different manner from the others.

605. In the classes of the SECOND or a-CONJUGATION, the present-stem ends in a, and the accent has a fixed place, remaining always upon the same syllable of the stem, and never shifted to the endings. Also, the optative, the 2d sing. impv., the 3d pl. middle, and the middle participle, are (as just stated) unlike those of the other conjugation.

606. The classes of this conjugation are as follows:

VI. The a-class, or unaccented a-class (first or bhū-class); the added class-sign is a simply; and the root, which has the accent, is (if capable of it) strengthened by guṇa throughout: thus, भव bháva from √भू bhū be; नय náya from √नी nī lead; बोध bódha from √बुध् budh wake; वद váda from √वद् vad speak.

VII. The á-class, or accented a-class (sixth or tud-class); the added class-sign is a, as in the preceding class; but it has the accent, and the unaccented root remains unstrengthened: thus, तुद tudá from √तुद् tud thrust; सृज sṛjá from √सृज् sṛj let loose; सुव suvá from √सू sū give birth.

VIII. The ya-class (fourth or div-class); ya is added to the root, which has the accent: thus, दीव्य dī́vya from √दिव् div (more properly दीव् dīv: see 765) play; नह्य náhya from √नह् nah bind; क्रुध्य krúdhya from √क्रुध् krudh be angry.

IX. The passive conjugation is also properly a present-system only, having a class-sign which is not extended into the other systems; though it differs markedly from the remaining classes in having a specific meaning, and in being formable in the middle voice from all transitive verbs. Its inflection may therefore best be treated next to that of the ya-class, with which it is most nearly connected, differing from it as the á-class from the a-class. It forms its stem, namely, by adding an accented yá to the root: thus, अद्य adyá from √अद् ad eat; रुध्य rudhyá from √रुध् rudh obstruct; बुध्य budhyá from √बुध् budh wake; तुद्य tudyá from √तुद् tud thrust.

607. The Hindu grammarians reckon a tenth class or cur-class, having a class-sign áya added to a strengthened root (thus, coráya from √cur), and an inflection like that of the other a-stems. Since, however, this stem is not limited to the present-system, but extends also into the rest of the conjugation — while it also has to a great extent a causative value, and may be formed in that value from a large number of roots — it will be best treated in full along with the derivative conjugations (chap. XIV., 1041 ff.).

608. A small number of roots add in the present-system a ch, or substitute a ch for their final consonant, and form a stem ending in cha or chá, which is then inflected like any a-stem. This is historically, doubtless, a true class-sign, analogous with the rest; but the verbs showing it are so few, and in formation so irregular, that they are not well to be put together into a class, but may best be treated as special cases falling under the other classes.

a. Roots adding ch are ṛ and yu, which make the stems ṛcchá and yúccha.

b. Roots substituting ch for their final are iṣ, uṣ (or vas shine), gam, yam, which make the stems icchá, ucchá, gáccha, yáccha.

c. Of the so-called roots ending in ch, several are more or less clearly stems, whose use has been extended from the present to other systems of tenses.

609. Roots are not wholly limited, even in the later language, to one mode of formation of their present-stem, but are sometimes reckoned as belonging to two or more different conjugation-classes. And such variety of formation is especially frequent in the Veda, being exhibited by a considerable proportion of the roots there occurring; already in the Brāhmaṇas, however, a condition is reached nearly agreeing in this respect with the classical language. The different present-formations sometimes have differences of meaning; yet not more important ones than are often found belonging to the same formation, nor of a kind to show clearly a difference of value as originally belonging to the separate classes of presents. If anything of this kind is to be established, it must be from the derivative conjugations, which are separated by no fixed line from the present-systems.

610. We take up now the different classes, in the order in which they have been arranged above, to describe more in detail, and with illustration, the formation of their present-systems, and to notice the irregularities belonging under each class.

I. Root-class (second, ad-class).

611. In this class there is no class-sign; the root itself is also present-stem, and to it are added directly the personal endings — but combined in subjunctive and optative with the respective mode-signs; and in the imperfect the augment is prefixed to the root.

a. The accented endings (552) regularly take the accent — except in the imperfect, where it falls on the augment — and before them the root remains unchanged; before the unaccented endings, the root takes the guṇa-strengthening.

b. It is only in the first three classes that the endings come immediately in contact with a final consonant of the root, and that the roles for consonant combination have to be noted and applied. In these classes, then, additional paradigms will be given, to illustrate the modes of combination.

1. Present Indicative.

612. The endings are the primary (with अते áte in 3d pl. mid.), added to the bare root. The root takes the accent, and has guṇa, if capable of it, in the three persons sing. act.

Examples of inflection: a. active, root इ i go: strong form of root-stem, ए é; weak form, इ i; middle, root ās sit, stem ā́s (irregularly accented throughout: 628).

active.

middle.

एमि
émi

इवस्
ivás

इमस्
imás

आसे
ā́se

आस्वहे
ā́svahe

आस्महे
ā́smahe

एषि
éṣi

इथस्
ithás

इथ
ithá

आस्से
ā́sse

आसाथे
ā́sāthe

आद्ध्वे
ā́ddhve

एति
éti

इतस्
itás

यन्ति
yánti

आस्ते
ā́ste

आसाते
ā́sāte

आसते
ā́sate

b. root dviṣ. hate: strong stem-form, dvéṣ; weak, dviṣ. For rules of combination for the final ṣ, see 226.

dvéṣmi

dviṣvás

dviṣmás

dviṣé

dviṣváhe

dviṣmáhe

dvékṣi

dviṣṭhás

dviṣṭhá

dvikṣé

dviṣā́the

dviḍḍhvé

dvéṣṭi

dviṣṭás

dviṣánti

dviṣṭé

dviṣā́te

dviṣáte

c. root duh milk: strong stem-form, dóh; weak, duh. For rules of combination for the final h, and for the conversion of the initial to dh, see 222 a, 155, 160.

dóhmi

duhvás

duhmás

duhé

duhváhe

duhmáhe

dhókṣi

dugdhás

dugdhá

dhukṣé

duhā́the

dhugdhvé

dógdhi

dugdhás

duhánti

dugdhé

duhā́te

duháte

d. root lih lick: strong stem, léh; weak, lih. For rules of combination of the final h, see 222 b.

léhmi

lihvás

lihmás

lihé

lihváhe

lihmáhe

lékṣi

līḍhás

līḍhá

likṣé

lihā́the

līḍhvé

léḍhi

līḍhás

lihánti

līḍhé

lihā́te

liháte

613. Examples of the 3d sing. mid. coincident in form with the 1st sing. are not rare in the older language (both V. and B.): the most frequent examples are ī́śe, duhé, vidé, śáye; more sporadic are cité, bruve, huvé. To tha of the 2d pl. is added na in sthána, pāthánā, yāthána. The irregular accent of the 3d pl. mid. is found in RV. in rihaté, duhaté. Examples of the same person in re and rate also occur: thus (besides those mentioned below, 629–30, 635), vidré, and, with auxiliary vowel, arhire (unless these are to be ranked, rather, as perfect forms without reduplication: 790 b).

2. Present Subjunctive.

614. Subjunctive forms of this class are not uncommon in the older language, and nearly all those which the formation anywhere admits are quotable, from Veda or from Brāhmaṇa. A complete paradigm, accordingly, is given below, with the few forms not actually quotable for this class enclosed in brackets. We may take as models (as above), for the active the root i go, and for the middle the root ās sit, from both of which numerous forms are met with (although neither for these nor for any others can the whole series be found in actual use).

a. The mode-stems are áya (é+a) and ā́sa (ā́s+a) respectively.

active.

middle.

áyāni
áyā

áyāva

áyāma

ā́sāi

ā́sāvahāi
[ā́sāvahe]

ā́sāmahāi
[ā́sāmahe]

áyasi
áyas

áyathas

áyatha

ā́sase
ā́sāsāi

[ā́sāithe]

[ā́sadhve]
ā́sādhvāi

áyati
áyat

áyatas

áyan

ā́sate
ā́sātāi

ā́sāite

[ā́sante] -nta
ā́sāntāi

615. The RV. has no middle forms in āi except those of the first person. The 1st. sing. act. in ā occurs only in RV., in ayā, bravā, stávā. The 2d and 3d sing. act. with primary endings are very unusual in the Brāhmaṇas. Forms irregularly made with long ā, like those from present-stems in a, are not rare in AV. and B.: thus, ayās, ayāt, áyān; ásāt, brávāt; bravāthas; asātha, ayātha, bravātha, hanātha; ádān, dohān. Of middle forms with secondary endings are found hánanta, 3d pl., and īśata, 3d sing. (after mā́ prohibitive), which is an isolated example. The only dual person in āite is brávāite.

3. Present Optative.

616. The personal endings combined with the mode-signs of this mode (या yā in act., ई ī in mid.) have been given in full above (566). The stem-form is the unaccented and unstrengthened root.

active.

middle.

इयाम्
iyā́m

इयाव
iyā́va

इयाम
iyā́ma

आसीय
ā́sīya

आसीवहि
ā́sīvahi

आसीमहि
ā́sīmahi

इयास्
iyā́s

इयातम्
iyā́tam

इयात
iyā́ta

आसीथास्
ā́sīthās

आसीयाथाम्
ā́sīyāthām

आसीध्वम्
ā́sīdhvam

इयात्
iyā́t

इयाताम्
iyā́tām

इयुस्
iyús

आसीत
ā́sīta

आसीयाताम्
ā́sīyātām

आसीरन्
ā́sīran

a. In the same manner, from √dviṣ, dviṣyā́m and dviṣīyá; from √duh, duhyā́m and duhīyá; from √lih, lihyā́m and lihīyá. The inflection is so regular that the example above given is enough, with the addition of dviṣīyá, to show the normal accentuation in the middle: thus, sing. dviṣīyá, dviṣīthā́s, dviṣītá; du. dviṣīváhi, dviṣīyā́thām, dviṣīyā́tām; pl. dviṣīmáhi, dviṣīdhvám, dviṣīrán.

b. The RV. has once tana in 2d pl. act. (in syātana).

4. Present Imperative.

617. The imperative adds, in second and third persons, its own endings (with अताम् atām in 3d pl. mid.) directly to the root-stem. The stem is accented and strengthened in 3d sing. act.; elsewhere, the accent is on the ending and the root remains unchanged. The first persons, so called, of the later language are from the old subjunctive, and have its strengthened stem and accent; they are repeated here from where they were given above (614 a). In the 2d sing. act., the ending is regularly (as in the two following classes) धि dhi if the root end with a consonant, and हि hi if it end with a vowel. As examples we take the roots already used for the purpose.

a. Thus, from the roots इ i and आस् ās:

active.

middle.

अयानि
áyāni

अयाव
áyāva

अयाम
áyāma

आसै
ā́sāi

आसावहै
ā́sāvahāi

आसामहै
ā́sāmahāi

इहि
ihí

इतम्
itám

इत
itá

आस्स्व
ā́ssva

आसाथाम्
ā́sāthām

आद्ध्वम्
ā́ddhvam

एतु
étu

इताम्
itā́m

यन्तु
yántu

आस्ताम्
ā́stām

आसाताम्
ā́sātām

आसताम्
ā́satām

b. From the roots dviṣ and duh and lih:

dvéṣāṇi

dvéṣāva

dvéṣāma

dvéṣāi

dvéṣāvahāi

dvéṣāmahāi

dviḍḍhí

dviṣṭám

dviṣṭá

dvikṣvá

dviṣā́thām

dviḍḍhvám

dvéṣṭu

dviṣṭā́m

dviṣántu

dviṣṭā́m

dviṣā́tām

dviṣátām

dóhāni

dóhāva

dóhāma

dóhāi

dóhāvahāi

dóhāmahāi

dugdhí

dugdhám

dugdhá

dhukṣvá

duhā́thām

dhugdhvám

dógdhu

dugdhā́m

duhántu

dugdhā́m

duhā́tām

duhátām

léhāni

léhāva

léhāma

léhāi

léhāvahāi

léhāmahāi

līḍhí

līḍhám

līḍhá

likṣvá

lihā́thām

līḍhvám

léḍhu

līḍhā́m

lihántu

līḍhā́m

lihā́tām

lihátām

The 2d sing. act. ending tāt is found in the older language in a few verbs of this class: namely, vittā́t, vītāt, brūtā́t, hatāt, yātāt, stutāt. In 3d sing. mid., two or three verbs have in the older language the ending ām: thus, duhā́m (only RV. case), vidām, śayām; and in 3d pl. mid. AV. has duhrā́m and duhratām. The use of tana for ta in 2d pl. act. is quite frequent in the Veda: thus, itana, yātána, attana, etc. And in stota, éta étana, bravītana, śāstána, hantana, we have examples in the same person of a strong (and accented) stem.

5. Present Participle.

619. a. The active participle has the ending अन्त् ánt (weak stem-form अत् at) added to the unstrengthened root. Mechanically, it may be formed from the 3d pl. by dropping the final इ i. Thus, for the verbs inflected above, the active participles are यन्त् yánt, दुहन्त् duhánt, द्विषन्त् dviṣánt, लिहन्त् lihánt. The feminine stem ends usually in अती atī́: thus, यती yatī́, दुहती duhatī́, द्विषती dviṣatī́, लिहती lihatī́: but, from roots in ā, in आन्ती ā́ntī or आती ātī́ (449 g).

b. The middle participle has the ending आन āná, added to the unstrengthened root: thus, इयान iyāná, दुहान duhāná, द्विषाण dviṣāṇá, लिहान lihāná.

c. The root ās forms the anomalous and isolated ā́sīna (in RV. also āsāná).

d. But a number of these participles in the older language have a double accent, either on the ending or on the radical syllable: thus, īśāná and ī́śāna, ohāná and óhāna, duhāná and dúhāna (also dúghāna), rihāṇá and ríhāṇa, vidāná and vídāna, suvāná and súvāna, stuvāná and stavāná and stávāna — the last having in part also a strong form of the root.

6. Imperfect.

620. This tense adds the secondary endings to the root as increased by prefixion of the augment. The root has the guṇa-strengthening (if capable of it) in the three persons of the singular active, although the accent is always upon the augment. Examples of inflection are:

a. From the roots इ i and आस् ās:

active.

middle.

आयम्
ā́yam

ऐव
āíva

ऐम
āíma

आसि
ā́si

आस्वहि
ā́svahi

आस्महि
ā́smahi

ऐस्
āís

ऐतम्
āítam

ऐत
āíta

आस्थास्
ā́sthās

आसाथाम्
ā́sāthām

आद्ध्वम्
ā́ddhvam

ऐत्
āít

ऐताम्
āítām

आयन्
ā́yan

आस्त
ā́sta

आसाताम्
ā́sātām

आसत
ā́sata

b. From the roots dviṣ and duh and lih:

ádveṣam

ádviṣva

ádviṣma

ádviṣi

ádviṣvahi

ádviṣmahi

ádveṭ

ádviṣṭam

ádviṣṭa

ádviṣṭhās

ádviṣāthām

ádviḍḍhvam

ádveṭ

ádviṣṭām

ádviṣan

ádviṣṭa

ádviṣātām

ádviṣata

ádoham

áduhva

áduhma

áduhi

áduhvahi

áduhmahi

ádhok

ádugdham

ádugdha

ádugdhās

áduhāthām

ádhugdhvam

ádhok

ádugdhām

áduhan

ádugdha

áduhātām

áduhata

áleham

álihva

álihma

álihi

álihvahi

álihmahi

áleṭ

álīḍham

álīḍha

álīḍhās

álihāthām

álīḍhvam

áleṭ

álīḍhām

álihan

álīḍha

álihātām

álihata

621. a. Roots ending in ā may in the later language optionally take us instead of an in 3d pl. act. (the ā being lost before it); and in the older they always do so: thus, áyus from √yā, ápus from √pā protect, abhus from √bhā. The same ending is also allowed and met with in the case of a few roots ending in consonants: namely vid know, cakṣ, dviṣ, duh, mṛj. RV. has atviṣus.

b. The ending tana, 2d pl. act., is found in the Veda in áyātana, ásastana, āítana, ábravītana. A strong stem is seen in the 1st pl. homa, and the 2d pl. abravīta and ábravītana.

c. To save the characteristic endings in 2d and 3d sing. act., the root ad inserts a: thus, ā́das, ā́dat; the root as inserts ī: thus, ā́sīs, ā́sīt (see below, 636); compare also 631–4.

622. The use of the persons of this tense, without augment, in the older language, has been noticed above (587). Augmentless imperfects of this class are rather uncommon in the Veda: thus, hán, vés, 2d sing.; han, vet, stāut, dán (?), 3d sing.; bruvan, duhús, cakṣus, 3d pl.; vasta, sūta, 3d sing. mid.

623. The first or root-form of aorist is identical in its formation with this imperfect: see below, 829 ff.

624. In the Veda (but hardly outside of the RV.) are found certain 2d sing. forms, having an imperative value, made by adding the ending si to the (accented and strengthened) root. In part, they are the only root-forms belonging to the roots from which they come: thus, jóṣi (for jóṣṣi, from √juṣ), dhákṣi, párṣi (√pṛ pass), prā́si, bhakṣi, ratsi, sátsi, hoṣi; but the majority of them have forms (one or more) of a root-present, or sometimes of a root-aorist, beside them: thus, kṣéṣi (√kṣi rule), jéṣi, dárṣi, nakṣi (√naś. attain), néṣi, mátsi, māsi (√mā measure), yákṣi, yáṁsi, yāsi, yótsi, rā́si, vákṣi (√vah), véṣi, śróṣi, sakṣi. Their formal character is somewhat disputed; but they are probably indicative persons of the root-class, used imperatively.

625. Forms of this class are made from nearly 150 roots, either in the earlier language, or in the later, or in both: namely, from about 50 through the whole life of the language, from 80 in the older period (of Veda, Brāhmaṇa, and Sūtra) alone, and from a few (about 15) in the later period (epic and classical) only^([1]). Not a few of these roots, however, show only sporadic root-forms, beside a more usual conjugation of some other class; nor is it in all cases possible to separate clearly root-present from root-aorist forms.

a. Many roots of this class, as of the other classes of the first conjugation, show transfers to the second or a-conjugation, forming a conjugation-stem by adding a to their strong or weak stem, or even to both: thus, from √mṛj, both mārja (627) and mṛja. Such transfers are met with even in the oldest language; but they usually become more frequent later, often establishing a new mode of present inflection by the side of, or in substitution for, the earlier mode.

b. A number of roots offer irregularities of inflection; these are, in the main, pointed out in the following paragraphs.

Irregularities of the Root-class.

626. The roots of the class ending in u have in their strong forms the vṛddhi instead of the guṇa-strengthening before an ending beginning with a consonant: thus, from √stu, stāúmi, ástāut, and the like: but ástavam, stávāni, etc.

a. Roots found to exhibit this peculiarity in actual use are kṣṇu, yu unite, su (or sū) impel, sku, stu, snu (these in the earlier language), nu, ru, and hnu. RV. has once stoṣi, and anāvan. Compare also 633.

627. The root mṛj also has the vṛddhi-vowel in its strong forms: thus, mā́rjmi, ámārjam, ámārṭ (150 b); and the same strengthening is said to be allowed in weak forms before endings beginning with a vowel: thus, mārjantu, amārjan; but the only quotable case is mārjīta (LśS.). Forms from a-stems begin to appear already in AV.

a In the other tense-systems, also, and in derivation, mṛj shows often the vṛddhi instead of the guṇa-strengthening.

628. A number of roots accent the radical syllable throughout, both in strong and in weak forms: thus, all those beginning with a long vowel, ās, īḍ, īr, īś; and also cakṣ, takṣ, trā, nīṅs, vas clothe, śiñj, śī lie, and sū. All these, except takṣ and trā (and trā also in the Vedic forms), are ordinarily conjugated in middle voice only. Forms with the same irregular accent occur now and then in the Veda from other verbs: thus, mátsva, yákṣva, sákṣva, sā́kṣva, ṛ́dhat. Middle participles so accented have been noticed above (619 d).

629. Of the roots mentioned in the last paragraph, śī lie has the guṇa-strengthening throughout: thus, śáye, śéṣe, śáyīya, śáyāna, and so on. Other irregularities in its inflection (in part already noticed) are the 3d pl. persons śérate (AV. etc. have also śére), śératām, áśerata (RV. has also áśeran), the 3d sing. pres. śáye (R.) and impv. śáyām. The isolated active form áśayat is common in the older language; other a-forms, active and middle, occur later.

630. Of the same roots, īḍ and īś insert a union-vowel i before certain endings: thus, ī́śiṣe, ī́śidhve, ī́ḍiṣva (these three being the only forms noted in the older language); but RV. has ī́kṣe beside ī́śiṣe; the śvU. has once īśite for īṣṭe. The 3d pl. ī́śire (on account of its accent) is also apparently present rather than perfect. The MS. has once the 3d sing. impf. āiśa (like aduha: 635).

631. The roots rud weep, svap sleep, an breathe, and śvas blow insert a union-vowel i before all the endings beginning with a consonant, except the s and t of 2d and 3d sing. impf., where they insert instead either a or ī: thus, svápimi, śvásiṣi, ániti, and ā́nat or ā́nīt. And in the other forms, the last three are allowed to accent either root or ending: thus, svápantu and śvásantu (AV.), or svapántu etc. The AV. has sváptu instead of svápitu.

a. In the older language, √vam makes the same insertions: thus, vamiti, avamīt; and other cases occasionally occur: thus, jániṣva, vasiṣva (√vas clothe), śnathihi, stanihi (all RV.), yamiti (JB.), śocimi (MBh.). On the other hand, √an early makes forms from an a-stem: thus, ánati (AV.); pple ánant (śB.); opt. anet (AB.).

632. The root brū speak, say (of very frequent use) takes the union-vowel ī after the root when strengthened, before the initial consonant of an ending: thus, brávīmi, brávīṣi, brávīti, ábravīs, ábravīt; but brūmás, brūyā́m, ábravam, ábruvan, etc. Special occasional irregularities are brūmi, bravīhi, abruvam, abrūvan, bruyāt, and sporadic forms from an a-stem. The subj. dual brávāite has been noticed above (616); also the strong forms abravīta, ábravītana (621 a).

633. Some of the roots in u are allowed to be inflected like brū: namely, ku, tu, ru, and stu; and an occasional instance is met with of a form so made (in the older language, only tavīti noted; in the later, only stavīmi, once).

634. The root am (hardly found in the later language) takes ī as union-vowel: thus, amīṣi (RV.), amīti and āmīt and amīṣva (TS). From √śam occur śamīṣva (VS.; TS. śamiṣva) and śamīdhvam (TB. etc.).

635. The irregularities of √duh in the older language have been already in part noted: the 3d pl. indic. mid. duhaté, duhré, and duhráte; 3d sing. impv. duhā́m, pl. duhrā́m and duhratām; impf. act. 3d sing. áduhat (which is found also in the later language), 3d pl. aduhran (beside áduhan and duhús); the mid. pple dúghāna; and (quite unexampled elsewhere) the opt. forms duhīyát and duhīyán (RV. only). The MS. has aduha 3d sing. and aduhra 3d pl. impf. mid., apparently formed to correspond to the pres. duhe (613) and duhre as adugdha and aduhata correspond to dugdhe and duhate: compare āiśa (630), related in like manner to the 3d sing. īśe.

Some of the roots of this class are abbreviated or otherwise weakened in their weak forms: thus: —

636. The root अस् as be loses its vowel in weak forms (except where protected by combination with the augment). Its 2d sing. indic. is असि ási (instead of assi); its 2d sing. impv. is एधि edhí (irregularly from asdhi). The insertion of ई ī in 2d and 3d sing. impf. has been noticed already above.

a. The forms of this extremely common verb are, then, as follows:

Indicative.

Optative.

अस्मि
ásmi

स्वस्
svás

स्मस्
smás

स्याम्
syā́m

स्याव
syā́va

स्याम
syā́ma

असि
ási

स्थस्
sthás

स्थ
sthá

स्यास्
syā́s

स्यातम्
syā́tam

स्यात
syā́ta

अस्ति
ásti

स्तस्
stás

सन्ति
sánti

स्यात्
syā́t

स्याताम्
syā́tām

स्युस्
syús

Imperative.

Imperfect.

असानि
ásāni

असाव
ásāva

असाम
ásāma

आसम्
ā́sam

आस्व
ā́sva

आस्म
ā́sma

एधि
edhí

स्तम्
stám

स्त
stá

आसीस्
ā́sīs

आस्तम्
ā́stam

आस्त
ā́sta

अस्तु
ástu

स्ताम्
stā́m

सन्तु
sántu

आसीत्
ā́sīt

आस्ताम्
ā́stām

आसन्
ā́san

Participle सन्त् sánt (fem. सती satī́).

b. Besides the forms of the present-system, there is made from this root only a perfect, ā́sa etc. (800), of wholly regular inflection.

c. The Vedic subjunctive forms are the usual ones, made upon the stem ása. They are in frequent use, and appear (asat especially) even in late texts where the subjunctive is almost lost. The resolution siā́m etc. (opt.) is common in Vedic verse. As 2d and 3d sing. impf. is a few times met with the more normal ās (for ās-s, ās-t). Sthána, 2d pl., was noted above (613).

d. Middle forms from √as are also given by the grammarians as allowed with certain prepositions (vi+ati), but they are not quotable; smahe and syāmahe (!) occur in the epics, but are merely instances of the ordinary epic confusion of voices (529 a). Confusions of primary and secondary endings — namely, sva and sma (not rare), and, on the other hand, syāvas and syāmas — are also epic. A middle present indicative is said to be compounded (in 1st and 2d persons) with the nomen agentis in tṛ (tar) to form a periphrastic future in the middle voice (but see below, 947). The 1st sing. indic. is he; the rest is in the usual relation of middle to active forms (in 2d pers., se, dhve, sva, dhvam, with total loss of the root itself).

637. The root han smite, slay is treated somewhat after the manner of noun-stems in an in declension (421): in weak forms, it loses its n before an initial consonant (except m and v) of a personal ending (not in the optative), and its a before an initial vowel — and in the latter case its h, in contact with the n, is changed to gh (compare 402). Thus, for example:

Present Indicative.

Imperfect.

hánmi

hanvás

hanmás

áhanam

áhanva

áhanma

háṅsi

hathás

hathá

áhan

áhatam

áhata

hánti

hatás

ghnánti

áhan

áhatām

ághnan

a. Its participle is ghnánt (fem. ghnatī́). Its 2d sing. impv. is jahí (by anomalous dissimilation, on the model of reduplicating forms).

b. Middle forms from this root are frequent in the Brāhmaṇas, and those that occur are formed in general according to the same rules: thus, hate, hanmahe, ghnate; ahata, aghnātām, aghnata (in AB., also ahata); ghnīta (but also hanīta). Forms from transfer-stems, hana and ghna, are met with from an early period.

638. The root vaś be eager is in the weak forms regularly and usually contracted to uś (as in the perfect: 794 b): thus, uśmási (V.: once apparently abbreviated in RV. to śmasi), uśánti; pple uśánt, uśāná. Middle forms (except the pple) do not occur; nor do the weak forms of the imperfect, which are given as āuśva, āuṣṭam, etc.

a. RV. has in like, manner the participle uṣāṇá from the root vas clothe.

639. The root śās order shows some of the peculiarities of a reduplicated verb, lacking (646) the n before t in all 3d persons pl. and in the active participle. A part of its active forms — namely, the weak forms having endings beginning with consonants (including the optative) — are said to come from a stem with weakened vowel, śiṣ (as do the aorist, 854, and some of the derivatives); but, excepting the optative (śiṣyām etc., U. S. and later), no such forms are quotable.

a. The 3d sing. impf. is aśāt (555 a), and the same form is said to be allowed also as 2d sing. The 2d sing. impv. is śādhí (with total loss of the s); and RV. has the strong 2d pl. śāstána (with anomalous accent); and a-forms, from stem (śāsa, occasionally occur.

b. The middle inflection is regular, and the accent (apparently) always upon the radical syllable (śā́ste, (śā́sate, śā́sāna).

c. The root dāś worship has in like manner (RV.) the pple dā́śat (not dā́śant).

640. The double so-called root jakṣ eat, laugh is an evident reduplication of ghas and has respectively. It has the absence of n in act. 3d persons pl. and pple, and the accent on the root before vowel-endings, which belong to reduplicated verbs; and it also takes the union-vowel i in the manner of rud etc. (above, 631). For its forms and derivatives made with utter loss of the final sibilant, see 233 f.

641. Certain other obviously reduplicated verbs are treated by the native grammarians as if simple, and referred to this conjugation: such are the intensively reduplicated jāgṛ (1020 a), daridrā (1024 a), and vevī (1024 a), dīdhī etc. (676), and cakās (677).

II. Reduplicating Class (third, hu-class).

642. This class forms its present-stem by prefixing a reduplication to the root.

643. a. As regards the consonant of the reduplication, the general rules which have already been given above (590) are followed.

b. A long vowel is shortened in the reduplicating syllable: thus,

ददा dadā from √दा dā; बिभी bibhī from √भी bhī; जुहू juhū from √हू hū. The vowel ऋ ṛ never appears in the reduplication, but is replaced by इ i: thus, बिभृ bibhṛ from √भृ bhṛ; पिपृच् pipṛc from √पृच् pṛc.

c. For verbs in which a and ā also are irregularly represented in the reduplication by i, see below, 660. The root vṛt (V. B.) makes vavartti etc.; cakránt (RV.) is very doubtful.

d. The only root of this class with initial vowel is ṛ (or ar); it takes as reduplication i, which is held apart from the root by an interposed y: thus, iyar and iyṛ (the latter has not been found in actual use).

644. The present-stem of this class (as of the other classes belonging to the first or non-a-conjugation) has a double form: a stronger form, with gunated root-vowel; and a weaker form, without guṇa: thus, from √हु hu, the two forms are जुहो juho and जुहु juhu; from √भी bhī, they are बिभे bibhe and बिभी bibhī. And the rule for their use is the same as in the other classes of this conjugation: the strong stem is found before the unaccented endings (552), and the weak stem before the accented.

645. According to all the analogies of the first general conjugation, we should expect to find the accent upon the root-syllable when this is strengthened. That is actually the case, however, only in a small minority of the roots composing the class: namely, in hu, bhī (no test-forms in the older language), hrī (no test-forms found in the older language), mad (very rare), jan (no forms of this class found to occur) , ci notice (in V.), yu separate (in older language only), and in bhṛ in the later language (in V. it goes with the majority: but RV. has bibhárti once, and AV. twice; and this, the later accentuation, is found also in the Brāhmaṇas); and RV. has once iyárṣi. In all the rest — apparently, by a recent transfer — it rests upon the reduplicating instead of upon the radical syllable. And in both classes alike, the accent is anomalously thrown back upon the reduplication in those weak forms of which the ending begins with a vowel; while in the other weak forms it is upon the ending (but compare 666 a).

a. Apparently (the cases with written accent are too few to determine the point satisfactorily) the middle optative endings, īya etc. (566), are reckoned throughout as endings with initial vowel, and throw back the accent upon the reduplication.

646. The verbs of this class lose the न् n in the 3d pl. endings in active as well as middle, and in the imperfect have उस् us instead of अन् an — and before this a final radical vowel has guṇa.

1. Present Indicative.

647. The combination of stem and endings is as in the preceding class.

Examples of inflection: a. √हु hu sacrifice: strong stem-form, जुहो juhó; weak form,जुहु juhu (or júhu).

active.

middle.

जुहोमि
juhómi

जुहुवस्
juhuvás

जुहुमस्
juhumás

जुह्वे
júhve

जुहुवहे
juhuváhe

जुहुमहे
juhumáhe

जुहोषि
juhóṣi

जुहुथस्
juhuthás

जुहुथ
juhuthá

जुहुषे
juhuṣé

जुह्वाथे
júhvāthe

जुहुध्वे
juhudhvé

जुहोति
juhóti

जुहुतस्
juhutás

जुह्वति
júhvati

जुहुते
juhuté

जुह्वाते
júhvāte

जुह्वते
júhvate

b. Root भृ bhṛ bear (given with Vedic accentuation): strong stem-form, बिभर् bíbhar; weak, बिभृ bibhṛ (or bíbhṛ).

बिभर्मि
bíbharmi

बिभृवस्
bibhṛvás

बिभृमस्
bibhṛmás

बिभ्रे
bíbhre

बिभृवहे
bibhṛváhe

बिभृमहे
bibhṛmáhe

बिभर्षि
bíbharṣi

बिभृथस्
bibhṛthás

बिभृथ
bibhṛthá

बिभृषे
bibhṛṣé

बिभ्राथे
bíbhrāthe

बिभृध्वे
bibhṛdhvé

बिभर्ति
bíbharti

बिभृतस्
bibhṛtás

बिभ्रति
bíbhrati

बिभृते
bibhṛté

बिभ्राते
bíbhrāte

बिभ्रते
bíbhrate

c. The u of hu (like that of the class-signs nu and u: see below, 697 a) is said to be omissible before v and m of the endings of 1st du. and pl.: thus, juhvás, juhváhe, etc.; but no such forms are quotable.

2. Present Subjunctive.

648. It is not possible at present to draw a distinct line between those subjunctive forms of the older language which should be reckoned as belonging to the present-system and those which should be assigned to the perfect — or even, in some cases, to the reduplicated aorist and intensive. Here will be noticed only those which most clearly belong to this class; the more doubtful cases will be treated under the perfect-system. Except in first persons (which continue in use as “imperatives” down to the later language), subjunctives from roots having unmistakably a reduplicated present-system are of far from frequent occurrence.

649. The subjunctive mode-stem is formed in the usual manner, with the mode-sign a and guṇa of the root-vowel, if this is capable of such strengthening. The evidence of the few accented forms met with indicates that the accent is laid in accordance with that of the strong indicative forms: thus, from √hu, the stem would be juháva; from √bhṛ, it would be bíbhara (but bibhára later). Before the mode-sign, final radical ā would be, in accordance with analogies elsewhere, dropped: thus, dáda from √dā, dádha from √dhā (all the forms actually occurring would be derivable from the secondary roots dad and dadh).

650. Instead of giving a theoretically complete scheme of inflection, it will be better to note all the examples quotable from the older language (accented when found so occurring).

a. Thus, of 1st persons, we have in the active juhávāni, bibharāṇi, dadāni, dadhāni, jahāni; juhavāma, dádhāma, jáhāma; — in the middle, dadhāi, mimāi; dadhāvahāi; juhavāmahāi, dadāmahe, dadāmahāi, dadhāmahāi.

b. Of other persons, we have with primary endings in the active bibharāsi (with double mode-sign: 560 e), dádhathas, juhavātha (do.) and juhavatha; in the middle, dádhase; dádhate, rárate, dádhātāi, dadātāi; — with secondary endings, dádhas, víveṣas, juhavat, bibharat, yuyávat, dádhat, dadhánat, babhasat; dadhan, yuyavan, juhavan.

3. Present Optative.

651. To form this mode, the optative endings given above (566 a), as made up of mode-sign and personal endings, are added to the unstrengthened stem. The accent is as already stated (645 a). The inflection is so regular that it is unnecessary to give here more than the first persons of a single verb: thus,

active.

middle.

जुहुयाम्
juhuyā́m

जुहुयाव
juhuyā́va

जुहुयाम
juhuyā́ma

जुह्वीय
júhvīya

जुह्वीवहि
júhvīvahi

जुह्वीमहि
júhvīmahi

etc.

4. Present Imperative.

652. The endings, and the mode of their combination with the root, have been already given. In 2d sing. act., the ending is हि hi after a vowel, but धि dhi after a consonant: हु hu, however, forms जुहुधि juhudhí (apparently, in order to avoid the recurrence of ह् h in two successive syllables): and other examples of धि dhi after a vowel are found in the Veda.

653. a. Example of inflection:

active.

middle.

जुहवानि
juhávāni

जुहवाव
juhávāva

जुहवाम
juhávāma

जुहवै
juhávāi

जुहवावहै
juhávāvahāi

जुहवामहै
juhávāmahāi

जुहुधि
juhudhí

जुहुतम्
juhutám

जुहुत
juhutá

जुहुष्व
juhuṣvá

जुह्वाथाम्
júhvāthām

जुहुध्वम्
juhudhvám

जुहोतु
juhótu

जुहुताम्
juhutā́m

जुह्वतु
júhvatu

जुहुताम्
juhutā́m

जुह्वाताम्
júhvātām

जुह्वताम्
júhvatām

b. The verbs of the other division differ here, as in the indicative, in the accentuation of their strong forms only: namely, in all the first persons (borrowed subjunctives), and in the 3d sing. act.: thus, (in the older language) bíbharāṇi etc., bíbhartu, bíbharāi etc.

654. Vedic irregularities of inflection are: 1. the occasional use of strong forms in 2d persons: thus, yuyodhí, śiśādhi (beside śiśīhí); yuyotam (beside yuyutám); íyarta, dádāta and dadātana, dádhāta and dádhātana (see below, 668), pipartana, juhóta and juhótana, yuyota and yuyotana; rarāsva (666); 2. the use of dhi instead of hi after a vowel (only in the two instances just quoted); 3. the ending tana in 2d pl. act.: namely, besides those just given, in jigātana, dhattana, mamáttana, vivaktana, didiṣṭana, bibhītana, jujuṣṭana, juhutana, vavṛttana: the cases are proportionally much more numerous in this than in any other class; 4. the ending tāt in 2d sing. act., in dattāt, dhattā́t, pipṛtāt, jahītāt.

5. Present Participle.

655. As elsewhere, the active participle-stem may be made mechanically from the 3d pl. indic. by dropping इ i: thus, जुह्वत् júhvat, बिभ्रत् bíbhrat. In inflection, it has no distinction of strong and weak forms (444). The feminine stem ends in अती atī. The middle participles are regularly made: thus, जुह्वान júhvāna, बिभ्राण bíbhrāṇa.

a. RV. shows an irregular accent in pipāná (√pā drink).

6. Imperfect.

656. As already pointed out, the 3d pl. act. of this class takes the ending उस् us, and a final radical vowel has guṇa before it. The strong forms are, as in present indicative, the three singular active persons.

657. Examples of inflection:

active.

middle.

अजुहवम्
ájuhavam

अजुहुव
ájuhuva

अजुहुम
ájuhuma

अजुह्वि
ájuhvi

अजुहुवहि
ájuhuvahi

अजुहुमहि
ájuhumahi

अजुहोस्
ájuhos

अजुहुतम्
ájuhutam

अजुहुत
ájuhuta

अजुहुथास्
ájuhuthās

अजुह्वाथाम्
ájuhvāthām

अजुहुध्वम्
ájuhudhvam

अजुहोत्
ájuhot

अजुहुताम्
ájuhutām

अजुहवुस्
ájuhavus

अजुहुत
ájuhuta

अजुह्वाताम्
ájuhvātām

अजुह्वत
ájuhvata

a. From √भृ bhṛ, the 2d and 3d sing. act. are अबिभर् ábibhar (for abibhar-s and abibhar-t) — and so in all other cases where the strong stem ends in a consonant. The 3d pl. act. is अबिभरुस् ábibharus; and other like cases are ábibhayus, acikayus, asuṣavus.

b. In MS., once, abibhrus is doubtless a false reading.

658. The usual Vedic irregularities in 2d pl. act. — strong forms, and the ending tana — occur in this tense also: thus, ádadāta, ádadhāta; ádattana, ájahātana. The RV. has also once apiprata for apipṛta in 3d sing. mid., and abibhran for abibharus in 3d pl. act. Examples of augmentless forms are śiśās, vivés, jígāt; jíhīta, śíśīta, jihata; and, with irregular strengthening, yuyoma (AV.), yuyothās, yuyota.

659. The roots that form their present-stem by reduplication are a very small class, especially in the modern language; they are only 50, all told, and of these only a third (16) are met with later. It is, however, very difficult to determine the precise limits of the class, because of the impossibility (referred to above, under subjunctive: 648) of always distinguishing its forms from those of other reduplicating conjugations and parts of conjugations.

a. Besides the irregularities in tense-inflection already pointed out, others may be noticed as follows.

Irregularities of the Reduplicating Class.

660. Besides the roots in ṛ or ar — namely, ṛ, ghṛ (usually written ghar), tṛ, pṛ, bhṛ, sṛ, hṛ, pṛc — the following roots having a or ā as radical vowel take i instead of a in the reduplicating syllable: gā go, mā measure, mā bellow, śā, hā remove (mid.), vac, sac; vaś. has both i and a; rā has i once in RV.; for sthā, pā drink ghrā, han, hi, see below (670–4).

661. Several roots of this class in final ā change the ā in weak forms to ī (occasionally even to i), and then drop it altogether before endings beginning with a vowel.

a. This is in close analogy with the treatment of the vowel of the class-sign of the nā-class: below, 717.

These roots are:

662. śā sharpen, act. and mid.: thus, śiśāti, śiśīmasi, śiśīhí (also śiśādhi: above, 654), śiśātu, aśiśāt, śíśīte, śíśīta.

663. mā bellow, act., and mā measure, mid. (rarely also act.): thus, mimāti, mimīyāt; mímīte, mimate, ámimīta; mimīhi, mímātu. RV. has once mimanti 3d pl. (for mimati).

664. hā remove, mid.: thus, jíhīte, jihīdhve, jíhate; jihīṣva, jihatām; ájihīta, ajihata. śB. has jihīthām (for jihāthām).

665. hā quit, act. (originally identical with the former), may further shorten the ī to i: thus, jahāti, jahīta, jahītāt (AV.); jahimas (AV.), jahitas (TB.), jahitam (TA.), ajahitām (TS. AB.). In the optative, the radical vowel is lost altogether; thus, jahyām, jahyus (AV.). The 2d sing. impv., according to the grammarians, is jahīhi or jahihi or jahāhi; only the first appears quotable.

a. Forms from an a-stem, jaha, are made for this root, and even derivatives from a quasi-root jah.

666. rā give, mid.: thus, rarīdhvam, rarīthās (impf. without augment); and, with i in reduplication, rirīhi. But AV. has rarāsva.

a. In these verbs, the accent is generally constant on the reduplicating syllable.

667. The two roots dā and dhā (the commonest of the class) lose their radical vowel altogether in the weak forms, being shortened to dad and dadh. In 2d sing. impv. act., they form respectively dehí and dhehí. In combination with a following t or th, the final dh of dadh does not follow the special rule of combination of a final sonant aspirate (becoming ddh with the t or th: 160), but — as also before s and dhv — the more general rules of aspirate and of surd and sonant combination; and its lost aspiration is thrown back upon the initial of the root (155).

668. The inflection of √dhā is, then, as follows:

Present Indicative

active.

middle.

dádhāmi

dadhvás

dadhmás

dadhé

dádhvahe

dádhmahe

dádhāsi

dhatthás

dhatthá

dhatsé

dadhāthe

dhaddhve

dádhāti

dhattás

dádhati

dhatté

dadhā́te

dádhate

Present Optative.

dadhyā́m

dadhyā́va

dadhyā́ma

dádhīya

dádhīvahi

dádhīmahi

etc.

Present Imperative.

dádhāni

dádhāva

dádhāma

dádhāi

dádhāvahāi

dádhāmahāi

dhehí

dhattám

dhattá

dhatsva

dadhāthām

dhaddhvam

dádhātu

dhattā́m

dádhatu

dhattām

dadhātām

dadhatām

Imperfect.

ádadhām

ádadhva

ádadhma

ádadhi

ádadhvahi

ádadhmahi

ádadhās

ádhattam

ádhatta

ádhatthās

ádadhāthām

ádhaddhvam

ádadhāt

ádhattām

ádadhus

ádhatta

ádadhātām

ádadhata

Participles: act. dádhat; mid. dádhāna.

a. In the middle (except impf.), only those forms are here accented for which there is authority in the accentuated texts, as there is discordance between the actual accent and that which the analogies of the class would lead us to expect. RV. has once dhátse: dadhé and dadhā́te might be perfects, so far as the form is concerned. RV. accents dadhītá once (dádhīta thrice); several other texts have dádhīta, dádhīran, dádīta.

b. The root dā is inflected in precisely the same way, with change everywhere of (radical) dh to d.

669. The older language has irregularities as follows: 1. the usual strong forms in 2d pl., dádhāta and ádadhāta, dádāta and ádadāta; 2. the usual tana endings in the same person, dhattana, dádātana, etc. (654, 658); 3. the 3d sing. indic. act. dadhé (like 1st sing.); 4. the 2d sing. impv. act. daddhí (for both dehi and dhehi). And R. has dadmi.

670. A number of roots have been transferred from this to the a- or bhū-class (below, 749), their reduplicated root becoming a stereotyped stem inflected after the manner of a-stems. These roots are as follows:

671. In all periods of the language, from the roots sthā stand, pā drink, and ghrā smell, are made the presents tíṣṭhāmi, píbāmi (with irregular sonantizing of the second p), and jíghrāmi — which then are inflected not like mímāmi, but like bhávāmi, as if from the present-stems tíṣṭha, píba, jíghra.

672. In the Veda (especially; also later), the reduplicated roots dā and dhā are sometimes turned into the a-stems dáda and dádha, or inflected as if roots dad and dadh of the a-class; and single forms of the same character are made from other roots: thus, mimanti (√mā bellow), rárate (√rā give: 3d sing. mid.).

673. In the Veda, also, a like secondary stem, jighna, is made from √han (with omission of the radical vowel, and conversion, usual in this root, of h to gh when in contact with n: 637); and some of the forms of saśc, from √sac, show the same conversion to an a-stem, saśca.

674. In AB. (viii. 28), a similar secondary form, jighya, is given to √hi or hā: thus, jighyati, jighyatu.

675. A few so-called roots of the first or root-class are the products of reduplication, more or less obvious: thus, jakṣ (640), and probably śās (from √śas) and cakṣ (from √kāś or a lost root kas see). In the Veda is found also saśc, from √sac.

676. The grammarians reckon (as already noticed, 641) several roots of the most evidently reduplicate character as simple, and belonging to the root-class. Some of these (jāgṛ, daridrā, vevī) are regular intensive stems, and will be described below under Intensives (1020 a, 1024 a); dīdhī shine, together with Vedic dīdī shine and pīpī swell, are sometimes also classed as intensives; but they have not the proper reduplication of such, and may perhaps be best noticed here, as reduplicated present-stems with irregularly long reduplicating vowel.

a. Of pres. indic. occurs in the older language only dīdyati, 3d pl., with the pples dī́dyat and dī́dhyat, and mid. dīdye, dīdhye, dīdhyāthām, with the pples dī́dyāna, dī́dhyāna, pī́pyāna. The subj. stems are dīdáya, dīdhaya, pīpáya, and from them are made forms with both primary (from dīdáya) and secondary endings (and the irregularly accented dī́dayat and dīdāyat and dī́dhayan). No opt. occurs. In impv. we have dīdihí (and didīhí) and pīpihí, and pipyatam, pipyatām, pipyata. In impf., adīdes and pīpes, ádīdet and ádīdhet and apīpet (with augmentless forms), apīpema (with strong form of root), and adīdhayus and (irregular) apīpyan.

b. A few forms from all the three show transfer to an a-inflection: thus, dīdhaya and pīpaya (impv.), ápīpayat, etc.

c. Similar forms from √mī bellow are amīmet and mīmayat.

677. The stem cakās shine (sometimes cakāś) is also regarded by the grammarians as a root, and supplied as such with tenses outside the present-system — which, however, hardly occur in genuine use. It is not known in the older language.

678. The root bhas chew loses its radical vowel in weak forms, taking the form baps: thus, bábhasti, but bápsati (3d pl.), bápsat (pple). For babdhām, see 233 f.

679. The root bhī fear is allowed by the grammarians to shorten its vowel in weak forms: thus, bibhīmas or bibhimas, bibhīyām or bibhiyām; and bibhiyāt etc. are met with in the later language.

680. Forms of this class from √jan give birth, with added i — thus, jajñiṣe, jajñidhve — are given by the grammarians, but have never been found in use.

681. The roots ci and cit have in the Veda reversion of c to k in the root-syllable after the reduplication: thus, cikéṣi, cikéthe (anomalous, for cikyā́the), cikitām, aciket, cíkyat (pple); cikiddhi.

682. The root vyac has i in the reduplication (from the y), and is contracted to vic in weak forms: thus, viviktás, áviviktām. So the root hvar (if its forms are to be reckoned here) has u in reduplication, and contracts to hur: thus, juhūrthās.

III. Nasal Class (seventh, rudh-class).

683. The roots of this class all end in consonants. And their class-sign is a nasal preceding the final consonant: in the weak forms, a nasal simply, adapted in character to the consonant; but in the strong forms expanded to the syllable न ná, which has the accent.

a. In a few of the verbs of the class, the nasal extends also into other tense-systems: they are añj, bhañj, hiṅs: see below, 694.

1. Present Indicative.

684. Examples of inflection: a. the root युज् yuj join: strong stem-form, युनज् yunáj; weak, युञ्ज् yuñj.

For the rules of combination of final j, see 219.

active.

middle.

युनज्मि
yunájmi

युञ्ज्वस्
yuñjvás

युञ्ज्मस्
yuñjmás

युञ्जे
yuñjé

युञ्ज्वहे
yuñjváhe

युञ्ज्महे
yuñjmáhe

युनक्षि
yunákṣi

युङ्क्थस्
yun̄kthás

युङ्क्थ
yun̄kthá

युङ्क्षे
yun̄kṣé

युञ्जाथे
yuñjā́the

युङ्ग्ध्वे
yun̄gdhvé

युनक्ति
yunákti

युङ्क्तस्
yun̄ktás

युञ्जन्ति
yuñjánti

युङ्क्ते
yun̄kté

युञ्जाते
yuñjā́te

युञ्जते
yuñjáte

b. the root रुध् rudh obstruct; bases रुणध् ruṇadh and रुन्ध् rundh.

For rules of combination of final dh, see 153, 160.

रुणध्मि
ruṇádhmi

रुन्ध्वस्
rundhvás

रुन्ध्मस्
rundhmás

रुन्धे
rundhé

रुन्ध्वहे
rundhváhe

रुन्ध्महे
rundhmáhe

रुणत्सि
ruṇátsi

रुन्द्धस्
runddhás

रुन्द्ध
runddhá

रुन्त्से
runtsé

रुन्धाथे
rundhā́the

रुन्द्ध्वे
runddhvé

रुणद्धि
ruṇáddhi

रुन्द्धस्
runddhás

रुन्धन्ति
rundhánti

रुन्द्धे
runddhé

रुन्धाते
rundhā́te

रुन्धते
rundháte

c. Instead of yun̄kthas, yun̄gdhve, and the like (here and in the impv. and impf.), it is allowed and more usual (231) to write yun̄thas, yun̄dhve, etc.; and, in like manner, rundhas, rundhe, for runddhas, runddhe; and so in other like cases.

685. Vedic irregularities of inflection are: 1. the ordinary use of a 3d sing. mid. like the 1st sing., as vṛñje; 2. the accent on té of 3d pl. mid. in añjaté, indhaté, bhuñjaté.

a. Yunañkṣi, in BhP., is doubtless a false reading.

2. Present Subjunctive.

686. The stem is made, as usual, by adding a to the strong present-stem: thus, yunája, ruṇádha. Below are given as if made from √yuj all the forms for which examples have been noted as actually occurring in the older language.

active.

middle.

yunájāni

yunájāva

yunájāma

yunajāi

yunájāmahāi

yunájas

yunajādhvāi

yunájat

yunájatas

yunájan

yunájate

687. The RV. has once añjatas, which is anomalous as being made from the weak tense-stem. Forms with double mode-sign are met with: thus, tṛṇáhān (AV.), rādhnávāt and yunajān (śB.); and the only quotable example of 3d du. act. (besides añjatás) is hinásātas (śB.). śB. has also hinasāvas as 1st du. act.: an elsewhere unexampled form.

3. Present Optative.

688. The optative is made, as elsewhere, by adding the compounded mode-endings to the weak form of present-stem. Thus:

active.

middle.

युञ्ज्याम्
yuñjyā́m

युञ्ज्याव
yuñjyā́va

युञ्ज्याम
yuñjyā́ma

युञ्जीय
yuñjīyá

युञ्जीवहि
yuñjīváhi

युञ्जीमहि
yuñjīmáhi

etc.

a. AB. has once the anomalous 1st sing. act. vṛñjīyam. And forms like bhuñjīyām -yāt, yuñjīyāt, are here and there met with in the epics (bhuñjīyātām once in GGS.). MBh., too, has once bhuñjītam.

4. Present Imperative.

689. In this class (as the roots all end in consonants) the ending of the 2d sing. act. is always धि dhi.

active.

middle.

युनजानि
yunájāni

युनजाव
yunájāva

युनजाम
yunájāma

युनजै
yunájāi

युनजावहै
yunájāvahāi

युनजामहै
yunájāmahāi

युङ्ग्धि
yun̄gdhí

युङ्क्तम्
yun̄ktám

युङ्क्त
yun̄ktá

युङ्क्ष्व
yun̄kṣvá

युञ्जाथाम्
yuñjā́thām

युङ्ग्ध्वम्
yun̄gdhvám

युनक्त्तु
yunáktu

युङ्क्ताम्
yun̄ktā́m

युञ्जन्तु
yuñjántu

युङ्क्ताम्
yun̄ktā́m

युञ्जाताम्
yuñjā́tām

युञ्जताम्
yuñjátām

690. There is no occurrence, so far as noted, of the ending tāt in verbs of this class. The Veda has, as usual, sometimes strong forms, and sometimes the ending tana, in the 2d pl. act.: thus, unátta, yunákta, anaktana, pinaṣṭana.

5. Present Participle.

691. The participles are made in this class as in the preceding ones: thus, act. युञ्जन्त् yuñjánt (fem. युञ्जती yuñjatī́); mid. युञ्जान yuñjāná (but RV. has índhāna).

6. Imperfect.

692. The example of the regular inflection of this tense needs no introduction:

active.

middle.

अयुनजम्
áyunajam

अयुञ्ज्व
áyuñjva

अयुञ्ज्म
áyuñjma

अयुञ्जि
áyuñji

अयुञ्ज्वहि
áyuñjvahi

अयुञ्ज्महि
áyuñjmahi

अयुनक्
áyunak

अयुङ्क्तम्
áyun̄ktam

अयुङ्क्त
áyun̄kta

अयुङ्क्थास्
áyun̄kthās

अयुञ्जाथाम्
áyuñjāthām

अयुङ्ग्ध्वम्
áyun̄gdhvam

अयुनक्
áyunak

अयुङ्क्ताम्
áyun̄ktām

अयुञ्जन्
áyuñjan

अयुङ्क्त
áyun̄kta

अयुञ्जाताम्
áyuñjātām

अयुञ्जत
áyuñjata

a. The endings s and t are necessarily lost in the nasal class throughout in 2d and 3d sing. act., unless saved at the expense of the final radical consonant: which is a case of very rare occurrence (the only quotable examples were given at 555 a).

693. The Veda shows no irregularities in this tense. Occurrences of augmentless forms are found, especially in 2d and 3d sing. act., showing an accent like that of the present: for example, bhinát, pṛṇák, vṛṇák, piṇák, riṇák.

a. The 1st sing. act. atṛṇam and acchinam (for atṛṇadam and acchinadam) were noted above, at 555 a.

694. The roots of this class number about thirty, more than half of them being found only in the earlier language; no new ones make their first appearance later. Three of them, añj and bhañj and hiṅs, carry their nasal also into other tense-systems than the present. Two, ṛdh and ubh, make present-systems also of other classes having a nasal in the class-sign: thus, ṛdhnoti (nu-class) and ubhnāti (nā-class).

a. Many of the roots make forms from secondary a-stems: thus, from añja, unda, umbhá, chinda, tṛṅhá, piṅṣa, pṛñcá, bhuñja, rundha, śiṅṣá, etc.

Irregularities of the Nasal Class.

695. The root tṛh combines tṛṇah with ti, tu, etc. into tṛṇeḍhi, tṛṇéḍhu; and, according to the grammarians, has also such forms as tṛṇehmi: see above, 224 b.

696. The root hiṅs (by origin apparently a desiderative from √han) accents irregularly the root-syllable in the weak forms: thus, híṅsanti, híṅste, híṅsāna (but hinásat etc. and hiṅsyā́t śB.).

IV. Nu- and u-classes (fifth and eighth, su- and tan-classes).

697. A. The present-stem of the nu-class is made by adding to the root the syllable नु nu, which then in the strong forms receives the accent, and is strengthened to नो nó.

B. The few roots of the u-class (about half-a-dozen) end in न् n, with the exception of the later irregular कृ kṛ (or kar) — for which, see below, 714. The two classes, then, are closely correspondent in form; and they are wholly accordant in inflection.

a. The u of either class-sign is allowed to be dropped before v and m of the 1st du. and 1st pl. endings, except when the root (nu-class) ends in a consonant; and the u before a vowel-ending becomes v or uv, according as it is preceded by one or by two consonants (129 a).

1. Present Indicative.

698. Examples of inflection: A. nu-class; root सु su press out: strong form of stem, सुनो sunó; weak form, सुनु sunu.

active.

middle.

सुनोमि
sunómi

सुनुवस्
sunuvás

सुनुमस्
sunumás

सुन्वे
sunvé

सुनुवहे
sunuváhe

सुनुमहे
sunumáhe

सुनोषि
sunóṣi

सुनुथस्
sunuthás

सुनुथ
sunuthá

सुनुषे
sunuṣé

सुन्वाथे
sunvā́the

सुनुध्वे
sunudhvé

सुनोति
sunóti

सुनुतस्
sunutás

सुन्वन्ति
sunvánti

सुनुते
sunuté

सुन्वाते
sunvā́te

सुन्वते
sunváte

a. The forms sunvás, sunmás, sunváhe, sunmáhe are alternative with those given here for 1st du. and pl., and in practice are more common. From √āp, however (for example), only the forms with u can occur: thus, āpnuvás, āpnumáhe; and also only āpnuvánti, āpnuvé, āpnuváte.

B. u-class; root तन् tan stretch: strong form of stem, तनो tanó; weak, तनु tanu.

तनोमि
tanómi

तन्वस्
tanvás

तन्मस्
tanmás

तन्वे
tanvé

तन्वहे
tanváhe

तन्महे
tanmáhe

etc.

b. The inflection is so precisely like that given above that it is not worth writing out in full. The abbreviated forms in 1st du. and pl. are presented here, instead of the fuller, which rarely occur (as no double consonant ever precedes).

699. a. In the older language, no strong 2d persons du. or pl., and no thana-endings, chance to occur (but they are numerous in the impv. and impf.: see below). The RV. has several cases of the irregular accent in 3d pl. mid.: thus, kṛṇvaté, tanvaté, manvaté, vṛṇvaté, spṛṇvaté.

b. In RV. occur also several 3d pl. mid. in ire from present-stems of this class: thus, invire, ṛṇvire, pinvire, śṛṇviré, sunviré, hinviré. Of these, pinvire and hinviré might be perfects without reduplication from the secondary roots pinv and hinv (below, 716). The 2d sing. mid. (with passive value) śṛṇviṣé (RV.) is of anomalous and questionable character.

2. Present Subjunctive.

700. The subjunctive mode-stem is made in the usual manner, by adding a to the gunated and accented class-sign: thus, sunáva, tanáva. In the following scheme are given all the forms of which examples have been met with in actual use in the older language from either division of the class; some of them are quite numerously represented there.

active.

middle.

sunávāni

sunávāva

sunávāma

sunávāi

sunávāvahāi

sunávāmahāi

sunávas

sunávatha

sunávase

sunávāithe

sunávat

sunávan

sunávate
sunávātāi

sunávanta

701. Of the briefer 1st sing. act., RV. has kṛṇavā and hinavā. Forms with double mode-sign occur (not in RV.): thus, kṛṇávāt and karavāt (AV.); aśnavātha (K.), kṛṇavātha (VS.; but -vatha in Kāṇva-text), karavātha (śB.). On the other hand, aśnavatāi is found once (in TS.). Forms like āpnuvāni, ardhnúvat, aśnuvat, met with now and then in the older texts, are doubtless to be regarded as false readings. RV. has in a single passage kṛṇvāíte (instead of kṛṇávāite); the only form in āithe is aśnávāithe.

3. Present Optative.

702. The combined endings (566) are added, as usual, to the weak tense-stem: thus,

active.

middle.

सुनुयाम्
sunuyā́m

सुनुयाव
sunuyā́va

सुनुयाम
sunuyā́ma

सुन्वीय
sunvīyá

सुन्वीवहि
sunvīváhi

सुन्वीमहि
sunvīmáhi

etc.

a. From √āp, the middle optative would be āpnuvīyá — and so in other like cases.

4. Present Imperative.

703. The inflection of the imperative is in general like that in the preceding classes. As regards the 2d sing. act., the rule of the later language is that the ending हि hi is taken whenever the root itself ends in a consonant; otherwise, the tense- (or mode-) stem stands by itself as 2d person (for the earlier usage, see below, 704). An example of inflection is:

active.

middle.

सुनवानि
sunávāni

सुनवाव
sunávāva

सुनवाम
sunávāma

सुनवै
sunávāi

सुनवावहै
sunávāvahāi

सुनवामहै
sunávāmahāi

सुनु
sunú

सुनुतम्
sunutám

सुनुत
sunutá

सुनुष्व
sunuṣvá

सुन्वाथाम्
sunvā́thām

सुनुध्वम्
sunudhvám

सुनोतु
sunótu

सुनुताम्
sunutā́m

सुन्वन्तु
sunvántu

सुनुताम्
sunutā́m

सुन्वाताम्
sunvā́tām

सुन्वताम्
sunvátām

a. From √āp, the 2d sing. act. would be āpnuhí; from √aś aśnuhí; from √dhṛṣ, dhṛṣṇuhí; and so on. From √āp, too, would be made āpnuvántu, āpnuvā́thām, āpnuvā́tām, āpnuvátām.

704. In the earliest language, the rule as to the omission of hi after a root with final vowel does not hold good: in RV., such forms as inuhi, kṛṇuhí, cinuhí, dhūnuhi, śṛṇuhí, spṛṇuhi, hinuhi, and tanuhi, sanuhi, are nearly thrice as frequent in use as inú, śṛṇu, sunú, tanu, and their like; in AV., however, they are only one sixth as frequent; and in the Brāhmaṇas they appear only sporadically: even śṛṇudhí (with dhi) occurs several times in RV. RV. has the 1st sing. act. hinavā. The ending tāt is found in kṛṇutāt and hinutāt, and kurutāt. The strong stem-form is found in 2d du. act. in hinotam and kṛṇotam; and in 2d pl. act. in kṛṇóta and kṛṇótana, śṛṇóta and śṛṇotana, sunóta and sunótana, hinóta and hinotana, and tanota, karóta. The ending tana occurs only in the forms just quoted.

5. Present Participle.

705. The endings अन्त् ánt and आन āná are added to the weak form of tense stem: thus, from √सु su come act. सुन्वन्त् sunvánt (fem. सुन्वती sunvatī́), mid. सुन्वान sunvāná; from √तन् tan, तन्वन्त् tanvánt (fem. तन्वती tanvatī́), तन्वान tanvāná. From √आप् āp, they are आप्नुवन्त् āpnuvánt and आप्नुवान āpnuvāná.

6. Imperfect.

706. The combination of augmented stem and endings is according to the rules already stated: thus,

active.

middle.

असुनवम्
ásunavam

असुनुव
ásunuva

असुनुम
ásunuma

असुन्वि
ásunvi

असुनुवहि
ásunuvahi

असुनुमहि
ásunumahi

असुनोस्
ásunos

असुनुतम्
ásunutam

असुनुत
ásunuta

असुनुथास्
ásunuthās

असुन्वाथाम्
ásunvāthām

असुनुध्वम्
ásunudhvam

असुनोत्
ásunot

असुनुताम्
ásunutām

असुन्वन्
ásunvan

असुनुत
ásunuta

असुन्वाताम्
ásunvātām

असुन्वत
ásunvata

a. Here, as elsewhere, the briefer forms ásunva, ásunma, ásunvahi, ásunmahi are allowed, and more usual, except from roots with final consonant, as dhṛṣ: which makes, for example, always ádhṛṣṇuma etc., and also ádhṛṣṇuvan, ádhṛṣṇuvi, ádhṛṣṇuvāthām, ádhṛṣṇuvātām, ádhṛṣṇuvata.

707. Strong stem-forms and tana-ending are found only in RV., In akṛṇota, akṛṇotana. Augmentless forms with accent are minván, ṛṇutá.

708. About fifty roots make, either exclusively or in part, their present-forms after the manner of the nu-class: half of them do so only in the older language; three or four, only in the later.

a. As to transfers to the a-conjugation, see below, 716.

709. The roots of the other division, or of the u-class, are extremely few, not exceeding eight, even including tṛ on account of taruté RV., and han on account of the occurrence of hanomi once in a Sūtra (PGS. i. 3. 27). BR. refer the stem inu to in of the u-class instead of i of the nu-class.

Irregularities of the nu and u-classes.

710. The root tṛp be pleased is said by the grammarians to retain the n of its class-sign unlingualized in the later language — where, however, forms of conjugation of this class are very rare; while in the Veda the regular change is made: thus, tṛpṇu.

711. The root śru hear is contracted to śṛ before the class-sign, forming śṛṇó and śṛṇu as stem. Its forms śṛṇviṣé and śṛṇviré have been noted above (699 b).

712. The root dhū shake in the later language (and rarely in B. and S.) shortens its vowel, making the stem-forms dhunó and dhunu (earlier dhūnó, dhūnu).

713. The so-called root ūrṇu, treated by the native grammarians as dissyllabic and belonging to the root-class (I.), is properly a present-stem of this class, with anomalous contraction, from the root vṛ (or var). In the Veda, it has no forms which are not regularly made according to the nu-class; but in the Brāhmaṇa language are found sometimes such forms as ūrṇāuti, as if from an u-root of the root class (626); and the grammarians make for it a perfect, aorist, future, etc. Its 2d sing. impv. act. is ūrṇu or ūrṇuhi; its impf., āúrṇos, āurṇot; its opt. mid., ūrṇuvīta (K.) or ūrṇvītá (TS.).

714. The extremely common root कृ kṛ (or kar) make is in the later language inflected in the present-system exclusively according to the u-class (being the only root of that class not ending in न् n). It has the irregularity that in the strong form of stem it (as well as the class-sign) has the guṇa-strengthening, and that in the weak form it is changed to kur, so that the two forms of stem are करो karó and कुरु kuru. The class-sign उ u is always dropped before of व् v and म् m of the 1st du. and pl., and also before य् y of the opt. act. Thus:

1. Present Indicative.

active.

middle.

करोमि
karómi

कुर्वस्
kurvás

कुर्मस्
kurmás

कुर्वे
kurvé

कुर्वहे
kurváhe

कुर्महे
kurmáhe

करोषि
karóṣi

कुरुथस्
kuruthás

कुरुथ
kuruthá

कुरुषे
kuruṣé

कुर्वाथे
kurvā́the

कुरुध्वे
kurudhvé

करोति
karóti

कुरुतस्
kurutás

कुर्वन्ति
kurvánti

कुरुते
kuruté

कुर्वाते
kurvā́te

कुर्वते
kurváte

2. Present Optative.

कुर्याम्
kuryā́m

कुर्याव
kuryā́va

कुर्याम
kuryā́ma

कुर्वीय
kurvīyá

कुर्वीवहि
kurvīváhi

कुर्वीमहि
kurvīmáhi

etc.

3. Present Imperative.

करवाणि
karávāṇi

करवाव
karávāva

करवाम
karávāma

करवै
karávāi

करवावहै
karávāvahāi

करवामहै
karávāmahāi

कुरु
kurú

कुरुतम्
kurutám

कुरुत
kurutá

कुरुष्व
kuruṣvá

कुर्वाथाम्
kurvā́thām

कुरुध्वम्
kurudhvám

करोतु
karótu

कुरुताम्
kurutā́m

कुर्वन्तु
kurvántu

कुरुताम्
kurutā́m

कुर्वाताम्
kurvā́tām

कुर्वताम्
kurvátām

4. Present Participle.

कुर्वन्त् kurvánt (fem. कुर्वती kurvatī́) कुर्वाण kurvāṇá

5. Imperfect.

अकरवम्
ákaravam

अकुर्व
ákurva

अकुर्म
ákurma

अकुर्वि
ákurvi

अकुर्वहि
ákurvahi

अकुर्महि
ákurmahi

अकरोस्
ákaros

अकुरुतम्
ákurutam

अकुरुत
ákuruta

अकुरुथास्
ákuruthās

अकुर्वाथाम्
ákurvāthām

अकुरुध्वम्
ákurudhvam

अकरोत्
ákarot

अकुरुताम्
ákurutām

अकुर्वन्
ákurvan

अकुरुत
ákuruta

अकुर्वाताम्
ákurvātām

अकुर्वत
ákurvata

715. In RV., this root is regularly inflected in the present-system according to the nu-class, making the stem-forms kṛṇó and kṛṇu; the only exceptions are kurmas once and kuru twice (all in the tenth book); in AV., the nu-forms are still more than six times as frequent as the u-forms (nearly half of which, moreover, are in prose passages); but in the Brāhmaṇa language and later, the u-forms are used to the exclusion of the others.

a. As 1st sing. pres. act. is found kurmi in the epos.

b. What irregular forms from kṛ as a verb of the nu-class occur in the older language have been already noticed above.

c. The isolated form taruté, from √tṛ, shows an apparent analogy with these u-forms from kṛ.

716. A few verbs belonging originally to these classes have been shifted, in part or altogether, to the a-class, their proper class-sign having been stereotyped as a part of the root.

a. Thus, in RV. we find forms both from the stem inu (√i or in), and also from ínva, representing a derivative quasi-root inv (and these latter alone occur in AV.). So likewise forms from a stem ṛṇva beside those from ṛṇu (√ṛ); and from hinva beside those from hinu (√hi). The so-called roots jinv and pinv are doubtless of the same origin, although no forms from the stem pinu are met with at any period — unless pinvire (above, 699 b) be so regarded; and AV. has the participle pinvánt, f. pinvatī́. The grammarians set up a root dhinv, but only forms from dhi (stem dhinu) appear to occur in the present-system (the aorist adhinvīt is found in PB.).

b. Occasional a-forms are met with also from other roots: thus, cinvata etc., dunvasva.

V. Nā-class (ninth or krī-class).

717. The class-sign of this class is in the strong forms the syllable ना nā́, accented, which is added to the root; in the weak forms, or where the accent falls upon the ending, it is नी nī; but before the initial vowel of an ending the ई ī of नी nī disappears altogether.

1. Present Indicative.

718. Example of inflection: root क्री krī buy: strong form of stem, क्रीणा krīṇā́; weak form, क्रीणी krīṇī (before a vowel, क्रीण् krīṇ).

active.

middle.

क्रीणामि
krīṇā́mi

क्रीणीवस्
krīṇīvás

क्रीणीमस्
krīṇīmás

क्रीणे
krīṇé

क्रीणीवहे
krīṇīváhe

क्रीणीमहे
krīṇīmáhe

क्रीणासि
krīṇā́si

क्रीणीथस्
krīṇīthás

क्रीणीथ
krīṇīthá

क्रीणीषे
krīṇīṣe

क्रीणाथे
krīṇā́the

क्रीणीध्वे
krīṇīdhvé

क्रीणाति
krīṇā́ti

क्रीणीतस्
krīṇītás

क्रीणन्ति
krīṇánti

क्रीणीते
krīṇīté

क्रीणाते
krīṇā́te

क्रीणते
krīṇáte

719. In the Veda, the 3d sing. mid. has the same form with the 1st in gṛṇé; the peculiar accent of 3d pl. mid. is seen in punaté and riṇaté; and vṛṇīmahé (beside vṛṇīmáhe) occurs once in RV.

2. Present Subjunctive.

720. The subjunctive forms which have been found exemplified in Veda and Brāhmaṇa are given below. The subjunctive mode-stem is, of course, indistinguishable in form from the strong tense-stem. And the 2d and 3d sing. act. (with secondary endings) are indistinguishable from augmentless imperfects.

active.

middle.

krīṇāni

krīṇā́ma

krīṇāí

krīṇāvahāi

krīṇāmahāi

krīṇā́s

krīṇātha

krīṇāsāi

krīṇā́t

krīṇā́n

krīṇātāi

krīṇāntāi

3. Present Optative.

721. This mode is formed and inflected with entire regularity; owing to the fusion of tense-sign and mode-sign in the middle, some of its persons are indistinguishable from augmentless imperfects. Its first persons are as follows:

active.

middle.

क्रीणीयाम्
krīṇīyā́m

क्रीणीयाव
krīṇīyā́va

क्रीणीयाम
krīṇīyā́ma

क्रीणीय
krīṇīyá

क्रीणीवहि
krīṇīváhi

क्रीणीमहि
krīṇīmáhi

etc.

4. Present Imperative.

722. The ending in 2d sing. act., as being always preceded by a vowel, is हि hi (never धि dhi); and there are no examples of an omission of it. But this person is forbidden to be formed in the classical language from roots ending in a consonant; for both class-sign and ending is substituted the peculiar ending आन āná.

active.

middle.

क्रीणानि
krīṇā́ni

क्रीणाव
krīṇā́va

क्रीणाम
krīṇā́ma

क्रीणै
krīṇāí

क्रीणावहै
krīṇā́vahāi

क्रीणामहै
krīṇā́mahāi

क्रीणीहि
krīṇīhí

क्रीणीतम्
krīṇītám

क्रीणीत
krīṇītá

क्रीणीष्व
krīṇīṣvá

क्रीणाथाम्
krīṇā́thām

क्रीणीध्वम्
krīṇīdhvám

क्रीणातु
krīṇā́tu

क्रीणीताम्
krīṇītā́m

क्रीणन्तु
krīṇántu

क्रीणीताम्
krīṇītā́m

क्रीणाताम्
krīṇā́tām

क्रीणताम्
krīṇátām

a. Examples of the ending āná in 2d sing. act. are aśāna, gṛhāṇá, badhāná, stabhāná.

723. The ending āna is known also to the earliest language; of the examples just given, all are found in AV., and the first two in RV.; others are iṣāṇa, muṣāṇa, skabhāna. But AV. has also gṛbhṇīhi (also AB.), and even gṛhṇāhi, with strong stem; BhP. has badhnīhi. Strong stems are farther found in gṛṇāhi and stṛṇāhi (TS.), pṛṇāhi (TB.), and śrīṇāhi (Āpast.), and, with anomalous accent, punāhí and śṛṇāhí (SV.); and, in 2d pl. act., in punā́ta (RV.). The ending tāt of 2d sing. act. occurs in gṛhṇītāt, jānītā́t, punītāt. The ending tana is found in punītána, pṛṇītana, śrīṇītana.

5. Present Participle.

724. The participles are regularly formed: thus, for example, act. क्रीणन्त् krīṇánt (fem. क्रीणती krīṇatī́); mid. क्रीणान krīṇāná.

6. Imperfect.

725. There is nothing special to be noted as to the inflection of this tense: an example is —

active.

middle.

अक्रीणाम्
ákrīṇām

अक्रीणीव
ákrīṇīva

अक्रीणीम
ákrīṇīma

अक्रीणि
ákrīṇi

अक्रीणीवहि
ákrīṇīvahi

अक्रीणीमहि
ákrīṇīmahi

अक्रीणास्
ákrīṇās

अक्रीणीतम्
ákrīṇītam

अक्रीणीत
ákrīṇīta

अक्रीणीथास्
ákrīṇīthās

अक्रीणाथाम्
ákrīṇāthām

अक्रीणीध्वम्
ákrīṇīdhvam

अक्रीणात्
ákrīṇāt

अक्रीणीताम्
ákrīṇītām

अक्रीणन्
ákrīṇan

अक्रीणीत
ákrīṇīta

अक्रीणाताम्
ákrīṇātām

अक्रीणत
ákrīṇata

726. It has been pointed out above that augmentless persons of this tense are in part indistinguishable in form from subjunctive and optative persons. Such as certainly belong here are (in V.) kṣiṇām; aśnan, riṇán; gṛbhṇata, vṛṇata. The AV. has once minīt instead of mināt. MBh. has aśnīs after mā.

a. AB. has the false form ajānīmas, and in AA. occurs avṛṇīta as 3d plural.

727. The roots which form their present-systems, wholly or in part, after the manner of this class, are over fifty in number: but, for about three fifths of them, the forms are quotable only from the older language, and for half-a-dozen they make their first appearance later; for less than twenty are they in use through the whole life of the language, from the Veda down.

a. As to secondary a-stems, see 731.

Irregularities of the na-class.

728. a. The roots ending in ū shorten that vowel before the class-sign: thus, from √pū, punā́ti and punīté; in like manner also jū, dhū, lū.

b. The root vlī (B.S.) forms either vlīnā or vlinā.

729. The root grabh or grah (the former Vedic) is weakened to gṛbh or gṛh.

a. As the perfect also in weak forms has gṛbh or gṛh, it is not easy to see why the grammarians should not have written ṛ instead of ra in the root.

730. a. A few of the roots have a more or less persistent nasal in forms outside the present-system; such are without nasal before the class-sign: thus, grath or granth, badh or bandh, math or manth, skabh or skambh, stabh or stambh.

b. The root jñā also loses its nasal before the class-sign: thus, jānā́ti, jānīté.

731. Not rarely, forms showing a transfer to the a-conjugation are met with: thus, even in RV., minati, minat, aminanta, from √mi; in AV., śṛṇa from √śṛ; later, gṛhṇa, jāna, prīṇa, mathna, etc. And from roots pṛ and mṛ are formed the stems pṛṇá and mṛṇá, which are inflected after the manner of the á-class, as if from roots pṛṇ and mṛṇ.

732. In the Veda, an apparently denominative inflection of a stem in āyá is not infrequent beside the conjugation of roots of this class: thus, gṛbhāyá, mathāyáti, aśrathāyas, skabhāyáta, astabhāyat, pruṣāyánte, muṣāyát, and so on. See below, 1066 b.

Second or a-Conjugation.

733. We come now to the classes which compose the Second or a-Conjugation. These are more markedly similar in their mode of inflection than the preceding classes; their common characteristics, already stated, may be here repeated in summary. They are: 1. A final a in the present-stem; 2. a constant accent, not changing between stem and ending; 3. a briefer form of the optative mode-sign in the active, namely ī instead of yā (combining in both voices alike with a to e); 4. the absence of any ending (except when tāt is used) in 2d sing. impv. act.; 5. the conversion of initial ā of the 2d and 3d du. mid. endings to e; 6. the use of the full endings ante, anta, antām in 3d pl. mid. forms; 7. the invariable use of an (not us) in 3d pl. impf. act.; 8. and the use of māna instead of āna as ending of the mid. pple. Moreover, 9. the stem-final a becomes ā before m and v of 1st personal endings — but not before am of 1st sing. impf.: here, as before the 3d pl. endings, the stem-final is lost, and the short a of the ending remains (or the contrary): thus, bhávanti (bháva+anti), bhávante (bháva+ante), ábhavam (ábhava+am).

a. All these characteristics belong not to the inflection of the a-present-systems alone, but also to that of the a-, reduplicated, and sa-aorists, the s-future, and the desiderative, causative, and denominative present-systems. That is to say, wherever in conjugation an a-stem is found, it is inflected in the same manner.

VI. A-class (first, bhū-class).

734. The present-stem of this class is made by adding अ a to the root, which has the accent, and, when that is possible (235, 240), is strengthened to guṇa. Thus, भव bháva from √भू bhū; जय jáya from √जि ji; बोध bódha from √बुध् budh; सर्प sárpa from √सृप् sṛp; — but वद váda from √वद् vad; क्रीड krī́ḍa from √क्रीड् krīḍ.

1. Present Indicative.

735. The endings and the rules for their combination with the stem have been already fully given, for this and the other parts of the present-system; and it only remains to illustrate them by examples.

a. Example of inflection: root भू bhū be; stem भव bháva (bho+a: 131).

active.

middle.

भवामि
bhávāmi

भवावस्
bhávāvas

भवामस्
bhávāmas

भवे
bháve

भवावहे
bhávāvahe

भवामहे
bhávāmahe

भवसि
bhávasi

भवथस्
bhávathas

भवथ
bhávatha

भवसे
bhávase

भवेथे
bhávethe

भवध्वे
bhávadhve

भवति
bhávati

भवतस्
bhávatas

भवन्ति
bhávanti

भवते
bhávate

भवेते
bhávete

भवन्ते
bhávante

b. The V. has but a single example of the thana-ending, namely vádathana (and no other in any class of this conjugation). The 1st pl. mid. manāmahé (RV., once) is probably an error. RV. has śóbhe once as 3d singular.

2. Present Subjunctive.

736. The mode-stem is bhávā (bháva+a). Subjunctive forms of this conjugation are very numerous in the older language; the following scheme instances all that have been found to occur.

active.

middle.

bhávāni

bhávāva

bhávāma

bhávāi

bhávāvahāi

bhávāmahāi

bhávāsi
bhávās

bhávāthas

bhávātha

bhávāse
bhávāsāi

bhávādhvāi

bhávāti
bhávāt

bhávātas

bhávān

bhávāte
bhávātāi

bhávāite

bhávanta
bhávāntāi

737. The 2d du. mid. (bhávāithe) does not chance to occur in this class; and yátāite is the only example of the 3d person. No such pl. mid. forms as bhávādhve, bhávānte are made from any class with stem-final a; such as bhávanta (which are very common) are, of course, properly augmentless imperfects. The Brāhmaṇas (especially śB.) prefer the 2d sing. act. in āsi and the 3d in āt. AB. has the 3d sing. mid. haratāi; and a 3d pl. in antāi (vartantāi KB.) has been noted once. RV. has examples, arcā and madā, of the briefer 1st. sing. act.

3. Present Optative.

738. The scheme of optative endings as combined with the final of an a-stem was given in full above (566).

active.

middle.

भवेयम्
bháveyam

भवेव
bháveva

भवेम
bhávema

भवेय
bháveya

भवेवहि
bhávevahi

भवेमहि
bhávemahi

भवेस्
bháves

भवेतम्
bhávetam

भवेत
bháveta

भवेथास्
bhávethās

भवेयाथाम्
bháveyāthām

भवेध्वम्
bhávedhvam

भवेत्
bhávet

भवेताम्
bhávetām

भवेयुस्
bháveyus

भवेत
bháveta

भवेयाताम्
bháveyātām

भवेरन्
bháveran

a. The RV. has once the 3d pl. mid. bharerata (for one other example, see 752 b). AV. has udeyam from √vad.

b. A few instances are met with of middle 3d persons from a-stems in īta and (very rarely) īran, instead of eta and eran. For convenience, they may be put together here (excepting the more numerous causative forms, for which see 1043 c); they are (so far as noted) these: nayīta S. and later, śaṅsīta S., śrayīta S.; dhayīta S., dhyāyīta U., hvayīta AB. S. and hvayīran S., dhmāyīta U. An active form śaṅsīyāt C. is isolated and anomalous.

4. Present Imperative.

739. An example of the imperative inflection is:

active.

middle.

भवानि
bhávāni

भवाव
bhávāva

भवाम
bhávāma

भवै
bhávāi

भवावहै
bhávāvahāi

भवामहै
bhávāmahāi

भव
bháva

भवतम्
bhávatam

भवत
bhávata

भवस्व
bhávasva

भवेथाम्
bhávethām

भवध्वम्
bhávadhvam

भवतु
bhávatu

भवताम्
bhávatām

भवन्तु
bhávantu

भवताम्
bhávatām

भवेताम्
bhávetām

भवन्ताम्
bhávantām

740. The ending tana in 2d pl. act. is as rare in this whole conjugation as is thana in the present: the V. affords only bhajatana in the a-class (and nahyatana in the ya-class: 760 c). The ending tāt of 2d sing. act., on the other hand, is not rare; the RV. has avatāt, oṣatāt, dahatāt, bhavatāt, yacchatāt, yācatāt, rákṣatāt, vahatāt; to which AV. adds jinvatāt, dhāvatāt; and the Brāhmanas bring other examples. MS. has twice svadātu (parallel texts both times svadāti): compare similar cases in the á-class: 752 c.

5. Present Participle

741. The endings अन्त् ant and मान māna are added to the present-stem, with loss, before the former, of the final stem-vowel: thus, act. भवन्त् bhávant (fem. भवन्ती bhávantī); mid. भवमान bhávamāna.

a. A small number of middle participles appear to be made from stems of this class (as of other a-classes: see 752 e, 1043 f) by the suffix āna instead of māna: thus, namāna, pacāna, śikṣāṇa, svajāna, hvayāna (all epic), majjāna and kaṣāṇa (later); and there are Vedic examples (as cyávāna, prathāná, yátāna or yatāná, śúmbhāna, all RV.) of which the character, whether present or aorist, is doubtful: compare 840, 852.

6. Imperfect.

742. An example of the imperfect inflection is:

active.

middle.

अभवम्
ábhavam

अभवाव
ábhavāva

अभवाम
ábhavāma

अभवे
ábhave

अभवावहि
ábhavāvahi

अभवामहि
ábhavāmahi

अभवस्
ábhavas

अभवतम्
ábhavatam

अभवत
ábhavata

अभवथास्
ábhavathās

अभवेथाम्
ábhavethām

अभवध्वम्
ábhavadhvam

अभवत्
ábhavat

अभवताम्
ábhavatām

अभवन्
ábhavan

अभवत
ábhavata

अभवेताम्
ábhavetām

अभवन्त
ábhavanta

743. No forms in tana are made in this tense from any a-class. Examples of augmentless forms (which are not uncommon) are: cyávam, ávas, dáhas, bódhat, bhárat, cáran, náśan; bādhathās, várdhata, śócanta. The subjunctively used forms of 2d and 3d sing. act. are more frequent than those of either of the proper subjunctive persons.

744. A far larger number of roots form their present-system according to the a-class than according to any of the other classes: in the RV., they are about two hundred and forty (nearly two fifths of the whole body of roots); in the AV., about two hundred (nearly the same proportion); for the whole language, the proportion is still larger, or nearly one half the whole number of present-stems: namely, over two hundred in both earlier and later language, one hundred and seventy-five in the older alone, nearly a hundred and fifty in the later alone. Among these are not a few transfers from the classes of the first conjugation: see those classes above. There are no roots ending in long ā — except a few which make an a-stem in some anomalous way: below, 749 a.

Irregularities of the a-class.

745. A few verbs have irregular vowel-changes in forming the present-stem: thus,

a. ūh consider has guṇa-strengthening (against 240): thus, óhate.

b. kṛp (or krap) lament, on the contrary, remains unchanged: thus, ḱṛ́pate.

c. guh hide has prolongation instead of guṇa: thus, ǵū́hati.

d. kram stride regularly lengthens its vowel in the active, but not in the middle: thus, kŕā́mati, krámate; but the vowel-quantities are somewhat mixed up, even from the oldest language down; — klam tire is said to form klāmati etc., but is not quotable; — cam with the preposition ā rinse the mouth forms ́ā́cāmati.

e. In the later language are found occasional forms of this class from mṛj wipe; and they show the same vṛddhi (instead of guṇa) which belongs to the root in its more proper inflection (627): thus, mārjasva.

f. The grammarians give a number of roots in urv, which they declare to lengthen the u in the present-stem. Only three are found in (quite limited) use, and they show no forms anywhere with short u. All appear to be of secondary formation from roots in ṛ or ar. The root murch or mūrch coagulate has likewise only ū in quotable forms.

g. The onomatopoetic root ṣṭhīv spew is written by the grammarians as ṣṭhiv, and declared to lengthen its vowel in the present-system: compare 240 b.

746. The roots daṅś bite, rañj color, sañj hang, svañj embrace, of which the nasal is in other parts of the conjugation not constant, lose it in the present-system: thus, dáśati etc.; sañj forms both sajati and sajjati (probably for sajyati, or for sasjati from sasajati); math or manth has mathati later. In general, as the present of this class is a strengthening formation, a root that has such a nasal anywhere has it here also.

747. The roots gam go and yam reach make the present-stems gáccha and yáccha: thus, gácchāmi etc.: see 608.

748. The root sad sit forms śī́da (conjectured to be contracted from sisda for sisada: thus, śī́dāmi etc.

749. Transfers to this class from other classes are not rare, as has been already pointed out above, both throughout the present-system and in occasional forms. The most important cases are the following:

a. The roots in ā, sthā stand, pā drink, and ghrā smell, form the present-stems tíṣṭha (tíṣṭhāmi etc.), píba (píbāmi etc.), and jíghra (jíghrāmi etc.): for these and other similar cases, see 671–4.

b. Secondary root-forms like inv, jinv, pinv, from simpler roots of the nu-class, are either found alongside their originals, or have crowded these out of use: see 716.

750. On the other hand, the root dham or dhmā blow forms its present-stem from the more original form of the root: thus, dhámati etc.

VII. Accented á-class (sixth, tud-class).

751. The present-stem of this class has the accent on the class-sign अ á, and the root remains unstrengthened. In its whole inflection, it follows so closely the model of the preceding class that to give the paradigm in full will be unnecessary (only for the subjunctive, all the forms found to occur will be instanced).

752. Example of inflection: root विश् viś enter; stem विश viśá:

1. Present Indicative.

active.

middle.

विशामि
viśā́mi

विशावस्
viśā́vas

विशामस्
viśā́mas

विशे
viśé

विशावहे
viśā́vahe

विशामहे
viśā́mahe

etc.

2. Present Subjunctive.

viśā́ni

viśā́va

viśā́ma

viśāí

viśā́vahāi

viśā́mahāi

viśā́si
viśā́s

viśā́tha

viśā́se
viśā́sāi

viśāíthe

viśā́ti
viśā́t

viśā́tas

viśā́n

viśā́te
viśā́tāi

viśāíte

viśā́ntāi

a. A single example of the briefer 1st sing. act. is mṛkṣā́. The only forms in āithe and āite are pṛṇāíthe and yuvāíte.

3. Present Optative.

active.

middle.

विशेयम्
viśéyam

विशेव
viśéva

विशेम
viśéma

विशेय
viśéya

विशेवहि
viśévahi

विशेमहि
viśémahi

etc.

b. The RV. has the ending tana once in tiretana 2d pl. act., and rata in juṣerata 3d pl. mid.

4. Present Imperative.

The first persons having been given above as subjunctives, the second are added here:

विश
viśá

विशतम्
viśátam

विशत
viśáta

विशस्व
viśásva

विशेथाम्
viśéthām

विशध्वम्
viśádhvam

etc.

c. The ending tāt is found in RV. and AV. in mṛḍatāt, vṛhatāt, suvatāt; other examples are not infrequent in the Brāhmaṇa language: thus, khidatāt, chyatāt, pṛcchatāt, viśatāt, sṛjatāt; and later, spṛśatāt. The 3d sing. act nudātu and muñcātu occur in Sūtras (cf. 740).

5. Present Participle.

The active participle is विशन्त् viśánt; the middle is विशमान viśámāna.

d. The feminine of the active participle is usually made from the strong stem-form: thus, viśántī; but sometimes from the weak: thus, siñcántī and siñcatī́ (RV. and AV.), tudántī and tudatī́ (AV.): see above, 449 d, e.

e. Middle participles in āna instead of māna are dhuvāná, dhṛṣāṇá, liśāna, śyāna, in the older language; kṛśāna, muñcāna, spṛśāna in the later (cf. 741 a).

6. Imperfect.

अविशम्
áviśam

अविशाव
áviśāva

अविशाम
áviśāma

अविशे
áviśe

अविशावहि
áviśāvahi

अविशामहि
áviśāmahi

etc.

f. Examples of augmentless forms accented are sṛjás, sṛját, tiránta.

g. The a-aorist (846 ff.) is in general the equivalent, as regards its forms, of an imperfect of this class.

753. Stems of the á-class are made from nearly a hundred and fifty roots: for about a third of these, in both the earlier and the later language; for a half, in the earlier only; for the remainder, nearly twenty, only in the later language. Among them are a number of transfers from the classes of the non-a-conjugation.

a. In some of these transfers, as pṛṇ and mṛṇ (731), there takes place almost a setting-up of independent roots.

b. The stems icchá, ucchá, and ṛcchá are reckoned as belonging respectively to the roots iṣ desire, vas shine, and ṛ go.

c. The roots written by the Hindu grammarians with final o — namely, cho, do, śo, and so — and forming the present-stems chyá, dyá, śyá, syá, are more properly (as having an accented á in the stem) to be reckoned to this class than to the ya-class, where the native classification puts them (see 761 g). They appear to be analogous with the stems kṣya, sva, hva, noted below (755).

754. The roots from which á-stems are made have certain noticeable peculiarities of form. Hardly any of them have long vowels, and none have long interior vowels; very few have final vowels; and none (save two or three transfers, and √lajj be ashamed, which does not occur in any accentuated text, and is perhaps to be referred rather to the a-class) have a as radical vowel, except as this forms a combination with r, which is then reduced with it to ṛ or some of the usual substitutes of ṛ.

Irregularities of the á-class.

755. The roots in i and u and ū change those vowels into iy and uv before the class-sign: thus, kṣiyá, yuvá, ruvá; suvá, etc.; and sva, hva occur, instead of suva and huva, in the older language, while TS. has the participle kṣyánt. K. has dhūva from √dhū.

756. The three roots in ṛ form the present-stems kirá, girá (also gila), tirá, and are sometimes written as kir etc.; and gur, jur, tur are really only varieties of gṛ, jṛ, tṛ; and bhur and sphur are evidently related with other ar or ṛ root-forms.

a. The common root prach ask makes the stem pṛcchá.

757. As to the stems -driyá and -priyá, and mriyá and dhriyá, sometimes reckoned as belonging to this class, see below, 773.

758. Although the present-stem of this class shows in general a weak form of the root, there are nevertheless a number of roots belonging to it which are strengthened by a penultimate nasal. Thus, the stem muñcá is made from √muc release; siñcá from √sic sprinkle; vindá from √vid find; kṛntá from √kṛt cut; piṅśá from √piś adorn; tṛmpá from √tṛp enjoy; lumpá from √lup break; limpá from √lip smear; and occasional forms of the same kind are met with from a few others, as tunda from √tud thrust; bṛṅhá from √bṛh strengthen; dṛṅhá (beside dṛ́ṅha) from √dṛh make firm; śumbhá (beside śúmbha) from √śubh shine; TS. has śṛnthati from √śrath (instead of śrathnāti; uñcha, vindhá, sumbha, are of doubtful character.

a. Nasalized á-stems are also in several instances made by transfer from the nasal class: thus, unda, umbha, ṛñjá, piṅṣá, yuñja, rundha, śiṅṣa.

VIII. Ya-class (fourth, div-class).

759. The present-stem of this class adds य ya to the accented but unstrengthened root. Its inflection is also precisely like that of the a-class, and may be presented in the same abbreviated form as that of the á-class.

760. Example of inflection: root नह् nah bind; stem नह्य náhya.

1. Present Indicative.

active.

middle.

नह्यामि
náhyāmi

नह्यावस्
náhyāvas

नह्यामस्
náhyāmas

नह्ये
náhye

नह्यावहे
náhyāvahe

नह्यामहे
náhyāmahe

etc.

2. Present Subjunctive.

náhyāni

náhyāma

náhyāi

náhyāvahāi

náhyāmahāi

náhyāsináhyās

náhyāsāi

náhyādhvāi

náhyātináhyāt

náhyātas

náhyān

náhyātāi

náhyāntāi

a. A 3d pl. mid. in antāi (jāyantāi) occurs once in TS.

3. Present Optative.

नह्येयम्
náhyeyam

नह्येव
náhyeva

नह्येम
náhyema

नह्येय
náhyeya

नह्येवहि
náhyevahi

नह्येमहि
náhyemahi

etc.

b. For two or three 3d sing. mid. forms in īta (for eta), see 738 b.

4. Present Imperative.

नह्य
náhya

नह्यतम्
náhyatam

नह्यत
náhyata

नह्यस्व
náhyasva

नह्येथाम्
náhyethām

नह्यध्वम्
náhyadhvam

etc.

c. Of the ending tana, RV. has one example, nahyatana; the ending tāt is found in asyatāt, khyāyatāt, naśyatāt.

5. Present Participle.

The active participle is नह्यन्त् náhyant (fem. नह्यन्ती náhyantī); the middle is नह्यमान náhyamāna.

6. Imperfect.

अनह्यम्
ánahyam

अनह्यव
ánahyava

अनह्याम
ánahyāma

अनह्ये
ánahye

अनह्यावहि
ánahyāvahi

अनह्यामहि
ánahyāmahi

etc.

d. Examples of augmentless forms showing the accent belonging to the present-system are gā́yat, páśyat, páśyan, jā́yathās.

761. The ya-class stems are more than a hundred and thirty in number, and nearly half of them have forms in use in all periods of the language, about forty occurring only in the earlier, and about thirty only in the modern period.

a. Of the roots making ya-stems, a very considerable part (over fifty) signify a state of feeling, or a condition of mind or body: thus, kup be angry, klam be weary, kṣudh be hungry, muh be confused, lubh be lustful, śuṣ be dry, etc. etc.

b. A further number have a more or less distinctly passive sense, and are in part evident and in part presumable transfers from the passive or yá-class, with change of accent, and sometimes also with assumption of active endings. It is not possible to draw precisely the limits of the division; but there are in the older language a number of clear cases, in which the accent wavers and changes, and the others are to be judged by analogy with them. Thus, √muc forms múcyate once or twice, beside the usual mucyáte, in RV. and AV.; and in the Brāhmaṇas the former is the regular accent. Similar changes are found also in ya-forms from other roots: thus, from kṣi destroy, jī or jyā injure, tap heat, dṛh make firm, pac cook, pṛ fill, mī damage, ric leave, lup break, hā leave. Active forms are early made from some of these, and they grow more common later. It is worthy of special mention that, from the Veda down, jā́yate is born etc. is found as altered passive or original ya-formation by the side of √jan give birth.

c. A considerable body of roots (about forty) differ from the above in having an apparently original transitive or neuter meaning: examples are as throw, nah bind, paś see, pad go, śliṣ clasp.

d. A number of roots, of various meaning, and of somewhat doubtful character and relations, having present-stems ending in ya, are by the native grammarians written with final diphthongs, āi or e or o. Thus:

e. Roots reckoned as ending in āi and belonging to the a- (or bhū-) class, as gāi sing (gā́yati etc.). As these show abundantly, and for the most part exclusively, ā-forms outside the present-system, there seems to be no good reason why they should not rather be regarded as ā-roots of the ya-class. They are kṣā burn, gā sing, glā be weary, trā save, dhyā think, pyā fill up, mlā relax, rā bark, vā be blown, śyā coagulate, śrā boil, styā stiffen. Some of them are evident extensions of simpler roots by the addition of ā. The secondary roots tāy stretch (beside tan), and cāy observe (beside ci) appear to be of similar character.

f. Roots reckoned as ending in e and belonging to the a- (or bhū-) class, as dhe suck (dháyati etc.). These, too, have ā-forms, and sometimes ī-forms, outside the present system, and are best regarded as ā-roots, either with ā weakened to a before the class-sign of this class, or with ā weakened to ī or i and inflected according to the a-class. They are dhā suck, mā exchange, vā weave, vyā envelop, hvā call (secondary, from hū). As of kindred form may be mentioned day share and vyay expend (probably denominative of vyaya).

g. A few roots artificially written with final o and reckoned to the ya-class, with radical vowel lost before the class-sign: thus, do cut, bind, pres. dyáti etc. These, as having an accented á in the sign, have plainly no right to be put in this class; and they are better referred to the á-class (see above, 753 c). Outside the present-system they show ā- and i-forms; and in that system the ya is often resolved into ia in the oldest language.

762. The ya-class is the only one thus far described which shows any tendency toward a restriction to a certain variety of meaning. In this tendency, as well as in the form of its sign, it appears related with the class of distinctly defined meaning which is next to be taken up — the passive, with yá-sign. Though very far from being as widely used as the latter beside other present-systems, it is in some cases an intransitive conjugation by the side of a transitive of some other class.

Irregularities of the ya-class.

763. The roots of this class ending in am lengthen their vowel in forming the present-stem: they are klam, tam, dam, bhram, śam be quiet, śram: for example, tā́myati, śrā́myati. From kṣam, however, only kṣamyate occurs; and śam labor makes śamyati (B.).

764. The root mad has the same lengthening: thus, mā́dyati.

765. The roots in īv — namely, dīv, sīv, srīv or śrīv, and ṣṭhīv (from which no forms of this class are quotable) — are written by the grammarians with iv, and a similar lengthening in the present-system is prescribed for them.

a. They appear to be properly dīū etc., since their vocalized final in other forms is always ū; dīv is by this proved to have nothing to do with the assumed root div shine, which changes to dyu (361 d): compare 240 b.

766. From the roots jṛ and tṛ (also written as jur and tir or tur) come the stems jī́rya and tī́rya, and jū́rya and tūrya (the last two only in RV.); from pṛ comes pū́rya.

767. The root vyadh is abbreviated to vidh: thus, vídhyati. And any root which in other forms has a penultimate nasal loses it here: thus, dṛ́hya from dṛṅh or dṛh; bhraśya from bhraṅś or bhraś; rajya from rañj or raj.

IX. Accented yá-class: Passive conjugation.

768. A certain form of present-stem, inflected with middle endings, is used only in a passive sense, and is formed from all roots for which there is occasion to make a passive conjugation. Its sign is an accented य yá added to the root: thus, हन्य hanyá from √ हन् han slay, आप्य āpyá from √आप् āp obtain, गृहय grhyá from √गृह् gṛh (or grah) seize: and so on, without any reference to the class according to which the active and middle forms are made.

769. The form of the root to which the passive-sign is added is (since the accent is on the sign) the weak one: thus, a penultimate nasal is dropped, and any abbreviation which is made in the weak forms of the perfect (794), in the aorist optative (922 b), or before ta of the passive participle (954), is made also in the passive present-system: thus, ajyá from √añj, badhyá from √bandh, ucyá from √vac, ijyá from √yaj.

770. On the other hand, a final vowel of a root is in general liable to the same changes as in other parts of the verbal system where it is followed by y: thus —

a. Final i and u are lengthened: thus, mīyá from √mi; sūyá from √su;

b. Final ā is usually changed to ī: thus, dīyá from √dā; hīyá from √hā: but jñāyá from √jñā, and so khyāyá, khāyá, mnāyá, etc.;

c. Final ṛ is in general changed to ri: thus, kriyá from √kṛ; but if preceded by two consonants (and also, it is claimed, in the root ṛ), it has instead the guṇa-strengthening: thus, smaryá from √smṛ (the only quotable case); — and in those roots which show a change of ṛ to ir and ur (so-called ṝ-verbs: see 242), that change is made here also, and the vowel is lengthened: thus, śīrya from √śṛ, pūryá from √pṛ.

771. The inflectiom of the passive-stem is precisely like that of the other a-stems; it differs only in accent from that of the class last given. It may be here presented, therefore, in the same abbreviated form:

a. Example of inflection: root kṛ make; passive-stem क्रिय kriyá:

1. Present Indicative.

क्रिये
kriyé

क्रियावहे
kriyā́vahe

क्रियामहे
kriyā́mahe

etc.

2. Present Subjunctive.

b. The forms noticed as occurring in the older language are alone here instanced:

kriyāí

kriyā́mahāi

kriyā́dhvāi

kriyā́te
kriyā́tāi

kriyā́ntāi

c. The 3d pl. ending antāi is found once (ucyantāi K.).

3. Present Optative.

क्रियेय
kriyéya

क्रियेवहि
kriyévahi

क्रियेमहि
kriyémahi

etc.

d. No forms of the passive optative chance to occur in RV. or AV.; they are found, however, in the Brāhmaṇas. ChU. has once dhmāyīta.

4. Present Imperative.

क्रियस्व
kriyásva

क्रियेथाम्
kriyéthām

क्रियध्वम्
kriyádhvam

etc.

5. Present Participle.

e. This is made with the suffix मान māna: thus, क्रियमाण kriyámāṇa.

f. In use, this participle is well distinguished from the other passive participle by its distinctively present meaning: thus, kṛtá done, but kriyámāṇa in process of doing, or being done.

6. Imperfect.

अक्रिये
ákriye

अक्रियावहि
ákriyāvahi

अक्रियामहि
ákriyāmahi

etc.

g. The passive-sign is never resolved into ia in the Veda.

772. The roots tan and khan usually form their passives from parallel roots in ā: thus, tāyáte, khāyáte (but also tanyate, `` khanyate); and dham, in like manner, makes either dhamyate or dhmāyáte. The corresponding form to √jan, namely jā́yate (above, 761 b), is apparently a transfer to the preceding class.

773. By their form, mriyáte dies, and dhriyáte maintains itself, is steadfast, are passives from the roots mṛ die and dhṛ hold; although neither is used in a proper passive sense, and mṛ is not transitive except in the derivative form mṛṇ (above, 731). With them are to be compared the stems ā-driyá heed and ā-priyá be busy, which are perhaps peculiar adaptations of meaning of passives from the roots dṛ pierce and pṛ fill.

774. Examples of the transfer of stems from the yá- or passive class to the ya- or intransitive class were given above (761 b); and it was also pointed out that active instead of middle endings are occasionally, even in the earlier language, assumed by forms properly passive: examples are ā́ dhmāyati and vy àpruṣyat (śB.), bhūyati (MāiU.). In the epics, however (as a part of their general confusion of active and middle forms: 529 a), active endings are by no means infrequently taken by the passive: thus, śakyati, śrūyanti, bhriyantu, ijyant-, etc.

The so-called Tenth or cur-Class.

775. As was noticed above (607), the Hindu grammarians — and, after their example, most European also — recognize yet another conjugation-class, coördinate with those already described; its stems show the class-sign áya, added to a generally strengthened root (for details as to the strengthening, see 1042). Though this is no proper class, but a secondary or derivative conjugation (its stems are partly of causative formation, partly denominative with altered accent), an abbreviated example of its forms may, for the sake of accordance with other grammars, be added here.

a. Example: root cint think, meditate; stem cintáya:

active.

middle.

Pres.

Indic.

cintáyāmi

cintáye

Subj.

cintáyāni

cintáyāi

Opt.

cintáyeyam

cintáyeya

Pple.

cintáyant

cintáyamāna

Impf.

ácintayam

ácintaye

b. The inflection, of course, is the same with that of other forms from a-stems (733 a).

c. The middle participle, in the later language, is more often made with āna instead of māna: thus, cintayāna: see 1043 f.

Uses of the Present and Imperfect.

776. The uses of the mode-forms of the present-system have been already briefly treated in the preceding chapter (572 ff.). The tense-uses of the two indicative tenses, present and imperfect, call here for only a word or two of explanation.

777. The present has, besides its strictly present use, the same subsidiary uses which belong in general to the tense: namely, the expression of habitual action, of future action, and of past action in lively narration.

a. Examples of future meaning are: imáṁ céd vā́ imé cinváte táta evá no ‘bhíbhavanti (śB.) verily if these build this up, then they will straightway get the better of us; agnir ātmabhavam prādād yatra vāñchati nāiṣadhaḥ (MBh.) Agni gave his own presence wherever the Nishadhan should desire; svāgataṁ te ‘stu kiṁ karomi tava (R.) welcome to thee; what shall I do for thee?

b. Examples of past meaning are: úttarā sū́r ádharaḥ putrá āsīd dā́nuḥ śaye sahávatsā ná dhenúḥ (RV.) the mother was over, the son under; there Dānu lies, like a cow with her calf; prahasanti ca tāṁ kecid abhyasūyanti cā ’pare akurvata dayāṁ kecit (MBh.) some ridicule her, some revile her, some pitied her; tato yasya vacanāt tatrā ’valambitās taṁ sarve tiraskurvanti (H.) thereupon they all fall to reproaching him by whose advice they had alighted there.

778. In connection with certain particles, the present has rather more definitely the value of a past tense. Thus:

a. With purā́ formerly: thus, saptarṣī́n u ha sma vāí purá rkṣā íty ā́cakṣate (śB.) the seven sages, namely, are of old called the bears; tanmātram api cen mahyaṁ na dadāti purā bhavān (MBh.) if you have never before given me even an atom.

b. With the asseverative particle sma: thus, śrámeṇa ha sma vāí tád devā́ jayanti yád eṣāṁ jáyyam ā́sá rṣayaś ca (śB.) in truth, both gods and sages were wont to win by penance what was to be won; āviṣṭaḥ kalinā dyūte jīyate sma nalas tadā (MBh.) then Nala, being possessed by Kali, was beaten in play.

c. No example of this last construction is found in either RV. or AV., or elsewhere in the metrical parts of the Veda. In the Brāhmaṇas, only habitual action is expressed by it. At all periods of the language, the use of sma with a verb as pure asseverative particle, with no effect on the tense-meaning, is very common; and the examples later are hardly to be distinguished from the present of lively narration — of which the whole construction is doubtless a form.

779. The imperfect has remained unchanged in value through the whole history of the language; it is the tense of narration; it expresses simple past time, without any other implication.

a. Compare what is said later (end of chap. X. and chap. XI.) as to the value of the older past tenses, the perfect and aorist.

Notes[edit]

↑ Such statements of numbers, with regard to the various parts of the system of conjugation, are in all cases taken from the author’s Supplement to this grammar, entitled “Roots, Verb-Forms, and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language”, where lists of roots, and details as to forms etc., are also given.