संस्कृते विश्वासटिप्पन्यः

01 Phonology

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The Sanskrit language, like any other natural language, has for its irreducible units a series of articulable sounds. These can be represented by a series of abstract graphic symbols. There are various systems of such symbols (scripts), but the one with which we will be chiefly concerned is known as the devanāgari (or nāgari) lipi (script), the vehicle of the overwhelming ma jority of printed Sanskrit texts. There are two interesting features of this script and the phonetic system of Sanskrit that make them in some ways easier to learn and memorize than English and its use of the roman script. The first of these features is that in the devanāgari script, there is a one to one correspondence between each distinct graphic symbol and a unique phonetic symbol. Thus, each “letter" of the script corresponds to one and only one sound. Compare English and its roman script where, for example, the symbol “a” may indicate many sounds, and where the symbols “c” and “s” may indicate the same sound. The second and more significant of the features of the Sanskrit phonetic (and graphic) system is the fact that it is unique among all the world’s languages (with the exception of those languages whose systems are derived from Sanskrit) in having its sounds (and by 1.1 necessarily its script) systematically arranged on a scientific basis. The Sanskrit phonetic system, then, consists of some forty nine discrete sounds, represented by an equal number of discrete symbols. The sounds are divided into two basic types: svara, or “sounded,” corresponding to “vowels,” or syllabic sounds, and vyañjana, or “manifesting,” corresponding to “consonants,” which cannot, without a sound of the svara group, form an articulable syllable. The svara sounds are twelve in number arranged in six pairs, each of which is distinguished by a short-long altenation, which is one of the chief characteristics of the sound pattern of classical Sanskrit. The svara sounds (vowels) are:

a ā

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–

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0 Each pair is produced at the same point of articulation in the vocal apparatus, but the occlusion, or closing of the stream of breath at each point is minimal. The first four pairs of vowels are called simple (śuddha) vowels, while the remaining two pairs (e, ai, o, au) are said to be complex (samyukta). (See 1.18.a for pronunciation.) The vyanjana sounds likewise are of a number of types. The greatest number of the consonants fall into a series of five sets each consisting of five sounds. The sets, or varga-s, are arranged by point of contact (sparśa) in the vocal apparatus and consist of four ordered sounds, each characterized by a high degree of occlusion at a given point, and one corresponding nasal. Such occlusive sounds are sometimes called “stops.” The groups are defined by their points of articulation (sthāna). These points range from the back to the front of the vocal apparatus. The points of contact are: the velum (kantha), soft palate (tālu), hard palate (mūrdhan), teeth (danta), and lips (ostha). The series is then, in order: kanthya (velar) or “ka" varga, tālavya (palatal) or “ca” varga, mūrdhanya (retroflex) or “ta” varga, dantya (dental) or “ta” varga, and oșthya (labial)

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or “pa” varga, named either for the point of articulation or the initial sound in each series. Except for the nasal that belongs to each varga, the sounds within each varga are differentiated in accordance with the presence or absence of two phenomena: voicing (or the use of the vocal chords) and aspiration (or a concomitant strong explosion of breath in their articulation). The order of the occurrence of these phenomena is the same in all the varga-s. If V stands for voicing and A for aspiration and (+) and (-) indicate respectively presence and absence of the phenomena, the order in the varga-s is as follows:

(-V-A) (-V+A) (+V-A) (+V+A] The varga-s then are: (with vowel “a” to permit articulation)

-V-A -V+A +V-A +V+A NASAL

kanthya ka kha ga gha ṅa
tālavya ca cha ja jha ña
mūrdhanya ţa ţha da dha ņa
dantya ta t ha da dha na
oșthya . pa pha ba bha ma

Most of these sounds occur in some environments in the various dialects of English. Thus, for example, most English speakers habitually use a somewhat retroflex “t” and “d.” Others use a more dental “t” and “d,” but since no one English dialect is apt to use both (i.e., make a distinction), some care is required in learning to distinguish, both in hearing and speaking, the two different series.+++(5)+++ (See 1.186.1.c-d for pronunciation.) The other major problem that English speakers are likely to encounter with the sparsa-sounds arises from the juxtaposition of the phenomena of voicing and aspiration.+++(5)+++ English speakers maintain distinctions of aspiration and non-aspiration, but these distinctions are intimately related to the question of voicing and position. Thus, for example, non-voiced stops (sparśa-s) in English are generally aspirated when in word-initial position,

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and non-aspirated when in other positions; (e.g., pot vs. spot). This makes initial voiceless non-aspirated stops and non-initial aspirated voiceless stops (both of which occur in Sanskrit) tricky for English speakers. Similarly, aspirated voiced stops, which never occur in English, are a little difficult at first for English speakers. These sounds “gha,” “ha,” “dha,” “dha,” and “bha” must be realized (despite their roman representation) each as one simple sound: a voiced stop accompanied by a discharge of air. They are not to be pronounced as two separate sounds, stop plus voiced “h.” (See 1.18.b.1 for pronunciation.) The remaining vyañjana-s fall into two small groups. The first is known as antaḥstha, or “in between,” that is, between the vowels and consonants (semivowels). These are “ya,” “ra,” “la,” and “va” and are associated with the tālavya, mūrdhanya, dantya, and oșthya varga-s, respectively. (See

1.18.b.2 for pronunciation.) The final group of consonants is called ūşman, “heated,” or subjected to friction (sibilants). These are (back to front) “sa" (tālavya), sa" (mūrdhanya), “sa" (dantya) and “ha.” (“ha,” a member of the kanthya varga, is not in the usual order of back to front.) (See 1.18.b.3 for pronunciation.) It is important to distinguish, in reading and writing, the palatal sibilant (s) from the retroflex sibilant (s) although, in fact, they are not often clearly distinguished in speech.

The other sounds of Sanskrit are a nasalization of vowels called anusvāra(m), and a slightly velarized aspiration called visarga (h). (See 1.18c for pronunciation.) Note on pronunciation The pronunciation of Sanskrit is usually not very difficult for English speakers. The few exceptions to this rule simply require a little practice. It is, of course, impossible to learn proper pronunciation from a printed page alone. This must be learned either from a teacher whose pronunciation is good or from taped materials designed for this purpose. However, a few guidelines

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colc

here will serve to clarify the basic pronunciation of the sounds of Sanskrit as used by fluent speakers of Sanskrit in most parts of India. English examples are based on hypothetical “dictionary” pronunciation. a. svara sounds The svara sounds, with the exception of the “long” samyukta sounds (ai and au), are always pronounced with a single clear effort like the vowels of standard Italian and are not, like many English vowel sounds, allowed to glide into diphthongal sequences. Long vowels are generally held about twice as long as their corresponding short vowels.

pronounced like the u in “but” pronounced like the o in “mom” pronounced like the i in “bit” pronounced like the ee in “beet" pronounced like the first u in “suture” pronounced like the oo in “pool” pronounced like the ri in “rig” is rare in Sanskrit and has no English équivalent. It is pronounced like ? but the sound is held approximately twice as long. pronounced somewhat like the “lur” in “slurp.” pronounced like the a in “gate” pronounced somewhat like the i in “high.” This sound is diphthongized to glide slightly into an

“i” vowel. o pronounced like the o in “rote” au pronounced somewhat like the ou of “loud”

with a similar lip-rounding glide. b. vyanjana sounds Pronunciation of the sparsa sounds is problematic for English speakers chiefly because of the first and fourth item in each varga. The second item is tricky only in some environments. The first (non-voiced, non-aspirated) occurs commonly enough

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in English, but never in word initial position. Such sounds occur, however, in all positions in Sanskrit. Thus some difficulty arises when they occur in initial position. Try to resist the natural (English) tendency to aspirate these sounds. When they are properly distinguished from their aspirated equivalents, they will at first sound almost like their corresponding voiced non-aspirates. Practice will clarify this issue. The second sound in each varga (non-voiced, aspirated) is the same sort of sound given to initial non-voiced stops in English. Be sure, however, not to lose the aspiration in non initial occurrences (e.g., sthūla). The third sound in each varga (voiced, non-aspirated) should present no special difficulty to English speakers. The fourth sound in each varga (voiced, aspirated) is of a type that does not really occur in English in any position, hence no English equivalents have been given. Try to repeat these sounds as you hear them from your teacher or from tapes. Remember to give the sounds both voicing and the same strong aspiration that you normally give to the non voiced stops in initial position. 1. sparsa sounds

a. kanthya varga:

k like the k in “skate” kh like the k in “Kate”

like the g in “gate”

like the n in “sing” b. tālavya varga:

с like the ch in “eschew”

like the ch in “chew”

like the j in “Jew” ñ like the n in “cinch” c. mūrdhanya varga: These sounds are similar to the “t”

and “d” sounds of most English dialects but the tip of the tongue should be curled back further to the roof of the mouth for the proper Sanskrit pronunciation.

like the first t in “start” th like the first t in “tart”

like the d in “dart”

like the n in “tint” d. dantya varga: These sounds, which occur in place of

the preceding in the speech of many New Yorkers, are realized with the tip of the tongue protruding slightly between the teeth. The sounds thus produced are characteristically “flatter" and less resonant than those of the preceding varga. The same English examples may be used, since no English dialect has both series

of sounds. e. oșthya varga:

p like the p in “spin”

like the p in “pin” b like the b in “bin”

m like the m’s in “mumps" 2. antaḥstha sounds:

like the y in “yellow” r a fronted, mūrdhanya sound, rather like the r in

“drama” like the l in “lug” produced generally with just the slightest contact between the upper teeth and the lower lip; slightly greater than that used for English w (as in “wile") but

less than that used for English v (as in “vile”) 3. ūşman sounds

Ś like the sh in “shove"

produced with the tongue-tip further back in the mūrdhanya position) than for the śș, but giving a very similar sound. like the s in “so” like the h in “hope.” Make sure that the sound is fully voiced.

c. additional sounds The following two sounds, although they frequently are the forms taken by certain consonants in certain environments, are not, themselves, consonants. Rather they generally are to be regarded as “colorations” of a preceding vowel.

1. m anusvāra: This sound is realized by permitting the air used in the articulation of a preceding vowel to escape through the nose. If, however, the anusvāra is immediately followed by a sparsa consonant, it will be realized as the nasal belonging to the same varga as that consonant: e.g., vanam gacchati would be pronounced “vanaṅ gacchati.”
1. h visarga: The visarga is an aspiration of a preceding vowel and is pronounced, almost like an echo, as an “h” followed by the short form of the preceding vowel. The samyukta vowels e ando will echo as themselves, respectively. After long samyukta vowels, the “echo” vowel will be the short form of the simple vowel corresponding in point of articulation to the samyukta vowel. Thus, for ai the “echo” will be i, while for au, the echo will be u. The following are some examples. Echo sounds are put in brackets. devah

pronounced as deva(ha) devāh

pronounced devā(ha) muniḥ

pronounced muni(hi) dhīh

pronounced dhi(hi) vişnuḥ pronounced vişnu(hu) muneh pronounced mune(he) devaih pronounced devai(hi) Note: These “echo” or “ghost syllables” are not truly syllabic in a word or line. Often, when visarga occurs within a word, the “echo” is not clearly articulated. In this case it is audible just as a slight “hiss” of air at the velum.1.19

Stress Stress accent, while perhaps not as important in Sanskrit as in English, is usual in proper pronunciation. The general rule is that the penultimate syllable (next to last) receives mild stress if it is as heavy (guru—see 17.6.c.i). If the penultimate is light (laghu—see 17.6.c.i), the stress falls on the syllable that pre cedes it (antepenultimate) regardless of its weight. Secondary stress is not usual, all the remaining syllables receive equal

stress. Example: vikramorvasiya (penultimate heavy) rāmáyana

(penultimate light)

EXERCISES

Repeat the following and memorize.

a, ā, i, i, u, ū, ļ, e, ai, o, au, (a)m, (a)h 2.

kha ga gha na cha ja jha ña tha

dha ņa tha da dha na pa pha ba bha ma

ra la va śa şa saha Repeat A.2 with each of the following svara, anusvāra, and visarga sounds a, ā, i, i, u, ū, ļ, e, ai, o, au, am, aḥ Repeat the following. 1. ko ‘yam? (see 2.26)

Who is this?

kāko ‘yam.

This is a crow.

api sthūlah? Is he fat?

atha kim! kākah sthūlah. Yes, indeed! The crow is fat.

kutra tişthati sthūlakākah? Where is the fat crow located?

vatavşkşe tişthati kākaḥ. The crow is in the fig tree.

api dharmam jānāti kākaḥ? Does the crow know dharma?

atha kim! dharmam jānāti dvijatvāt. Yes! He knows dharma because he is twice-born.

(dvija—brahman/bird)

kim tu tasya dharmapravsttir nāsti But he does not practice dharma.

bhavatu! vayam sarve dharmācaranam ca dharmam ca jānīmaḥ Let it be! We all know proper conduct and dharma!

kim tu, yathā sthūlakākā dharmaraksaņam vayam ghoram bhayam iva paśyāmaḥ. But, like the fat crows, we look upon the protection of dharma as a dreadful danger.

kasyaitat phalam?

Whose fruit is this?

phalam mama. (It is) my fruit.

mahyam anyat phalam ānaya. Bring me another fruit.

astu, aham phalārtham jhațiti gacchāmi. Certainly, I go at once for fruit.