०६

SIX Daily Practices 1. I describe next the daily practices of ascetics. If someone needs to find out about a practice that is not dealt with here, he should gather it from the corresponding practice of vedic students, following the rule that “when they do not run counter to the specific requirements of a particular order of life, these duties of vedic students apply also to people in other orders” [GDh 3.10]. When something is not found even there, one should gather it from the practices of householders. 2. Accordingly, the Blessed Vyasa states: When they are not mutually exclusive, all the practices of every order of life are applicable to every other order of life.

3. Viśvāmitra: Morning Duties Rising in the morning, he should purify himself according to the rules.2 Then, after he has sipped some water, he should diligently use a toothstick to clean his teeth, except on days of the lunar phases.3 1. This is a free and long translation of Gautama’s pithy aphorism (lit., “That also for others when not in contradiction.”). After listing the duties of a student, Gautama offers this comment to indicate that the duties of a student, which he describes in detail, apply also to other orders of life when those duties do not contradict specific requirements of each order.

4. This is probably an allusion to answering the call of nature in the morning. After going to the toilet one performs the required purification before engaging in other activities.

5. These are the full moon and the new moon, as well as the eighth and fourteenth days of the lunar month. The term “parvan” may also refer to other astronomical phases, such as the equinox and the solstice. Toothsticks are made from small twigs of a variety of medicinal trees (see Kane II, 655). The tip of the twig is crushed to form a brush for cleaning the teeth.

89 ‘90 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 4. After bathing, he should pray silently until the sun comes into view. The mantra prescribed at sunrise begins “Rise up, O Brahmanaspati!“4 5. Garga: We will now explain the purifications relating to the observances and disciplines of mendicants, as well as the corresponding expiations. To start with, we will describe the purification after passing urine. Filling each time the three joints of his fingers with earth, he should clean the penis four times, the left hand twelve times, and both hands eight times. Having purified his penis in the manner prescribed after urinating,” he should perform the purification of the anus. He should apply first one handful of earth, and half that amount the second and the third time. Applying earth in this manner, he should purify his anus twenty times, his left hand twice that many times, and both hands twenty-eight times. He should clean his feet, as well as his hands, by applying earth three times. Finally, he should sip some water, control his breath three times, and sip water again.

6. If, when earth is unavailable, a person uses sand for purification, then he should apply it twice the number of times prescribed above. A mendicant in good health should not be remiss in his purifications. If he is remiss, he commits a sin. To remove such a sin, he should control his breath three times and sip water again.

7. Rising at the time sacred to Brahma, he should contemplate the Highest Self in his heart every day, reciting the mantra that begins “Delighting in wealth, you are powerful” [MNU 539].

8. Then, having first taken some earth, he should answer the call of nature and perform four times the purification prescribed for householders. If he takes the earth after he has answered the call of nature, however, he should bathe by entering the water fully clothed.

9-12. Devala: A single portion of earth, according to the scriptures, is the amount that would fill the three joints of one’s fingers. He should clean the penis four times, the left hand twelve times, and both hands eight times. Then he 4. According to the variant recorded in mss A1 2 R1, the mantra is taken from TA 4.2 and extends up to the words anu me’mam satham.

5. The text here is obscure and possibly corrupt. The exact meanings of the Sanskrit terms “niyama” and “samyama” here are unclear, but they probably refer to the disciplinary practices of ascetics. The compound word may also be translated as “… explain the observances, disciplines, purifications, and expiations of mendicants.” 6. The meaning appears to be as follows. When a person voids excrement, he should first perform the purification of the penis in the same way as he would after he has urinated and then undertake the purification of the anus.

6. This time of the morning sacred to Brahma is defined in different ways. In general, it is the time between the first light and sunrise. See Ypra trans., 8.34n.

7. Daily Practices should do the purification of his anus by applying earth on it twenty times; the first time he should apply a handful, and half that amount at each subsequent time. He should then clean his left hand forty times, both hands twenty-eight times, and each of his feet three times. If sand is used, then the number of cleansings is doubled. Having sipped water twice, and then three times, he should sip again after controlling his breath.8 13. The same author states: He should always take the earth before he goes out to void urine or excrement. If he takes it afterward, he should bathe by entering water fully clothed.

14-15. Jamadagni: One method of purification is prescribed for the daytime and another for the night, and yet another at times of difficulty. The prescribed method applies to persons in good health and in daytime. Half the prescribed purification is to be performed during the night, half that of the night when one is sick, and half that of the sick when one is on the road.

16. Devala: After voiding urine or excrement, an ascetic should control his breath once, twice, or three times, depending on the place, the time, and the like. 17. The same author states: Meditation, divine worship, eating, brushing the teeth, answering the calls of nature, and bathing: at these six times silence is enjoined. 18. Vayu: Even when he sips water properly, a man becomes impure if he does so with his head covered up to the ears, while he is in water or on a vehicle, while he is standing or talking, or with unwashed feet or untied topknot. 19. Devala: When someone has diarrhea, vomits, or voids urine or excrement during the morning or evening twilight worship, he should bathe in the middle of that worship, conclude the worship of the sun, and control the breath three times.9 20. Scriptures prescribe that control of breathing is done at night with just a single recitation of OM and at midday while reciting it several times. An ascetic should not sip water while he is seated on a wooden bench.10 91 8. Following the description of the rite at Ch. 6.5, it may be possible to emend the edited text by changing the second acamya to ayamya. The verse would then read dvir acamya trir ayamya pranan apy acamet punah: “Having sipped water twice, he should sip again after controlling his breath three times.” 9. The reading of this verse is unclear and possibly corrupt. The translation is tentative.

17. The meaning of kāṣṭha is unclear. I have taken it to mean a wooden seat, because there is a general prohibition against sipping water while sitting on a seat (see 92 21. Garga: Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism Vedic students and ascetics should not wash the inside of the penis. If they do so, they should observe a lunar fast.11 22. Then, after brushing his teeth, he should bathe. Kratu states: Ascetics, yogins, students, people who are a hundred years old, those who speak the truth, those who keep vows, good women, and people devoted to giving gifts-they are always purified by bathing.

18. A man should never bathe before he has purified himself after going to the toilet. For the old and the sick, a bath consisting of the recitation of mantras, or with the use of hot water, or else with the components of yoga such as restraints [see Ch. 5.47) is prescribed. An ascetic should always perform the Varuna bath using the mantra “Waters, you bring delight.“12 24. Dakṣa: When morning comes, he should purify himself according to the rules, brush his teeth, and then take a bath.

19. With its nine openings, the body is extremely dirty. Day and night it continuously oozes through them. It is the morning bath that purifies it. 26. A bath taken after the first light, at dawn, or even after sunrise is equal to a Prājāpatya penance [see Ch. 4.2 n. 1]; it erases all sins.

20. A Brahmin who gets up at dawn and takes the morning bath will expiate in three years the sins he has committed over seven lifetimes.

21. When he performs rites such as bathing, he should meditate on the god Nārāyaṇa; for, as the Vedas say, it expiates all evil deeds. 13 29. A holy man given to bathing possesses ten qualities: beauty, majesty, strength, purity, longevity, good health, freedom from desires, elimination of bad dreams, austerity, and wisdom.

22. Kapila: A person who is unable to take the morning bath should wash the body below the navel, clean the body and the head with a wet piece of cloth, change the underwear, and perform the twilight worship. He should al- Devannabhatta, Smṛticandrika, āhnikakāṇḍa, p. 102). The normal posture for sipping is sitting on one’s haunches with the elbows between the knees.

23. Washing the inside of the penis probably means washing inside the foreskin. For the lunar fast, see Ch. 5.11 n. 5.

24. This formula is found at RV 10.9.1-3 and TS 4.1.5.1. The normal bath with cold water is called the Varuna bath, for which there are several substitutes. The bath by reciting vedic mantras (brāhmasnana or mantrasnana) consists of sprinkling oneself with water while reciting the mantra “Waters, you bring delight.” For the various types of baths, see Ypra 37.

25. The meaning could also be that meditating on Nārāyaṇa rectifies any rite that is not properly performed.

26. Daily Practices ways bathe either before or after midday. Then, after he has sipped some water, he should control his breath three times and sip water again.

27. Viśvāmitra: If a person is unable to take the morning bath, he should perform the Kapila bath. 14 One who is unable to do even that should perform the bath consisting of mantras.

28. Angiras: When the time for the bath has come, he should put on half the normal amount of clothes, and half the latter amount-that is, just a loinclothduring the time of silent prayer.

93 33. In this manner, he should bathe at dawn, noon, and dusk. The mantras recited while sprinkling oneself15 are “We appease your anger, O Varuna…"[TS 1.5.11.3]; “Loosen the upper, the middle, and the lower noose, O Varuna…” [TS 1.5.11.3]; and “I have sung the praise of Dadhikrāvan…” [TS 1.5.11.4], together with the three verses beginning “Waters, you bring delight” [RV 10.9.1-3]. The four mantras beginning with “Golden colored. . .” [TS 5.6.1] and the lesson that begins “The purifier…” [TB 1.4.8] are prescribed at this sprinkling.

34. Next, the sipping of water while reciting mantras. In this regard, Kratu states: After sipping water while reciting the fourfold mantra, he should sprinkle himself with purified water as he recites the Aghamarṣana hymn16 and the verse “Freed from the post, as it were…” (TB 2.4.4.9) and offer libations of water to gods and ancestors.

35. The meaning of this is that he should sip water four times reciting each time the fourfold mantra. Manu states: The Gayatri verse accompanied by ten recitations of OM, preceded by the seven Great Utterances, and followed by the Siras mantra'7 is said to be the destroyer of sins.

36. The Kapila bath is described in the previous verse. The inability to bathe normally is due to sickness or old age.

37. Technically called mārjana (“washing”), this is part of the twilight worship and consists of sprinkling oneself with water as one recites the mantras listed.

38. This hymn (RV 10.190) is considered to be specially efficacious in destroying sins. The term “Aghamarṣaṇa” is also used for a particular rite for erasing sins. A person takes water in the right hand cupped like a cow’s ear and holds it near the nose. He then breathes onto the water while reciting the above hymn and throws the water to the left.

39. This mantra is found at MNU 342: “OM The waters, the light, the taste, the immortal, Brahman! Earth, Atmosphere, Heaven! OM!” 194 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 36. This lesson hidden in the Vedas is the fourfold mantra. Some maintain that the fourfold mantra consists of the syllable OM, the Great Utterances, the Gayatri verse, and the Siras mantra.18 Devala: Having sprinkled water on his body while reciting the Gayatri verse and the Aghamarṣana hymn, he should offer handfuls of water as libations to Visnu as he recites the twelve names of Visnu.

40. An ascetic, after he has purified himself, should first offer libations of water with one hand-one libation per name-as he recites the twelve names of Viṣṇu, each preceded by OM and followed by the word “Homage!” 38. These mantras read as follows: “OM Homage to Keśava!“19 Next, he offers libations to gods and ancestors.

Taking in his cupped hands water sufficient to fill a bull’s horn, he should offer a libation to the gods. In like manner and with his hands properly joined, he should then offer a libation to his ancestors.

39. He should offer the libation to the ancestors wearing the sacred string in the sacrificial position and using the part of the hand sacred to the gods.20 At the conclusion, moreover, he should say “Glory! Homage!” and utter the words “I satiate.” 40. “OM Earth, I satiate! OM Atmosphere, I satiate! OM Heaven, I satiate! OM Earth, Atmosphere, Heaven! Glory! Homage! I satiate! OM Earth, svadha OM! OM Atmosphere svadha OM! OM Heaven svadha OM! OM Earth, Atmosphere, Heaven! Glory! Homage! Svadha OM!” This mantra ends with the exclamation “svadha.“21 41. After conclud- 18. It is unclear what the lesson hidden in the Vedas refers to and how that is different from the latter view. The fourfold mantra as described here is given at MNU 340-42.

40. The twelve names are Kesava, Nārāyaṇa, Madhava, Govinda, Visṇu, Madhusudana, Trivikrama, Vamana, Śrīdhara, Hrṣikeśa, Padmanabha, and Damodara. Thus, the first mantra would read om keśavaya namah-“OM Homage to Kesava!” The others are formed by inserting the other eleven names.

41. At divine sacrifices the sacred string is worn looped around the left shoulder and resting on the right hip. When offering libations (and when sipping water), different parts of the hands are used. These parts are considered appropriate for various divinities. Although sources are not unanimous, in general the extremity of the palm (i.e., the tips of the fingers) is used to pour water for the gods, while the root of the index finger (i.e., between thumb and index finger) is used in rites for ancestors (cf. Kane II, 652). Likewise, at ancestral rites the sacred string is worn from the right shoulder extending toward the left hip. Ascetics, on the other hand, are not expected to make ancestral offerings. Thus, even in rites intended for the ancestors, ascetics use ritual modes appropriate for the gods.

42. The author here gives the actual mantras used in the offering of libations to the ancestors. The exclamation “svadha” is used at the conclusion of mantras used in offerings for ancestors. Its counterpart, used for gods, is “svāhā.” 6. Daily Practices 95 ing the bath and controlling his breath three times, he performs as before rites such as the sipping of water while reciting mantras and the twilight worship. A water strainer is closely associated with the five rites beginning with the sipping of water.22 If, when a water strainer is available, a man performs the rites of sipping, sprinkling water, offering libations, worshipping the sun, filling the water pot, and silently reciting the Gayatri using something else, all those rites will become fruitless for him. 42. Medhātithi: Let him use that [i.e., water strainer] at sipping, sprinkling, offering libations, worshipping the sun, and filling the water pot.

43. Gālava: If an ascetic fails at any time to use a water strainer at sprinkling, sipping, offering libations, and worshipping the sun, all those rites will become fruitless for him. He should, moreover, perform an expiatory penance. 44. Atri: Water that has been drawn out, water that flows, and water in an unsullied lake such water is pure, the Vedas declare, and should not be filtered with a cloth strainer [see Ch. 1.14 n. 9).

45-46. Hārīta: After he has bathed and sipped water according to the rules, he should perform the twilight worship before sunrise and in the prescribed manner, reciting silently the triple prayer.23 He does so either standing or seated and carrying in his two hands a water strainer and the rosary of Rudrākṣa beads, as well as two purificatory rings made of cow’s hair, rings that destroy sins.24 47. He should then worship the sun-in the morning reciting the three mantras beginning “The fame of Mitra…” [TS 3.4.11.5] and in the evening reciting the five mantras addressed to Varuna.25 48. An ascetic, being totally devoted to the Highest Self, should make an offering of water to the sun at dawn, noon, and dusk, as well as after he has finished his meal.

22. The five rites are sipping, sprinkling water, offering libations, worshipping the sun, and filling the water pot. The meaning is that he uses the water strainer to purify the water used at these rites.

23. The triple prayer consists of the syllable OM, the three Great Utterances (bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ), and the Gayatri verse; see Ch. 5.82.

24. These rings are generally made of the sacred darbha grass (although here cow’s hair is specified) and are worn at certain rites. They are intended to purify the performer. One stands while performing the morning twilight worship and is seated during the everning worship.

25. These mantras follow immediately after the three to Mitra at TS 3.4.11.5-6. See also BDh 2.18.21.

96 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 49. At the worship following the meal he uses the mantra “Gazing up from the darkness…” [TS 4.1.7.4], while at the time of begging he uses the Hamsa mantra.26 At sunrise he should make an offering of water with a collected mind as he recites the Gayatri verse. If the sun sets while he is engaged in silent prayer, he should make the water offering at the end of his silent prayer. 50. Devala: He should worship the sun at dawn, noon, and dusk. Then, after making a circumambulation clockwise, he should pay reverence by bending his knees and bowing his head.

51. He should pay obeisance to the sun without mentioning his name. Then, after offering a libation as before, he should duly engage in silent prayer with a collected mind.

52. Bodhāyana: He should perform the evening twilight worship using the mantras addressed to Varuna and the morning worship using the mantras addressed to Mitra. [BDh 2.18.21] 53. Śaunaka: He should meditate as soon as he gets up from sleep. Then, after he has answered the call of nature, he should purify himself, and sip water. After brushing his teeth, he should bathe before sunrise in the prescribed manner and sprinkle water on himself as he recites the three mantras beginning “Waters, you bring delight” (RV 10.9.1-3] together with the water mantras. Facing the east, then, he should throw upward some water while reciting the Gayatri verse. Holding Darbha grass in his hand, he should remain standing as he recites the Gayatri verse until sunrise. He should spend the rest of the day engaged in silent prayer, meditation, and divine praise. 54. Kapila: Planting his feet firmly on the ground, he should undertake silent prayer, offering nourishment, 28 and worship. Then, standing or seated facing the east and holding purificatory rings in his hands, he should silently recite the triple prayer according to his ability, using either his fingers or a Rudrākṣa rosary. He should control his breath three times at dawn, noon, and dusk. To purify himself of the sins he may have committed by unknowingly killing living creatures, he should use a water strainer at sip- 26. This mantra is RV 4.40.5, which also occurrs at TS 1.8.15.2; see Ch. 6.151. 27. The identity of these mantras is unclear. For the mantras that precede the three mentioned here, see above Ch. 6.33.

53. The term bhojana literally means eating or feeding. In this context, however, it probably refers to the offerings of libations to the sun.

54. Daily Practices 97 ping, sprinkling, offering libations, and filling the water pot. He should perform the worship of the sun with his cupped hands filled with water. 55. After he has thus performed the twilight worship, he should engage in the yogic practice described before [Ch. 5.47. Viśvāmitra says this in the passage that begins After he has bathed, he should engage in silent prayer until the sun comes into view [Ch. 6.4]. Then, in a sheltered and agreeable place where the ground is flat….29 " 56. Having thus performed the yogic practice and likewise completed the ritual procedure given in the text that begins “For a man who performs a sacrifice knowing this… “30 he should then end the yogic exercises and offer a silent prayer. He should then leave that place and, if he observes the vow of spending just one night in a village, go to another village. This is stated by Sankha: After meditating until he has obtained the bliss arising from the knowledge of the self, he should gradually end his yogic exercise. After silently reciting OM and completing his private vedic recitation, he should leave that village and go to another. This is the settled rule.

55. If he does not go to another village, he should remain there engaged in divine praise, silent prayer, meditation, and the like. This is stated by Bṛhaspati: Rising before dawn, he should answer the call of nature and purify himself. Then he should remain reciting the Gayatri verse until sunrise.

56. He should spend the remainder of the day engaged in controlling the breath, silent prayer, meditation, and divine praise, as well as in reciting epic and puranic texts that have vedic sanction.

57. That concludes the description of the morning duties.

Midday Duties 60. Next, I will describe the midday31 duties. In this connection, Śaunaka states: Then, after bathing in the prescribed manner, he should sip water, and sprinkle himself with water as he recites the three mantras that begin “Waters, you bring delight” [RV 10.9.1-3]. Standing in water, then, he 29. The entire passage is given at Ch. 5.84-85.

30. This text of the MNU (543) homologizes various parts of the ascetic’s body as well as his daily activities with corresponding objects and operations of a sacrifice. The meaning here appears to be that the ascetic by reciting this text performs a mental sacrifice, transforming his entire existence and activities into a continuous ritual process.

31. For a definition of “midday,” see Ch. 6.99.

198 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism should control his breath sixteen times while reciting the Aghamarṣaṇa hymn [see Ch. 6.34 n. 16]. Coming out of the water, he should wash his garment, clean his loins with earth and water, and wear a clean fresh loincloth and outer garment. He should then sip water and take the water strainer while reciting “OM Earth, Atmosphere, Heaven!” Then he offers libations, saying, “OM Earth, I satiate!” 61. The rites described above up to the statement “In like manner and with his hands properly joined, he should then offer a libation to his ancestors” [see Ch. 6.38] are performed as before. Then he worships the sun, reciting the two mantras “His rays raise him up…” and “The bright face of the gods…” [TS 1.4.43.1]. After controlling his breath six times, he should silently recite the Gayatri verse one hundred and eight times. 62. Bodhāyana: He worships the sun with the two mantras: “His rays raise him up…” and “The bright face of the gods…” [TS 1.4.43.1]. “OM is Brahman. Brahman, indeed, is this light. This thing that glows warmly is this Veda. This thing that glows warmly is what we must come to know”- with these very words he satiates the self, and he worships the self. For the self is Brahman, the self is the light. He should then recite the Gayatri verse one hundred times, one thousand times, or an unlimited number of times. Taking the water strainer with the words “OM Earth, Atmosphere, Heaven!” he fetches water. [BDh 2.17.39-42] 63. Hārīta: After bathing and sipping water according to the prescribed rules, he should offer libations with water purified through a water strainer and worship the sun as he recites the appropriate mantras.

64. Kratu: After bathing, a mendicant should silently recite the following in front of the sun: “His rays raise him up…,” “The bright face of the gods…” ITS 1.4.43.11, “That bright eye ordained by the gods…” [RV 7.66.16], the Śivasamkalpa verses,32 the Purusa hymn (RV 10.90], and the Visnu hymn.33 65. In the morning he should worship the sun with mantras addressed to Mitra and in the evening with those addressed to Varuna. After the people in the village have finished their meal, he should go on his begging round during the day reciting the Hamsa mantra.

65. These are the group of six verses that begins “That which rises far when people are awake…” (VS 34.1-6).

66. There is no consensus regarding this particular hymn: see Ch. 3.6 n. 3.6. Daily Practices 66. After sprinkling himself with well-purified water as he recites the three Pāvamānī and the three Aghamarṣaṇa verses with explicit meanings,34 he should silently recite the Gayatri verse one hundred and eight times. 67. Visvamitra: Then, after he has taken his midday bath, the wise man should recite the Gayatri silently and with a collected mind and also recite a few vedic texts.

67. To purify himself, moreover, he should silently recite the following: the Visṇu hymn, the Pāvamāna verses, the mantras addressed to Varuna, Rudra, and the sun, and the Upanisad.35 Then, after he has done his meditation as prescribed, he should go on his begging round.

68. Hārīta: Sitting down facing the east, he should silently control his breath three times. After reciting the Gayatri verse as many times as he is able, he should contemplate the highest state. Then, to sustain his life he should always go on his begging round.

69. Devala: Facing the east, an ascetic should silently recite the mantras and hymns of praise.36 There is no time when their recitation is suspended, for scriptures consider that recitation to be an obligatory daily rite.

70. Then he should worship Visṇu in the manner prescribed in the Vedas; if he is unable to use vedic mantras, however, he may optionally use those given in the Pañcarātra texts.

71. Manu: Day and night an ascetic injures living creatures without being aware of it. To cleanse himself of those sins, he should bathe and control his breath six times [MDh 6.69].

99 73. Now, there is a question as to how he should perform divine worship. Since a penance is prescribed when an ascetic plucks fruits or flowers, he should perform the worship with water or with articles 34. This is a tentative translation of the unclear expression “vacyalinga.” The Pavamānī are, according to some, the purificatory verses found in the ninth book of the RV, while others take them to refer specifically to RV 9.67.21-27 (Kane II, 317 n. 755). If the word “pavamani” is taken adjectivally, however, the translation would be “the Aghamarsana verses that bestow purity.” 35. The Pavamana verses may be the same as the Pavamani (see n. 34). For the mantras addressed to Varuna, see Ch. 6.47 n. 25. Those addressed to Rudra are probably the Rudradhyaya (TS 4.5.1-11). See Ch. 6.267 n. 62, for the mantras addressed to the sun. I am unable to identify the Upanisad referred to here.

36. This appears to be an unusual meaning of “stoka,” which usually means “little.” The context requires a meaning similar to the one adopted.

100 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism brought by others, reciting the Puruṣa hymn and other mantras contained in the Vedas. 74. Āpastamba: Speaking only during his private vedic recitation, and gathering from a village just enough food to sustain his life, he should go about without regard for this world or the next. The rule is that he should wear discarded clothes; some require him to go completely naked. [ApDh 2.21.10–12] 75. Manu: He should always recite silently the vedic texts pertaining to the sacrifice and to the gods, and those pertaining to the self, as well as what is called Vedānta. [MDh 6.83; see Ch. 5.74 n. 18] 76. Let him reflect on the union, the separation, and the means of separation and contemplate the true nature of the soul, the Lord, and primal matter,37 77. He spends the time until noon engaged in study, meditation, and the recitation of the Epics and Puranas. At midday, too, the same procedure applies.

78. After concluding the rites relating to the bath, he should make the offering of water as prescribed. Then, after worshipping the sun while reciting the two mantras “His rays raise him up…” and “The bright face of the gods…” ITS 1.4.43.11, he should engage in silent prayer.

79. That concludes the description of midday duties.

Begging 80. Next, I describe the procedure of begging. In this regard, Uśanas states: Scriptures have proclaimed five types of almsfood: madhukara [“begging in the manner of a bee” from many houses] not deliberately selected, prakpranita [“offered in advance”], ayacita [“unsolicited”], tātkālika [“contemporaneous”], and upapanna [“offered”].

81. Madhukara, the scriptures say, is food begged in the manner of a bee38 by going to three, five, or seven houses that have not been deliberately selected.

82. In Yoga cosmology, the present condition of humans is created by the union of souls with primal matter (prakyti or pradhana). Separation of the two constitutes liberation, and the yogic techniques are the means of that separation.

83. The comparison with the bee is instructive in at least two ways. A bee gathers nectar from many flowers and does not injure them in the process. Likewise, an ascetic does not become a burden on any single householder by begging a little food from several houses.

84. Daily Practices 82. Prākpranīta, the blessed sage Uśanas has said, is what devout people offer to someone even before he has risen from bed.

85. Ayacita is the almsfood offered by somebody before one sets out on the begging round. Manu has said that it may be eaten.

86. Tātkālika is said to be what is proclaimed by a Brahmin as almsfood as one approaches him. That too may be eaten by a man seeking liberation. 85. Upapanna, sages aspiring to liberation declare, is the cooked food brought by devotees to a monastery.

87. These are the five types of almsfood, and scriptures proclaim that they are equal to drinking Soma juice. A man becomes pure by subsisting on any one of them.

88. Viśvāmitra: Madhukara being the fixed practice, these others are regarded as its substitutes. If an ascetic capable of begging in the mādhukara manner practices any of the others, he commits a sin.

101 88. Prohibitions contained in statements such as “A full meal from a single house, honey, meat . . .” [see Ch. 10.59] are syntactically related to the above statement.39 Therefore, they should be regarded as directed only at those who are capable of begging in the mādhukara manner. Even if one is so capable, it is not wrong for him to eat a full meal from a single house when it is done as an act of kindness. 89. Medhātithi thus declares: He should not eat a full meal from a single house, the food given by a Śūdra, or an excessive amount of food. He may eat a full meal given by a Brahmin either if he is weak or as an act of kindness.

90. Katyāyana: An ascetic may subsist on almsfood that he solicits or receives unasked. 91. Angiras: It is not a sin for ascetics who are sick, old, or suffering from a long illness to eat a full meal from a single house.

91. Bodhāyana: He should eat only as much as is needed to sustain his life. [BDh 2.18.12] 39. A central principle of Brahmanical hermeneutics is that conflicts between injunctions should be avoided as far as possible (see Ch. 2.25 n. 9). Many strategies were devised for this purpose. One of them is called ekavakyatanyāya, the maxim that rules of apparently different provenance form a syntactic or meaningful whole (ie., a single complete sentence) and that their meanings should be derived within this larger context. In the present case, the prohibitions given at Ch. 10.59 are considered as referring to ascetics capable of practicing the madhukara type of begging and not to the old and the sick.

102 93. Kapila: Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism He should eat commendable types of food, such as food received randomly or given spontaneously as soon as he approaches. An ascetic should avoid food that has been offered to deceased ancestors.

94. Yama: An ascetic may beg food in the manner of a bee even from the house of a barbarian. But he shall not eat a full meal even from a man equal to Bṛhaspati.

95. There is no man higher than a Brahmin; there is no god higher than Vasudeva; there is no law that excels the law of classes and orders; there is no scripture that equals the Vedas; there is no purity equal to that of almsfood; and there is no austerity superior to fasting.

96. Almsfood begged in the manner of a bee destroys even the most heinous sins. On such almsfood, therefore, should an ascetic subsist, receiving it in a clean and undamaged bowl.

97. Next, I will describe the rules of begging in the manner of a bee. Manu specifies the time: An ascetic should go on his begging round only when the smoke has stopped rising, the pestles have stopped pounding, the meal has come to an end, and the dishes have been put away. [MDh 6.56] 98. Kratu: A yogin should go around in the forenoon, while a person who possesses the true knowledge should go around in the afternoon (see Ch. 3.30 n. 12]. A mendicant surely commits a sin if he goes around begging at midday. 99. Midday consists of the one and a half hours after the sixth hour following sunrise, according to the definition “The time after midmorning and before noon.“40 100. Kapila: A man who is extremely hungry need not wait until the very last moment to beg.

98. Bodhayana addresses the issue of the restrictions as to the place of begging: 40. Within the fivefold division of the day into morning (pratah), midmorning (sangava), midday (madhyahna), afternoon (aparahna), and evening (sayahna), each division is given three muhurtas or six ghatikās (approximately 2 hours and 24 minutes). According to this reckoning, midday extends from 4 hours and 48 minutes until 7 hours and 12 minutes after sunrise. The time given by Yadava is somewhat different.

99. Daily Practices Next, the rules for begging. He should seek to obtain almsfood from Brahmins who follow the mode of life of Sālīnas or Yāyāvaras, after they have completed their Vaiśvadeva offering.41 [BDh 2.18.4] 102. Viṣṇu: He should beg food from the houses of Yayavara householders. The advice of this book is that he should regard this first mode of begging as the best.

100. Going beyond those, an ascetic may beg from householders who maintain the sacred fires, who have faith, who are subdued, who are leamed in the Vedas, and who are magnanimous.

101. Going beyond even those, an ascetic may beg from people who are not Śūdras, who are not wicked, and who have not fallen from their caste. These are the three modes of begging prescribed for him.

102. Medhātithi: He may beg his food from Brahmins, Kṣatriyas, and Vaiśyas. Even among them, he should beg from people of each subsequent class only when those of the preceding class are unavailable.

103. When no one belonging to any of these classes is available, and he has gone three meal times42 without eating, an ascetic may accept almsfood even from a Śūdra, for it is said that an ascetic must preserve his life by means of almsfood.

104. Life is what permits people to pursue the goals of duty, wealth, pleasure, and liberation. Does not a man who destroys life destroy also those goals? And a man who safeguards life, does he not safeguard also those goals? 108. If in an emergency an ascetic begs food from a Śūdra, or a Vaisya, or a Kṣatriya, he should purify himself by controlling his breath a hundred times, fifty times, or twenty-five times, respectively. If he begs from such people without knowing it, the penance for regaining purity is half the listed amounts.

105. Kratu: When an ascetic begs in the manner of a bee, he should not make inquires regarding the donor’s ritual practices, religious activities, behavior, virtue, conduct, learning, and lineage, as well as whether the donor is pure 103 41. Sālīna (lit., “people with large houses”) and Yayāvara (lit., “itinerant”) were two ancient classes of holy householders (see BDh 3.1). The Vaiśvadeva (lit., “all gods”) offering is an oblation of food obligatory before any meal.

106. Morning and evening are considered meal times for people. So, not eating for three meal times means that a person has not eaten for a whole day and the morning of the next. Since ascetics are expected to eat only once a day in the evening, this provision boils down to not eating for a whole day.

104 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism or impure, auspicious or inauspicious. Purity and impurity melt away as the almsfood falls into the bowl.

110. Jābāli the Elder: He should not inquire after the donor’s class or ask whether the donor is auspicious or inauspicious. When the almsfood falls into the bowl, let him not think whether it is pure or impure.

Another reading of this text is “… into the bowl, purity and impurity melt away.” 111. Atri: He should not beg from families that are related to him. Even if he is offered almsfood in the houses of his pupils, enemies, relatives, and kings, or in houses where a death or a birth has recently taken place, he should not accept it. He should avoid any food that he has prepared himself or if accepting it would cause hardship to someone.

112. Kapila: If someone is extremely old, weak, sick, feeble, or physically impaired, he may beg his almsfood from his pupils, relatives, sons, brothers, or friends.

113-14. When an ascetic seeks to obtain external goods such as horses, beds, and seats; when he officiates at sacrifices, teaches, and explains texts and receives in return clothes and vessels; and when he looks at and thinks about women and has sex with them, he becomes guilty of commingling the duties of different orders.43 Whether he lives in a house or in the wilderness, therefore, an ascetic should seek to obtain his almsfood from his son.

115. The same author states: If someone is extremely old, very weak, sick, a hundred years old, or physically impaired, he may beg his almsfood from his pupils, relatives, sons, brothers, or friends.

116. People who are humpbacked, dwarfs, maimed, crippled, lame, blind, or sick are not tainted by any fault relating to their almsfood, as also when a king no longer rules the country.

117. Vasistha specifies the number of houses: Clothed in a single garment or an antelope skin, he should go to seven houses that he has not selected beforehand when the smoke has stopped rising and the pestles have stopped pounding. [VaDh 10.7-9] 43. This is a very tentative translation of a grammatically obscure verse. I have taken “samkari” to mean the confusion of the different orders of life, which parallels the more common fault of causing the mixture of castes.

118. Daily Practices 105 118. Devala: When the aforementioned people are unavailable [see Ch. 6.106], he may go to any house in the entire village, after purifying himself and observing silence. He should, nevertheless, avoid people of ill repute.

119. After careful scrutiny, the gods once determined that the food of a learned Brahmin who is a miser and that of a usurer who is liberal are of the same quality.

120. But Prajapati told them: “Do not create an equality between unequal things. The food of the liberal man is purified by faith, while that of the other is corrupted by lack of faith.” 121. A prudent man should not accept forbidden food even when it is offered to him, as well as food that makes one sick or that has been thrown away by someone.

121. Atri: Now I shall describe the rules of begging in their entirety, as well as the types of food one should avoid. An ascetic who neglects them falls quickly, while one who observes them finds release.

122. He should live by the beelike method of begging and never practice the other methods. All these are contemptible means of livelihood, except when he is advised that they are appropriate for him.

123. Food begged in the manner of a bee from houses that have not been preselected or what is given spontaneously-let him eat that irreproachable food with a mind free from greed.

124. A mendicant may always visit three, six, seven, or eight houses-this is the method of begging in the manner of a bee, clearly the most excellent. If he wants he may visit even a larger number of houses.

125. Let him collect almsfood containing every good taste, including such items as rice, barley, oil-cakes, vegetables, buttermilk, milk, and curd, but not anything that would involve an injury to a living being.

126. Whatever food that does not violate a man’s vow may be properly eaten by him. He should always eat healthy food that digests easily, but in moderation. An ascetic should avoid foods that would inflame the hu- mors.

127. He should avoid houses with large families or with greedy people, because such people give food with great pain.

128. Whenever there are signs of fraud or misery in a house, a mendicant should avoid it as he would an oblation pecked by a crow.

129. An ascetic should avoid any food presented by a menstruating woman and the food of a twice-born person when presented to him by a Sudra, as well as any food placed in a vessel made of iron or in a part of an animal.44 44. This probably refers to a bowl or a plate fashioned out of bone, horn, or skull (see Ch. 6.247).

106 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 131. An ascetic should refrain from accepting as alms food that had been prepared either as an offering to the ancestors or the gods or for some other purpose, as well as when it would cause hardship to someone.

132. A mendicant should not eat from the house of a couple who have failed to produce any children. If he eats, he should observe a lunar fast [see Ch. 5.11 n. 5).

133-34. When (the food) has been looked at by,45 abortionists, heretics, people afflicted with leprosy and the like, menstruating women, dogs, eunuchs, crows, outcastes, or people of the lowest castes, as also when he sees them somewhere, he should not beg there. If he begs, he should observe a lunar fast. He should not even talk with them, except to ask for directions or when there is a danger.

135. In all social interactions, but especially in begging food, he should avoid all those guilty of heinous crimes or fallen from their castes.

136. When an individual commits an offense, an ascetic should abandon the entire region in the Krta age, the village in the Treta age, the family in the Dvapara age, but just that individual in the Kali age. After abandoning him, the ascetic may go on his begging round.

137. The man who does the act, the man who gives his consent, the man who instigates the act, and the man who approves of the act-all these reap the reward of the action, be it merit or sin. (cf. ApDh 2.29.1] 138. Whether it belongs to a person of one’s own lineage or to someone else, a house in which a birth has taken place does not regain its purity until ten days have passed.

138. Rites for gods, ancestors, and the like are never performed in such a house. Neither should a mendicant beg almsfood there. If he begs, he should observe a lunar fast.

139. A mendicant should never seek to obtain almsfood from the family of a relative, from a royal household, or from pupils, relations, friends, and the like.

140. Gods and ancestors do not eat the food given by a husband of an outcaste woman or by a man ruled by his wife: A mendicant should likewise abstain from such food.

141. The special law pertaining to each class and order of life is given the name “hero.” Those who abide by it are declared to be heroes, whereas a man who violates it is a murderer of a hero, whom an ascetic should shun. 143-46. A mendicant should not beg almsfood from a naked woman; a virgin; a woman who is pregnant, menstruating, mad, intoxicated, or angry; a woman who is getting ready to eat or who hates her children or husband; a woman who is independent or lives as she pleases; a woman who is 45. The syntax of this sentence (especially of “drstam”) is unclear. The translation assumes that it is an ellipsis.

142. Daily Practices without a husband, suffering from leprosy, or blind; a woman who has married a second time or who has been adopted; a woman with loose hair or seated at ease; a lustful woman; a woman astonished; a woman who is deceitful or distressed; a woman of evil conduct; a woman who is sweating or afflicted with a sickness; a shameless woman; a harlot; a tired woman; a servant; a transvestite; a very cruel woman; and a woman who is breast-feeding her baby.

143. Kapila: He should not enter a house with a large family or when the doors are shut. He should not beg almsfood from a woman who is asleep, mad, wanton, intoxicated, sweating, seated at ease, pregnant, sick, in sexual intimacy with her husband, lustful, getting ready to eat, or breast-feeding her baby. He should neither beg nor accept the almsfood offered by a menstruating woman, given contemptuously, handed to him by a naked woman, or brought by a virgin.

144. Kratu: He should avoid salt given separately,46 meat, honey, the food given at a house defiled by the impurity caused by a death or a birth, and the food given by fools, sinners, transvestites, and people fallen from their caste. 149. He should never beg from a woman who is foolish, independent, or a leper, from a woman who hates her children or husband, from a virgin or a midwife, from a woman who has married a second time, or from a naked woman.

145. Jābāli the Elder: One may eat the food of people belonging to only two orders of life, the householder’s and the hermit’s. The food of people belonging to other orders is not to be eaten, as also the food of other ascetics.

107 151. Next, I will describe the procedure of begging. With regard to this, Saunaka writes: Then, after cleaning his begging bowl with water and a cord of cow’s hair while reciting the seven Great Utterances, and after worshipping the sun with the mantra “The swan seated in purity . . .” [TS 1.8.15.2], he should travel silently and with a serene mind.

152. Śankha and Likhita: A begging bowl may be made of any of the following: wood, gourd, cane, and clay. He should scrub it with his hand using water and a cord of cow’s hair and then go out to beg almsfood from Brahmins of good conduct.

153. Salt used in cooking is not forbidden to an ascetic, but ascetics are not allowed to have a separate portion of salt on their plates, a practice common at an Indian meal. Such salt is given the technical term “pratyakṣalavana,” “visible salt.” 108 153. Atri: Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism Taking the bowl in his left hand and the triple staff in his right, he should worship the sun, meditating on the unity of the self.

154-55. Meditating on God with a collected mind, he should silently recite the mantra of purity.47 The person in the sun called by the name Visṇu, who abides within the heart-I am He, the god Nārāyaṇa, the person who is the witness of the world. Let him by himself thus meditate on the self, the person who is the creator of all.

156-57. Then, after performing a circumambulation clockwise, he should worship the sun, the destroyer of darkness. After worshipping it, he should again put on his sandals when he walks on the ground for the sake of purity. He should never discard his sandals, for the water pot and the almsfood become defiled when he walks without sandals.

158-63. Putting on his sandals, a mendicant should walk, meditating on Visnu: May Visnu guard me from the sides, from above and from below; and Vaikuntha from every direction! May Rāma, bow in hand, guard me from all sides; and Keśava, discus in hand! May Govinda protect me, he who drinks soma and eats what’s offered to manes and gods; Visṇu, seated on Garuda, Ananta, discus in hand, bearing the aspect of a dwarf; Supreme Self, subtle, pervading all, eternal; without parts or attributes, imperishable, bearing a form all white; without beginning or end; Ever sleeping on Ananta decked with jeweled hoods, at the center of the ocean of milk; May that Madhava protect me! May he protect my entire body, within and without, from the crown of my head to the soles of my feet! May the Garuda-bannered god guard me, bearing every weapon, possessing every power! The self of all, the supreme lord, from the lotus of whose navel was born Brahma, the lord and creator of all; May that Madhava protect me! 47. This long mantra is contained in MNU 440-56. In some sources this mantra plays a major role in the rite of renunciation; see Ypra 14.6. Daily Practices 164. Meditating in this manner, he should go around wearing a single garment and a sacrificial string. For the garment was created by Brahmā for the success of all duties. No rite bears fruit, it is said, when it is performed without wearing a garment.

165. Devala: He should first make his body the dwelling place of the true essence of Brahman and worship with the mantras beginning “Homage to Brahman!“48 He should then silently recite the mantra of purity, perform a circumambulation clockwise as he recites “Coming with true light…” [TS 3.4.11.2], and silently recite the mantra “Your ancient paths…” [TS 7.5.24.1]. Then, he should go around silently.

166. Yama: After purifying himself, he should always go around silently in the evening to beg for pure almsfood. He should wear a single garment or go naked and walk slowly, keeping his gaze within six feet in front of him. 167. He should beg alone and without greed, his gaze fixed on one point. Living without a fire or a home, he should not seek to indulge himself. 168-71. Medhātithi: He should wear one garment from his navel to the knees and a second as an undergarment. Then, after worshipping the sun, he should go to houses to beg for almsfood carrying a begging bowl and a triple staff. After requesting almsfood, he should stand at the door with his head lowered so that he can be seen. Silently and with a totally serene mind, he should stand there in meditation, as if asleep even though it is day. When he sees that no one is responding, he should remain silently for about as long as it takes to milk a cow. If no one offers him anything even after they have seen him, he should proceed to another house. If someone responds, he should wait until the almsfood is given.

167. Kratu: He should walk silently and with a serene mind, detached and self-controlled, as if he were asleep, placing his feet on the ground after determining its purity by inspection, wearing a single garment, and carrying a single bowl.

168. An ascetic should live by eating at the fourth, sixth, or the eighth mealtime [see Ch. 6.106 n. 42], or by observing the lunar fast [see Ch. 5.11 n. 5], or by begging food from five or seven houses of people who are strict in their ritual practices.

169. Standing with his head lowered, he should ask for almsfood just once, placing the word “Lady” at the beginning of the request.49 He 48. The identity of these mantras is unclear. See TU 1.1; Ypra 21.43.

109 49. The wording of the request is bhavati bhikṣām dehi-“Lady, give almsfood.” At Ch. 6.185 the ascetic is instructed to place the syllable OM at the very beginning of 110 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism should wait for about as long as it takes to milk a cow. After he has left a house, he should not return to it.

175. Bodhayana: He should make the request, placing the word “Lady” at the beginning. Let him wait for about as long as it takes to milk a cow. [BDh 2.18.5-6] 176. Devala: Ascetics are always required to carry an umbrella on their begging rounds when it is raining, but not to shelter themselves from the sun’s heat. 177. Atri: An ascetic should always go alone, wearing a single garment and carrying a single bowl. He should go out to beg just once a day, and never beg again later on.

176. As he walks, an ascetic should not look up, around, or afar. A mendicant should walk casting his eyes on the ground just six feet in of him. 179. He should not peek inside a house through the opening of the door with the desire of getting almsfood. Neither should an ascetic make a loud noise there or knock on the door.

177. After first skipping a house, he should not return there again. If he returns and receives almsfood from there, he should control his breath thirty times.

178. As he begs, he should never visit houses both to the left and to the right. If he skips a house that is without blame, he should control his breath a hundred times.

179. He should enter a house that he has not selected beforehand and whose door is left open by the owner, taking into account the differences in time and place, as well as the ability of the donor.

183-85. He may enter a house to beg if another mendicant has not been there before. After he enters a house, the mendicant should stand with an unflinching mind either in the fire stall or where the housewife can see him. Taking the bowl in his left hand and the triple staff in his right, he should make the request, prefacing it with OM and placing the word “Lady” at the beginning. After making the request for almsfood, an ablebodied ascetic should not sit down anywhere.

186-87. He should not beg for any other thing, greedy for gratification. Purifying with his gaze the almsfood carried in the donor’s hand, the ascetic should place his triple staff against his right shoulder with his hand and take the lid off the begging bowl with his right hand. The bowl should always be placed in the left hand and never in the right.

the request. Placing the word “Lady” at the beginning is prescribed for Brahmin students, while Ksatriyas and Vaisyas place it in the middle and end of the request, respectively; see MDh 2.49. The assumption is that the donor is always the housewife. The present injunction assumes, moreover, that the ascetic is a Brahmin.

6. Daily Practices 111 188. Likhita: Even if he is about to die, he should never eat a full meal given by one person. Let him live by begging in the manner of a bee even from an outcaste, for it purifies the mind.

7. If he has been refused once, he should never again enter that house at the time for begging. Even from a different house, moreover, he should never accept as alms any food that has already been prepared for another purpose [see Ch. 6.131].

8. Kāśyapa: Entering just three inches inside, he should stand motionless and evenly on both feet. Unless it contains sticks, stones, or bits of pottery, he should not consider any almsfood as impure and despise it. Rather, he should regard it as pure and accept it. He should never look at the face of the donor, but only at the hands. He should cast his glance not more than six feet in front of him and not look constantly sideways or behind. He should enter houses with open doors and never those where the doors are shut. He should neither knock at a door nor make a loud noise. He should not leave too quickly or stay too long.

9. Devala: If at any time an impediment arises after he has entered a village to beg and as a result he leaves that village, he should not go out to beg again. 192. Jamadagni: If an ascetic does not receive almsfood from a particular house for five or seven days, he should always avoid that house as if it were a house of an outcaste.

10. Every day that a mendicant leaves a house hungry and without food, he takes with him all the merit that that householder has acquired through daily vedic recitation, sacrifice, and giving gifts.

11. The same author states: An ascetic should not take as alms anything besides food, and he should not even take cooked food improperly. One who does so deserves to be punished like a thief.

12. Jabali the Elder: One should eat using a single bowl-this is declared to be the highest vow. If a person is infirm or sick, there is no harm in using two bowls.

13. If an able-bodied and healthy ascetic subsists by using more than a single bowl, that wicked man, greedy for bowls, will end up in hell.

14. When a greedy mendicant asks a donor to fill his bowl, the donor attains heaven, while the eater eats sin.

112 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 198. If a renouncer exhibits any greed when he begs almsfood after receiving an invitation, he will undoubtedly fall.

199. When a man says “Give me more! Give me more!” or asks for salt or condiments, that almsfood becomes equal to cow’s meat. After eating such food, one should observe a lunar fast [see Ch. 5.11 n. 5].

200. If a man foolishly refuses to accept what a housewife carries in her hands to give him, he will be born in the wombs of crows.

201. Kapila: After requesting almsfood, he should not tarry long. When someone says “No,” he should leave without ill will. He should not ask anyone to fill his one bowl.

202. Bharadvāja: After reciting silently the mantra “O ladle, fly away filled…” (TS 1.8.4.1], he should leave, saying, “Homage!” Procedure of Eating 203. Next, I describe the procedure of eating. Saunaka explains it: Then, after returning from begging, he should place the bowl in a clean place, wash his feet, sip some water, and control his breath three times. Afterward, he should sip water again, sprinkle water on the almsfood while reciting OM, consecrate it with the Gayatri verse, and offer an oblation to Visnu with the mantra “Visnu traversed this…” [TS 1.2.13.1-2). He should then make offerings to the sun with the two mantras “His rays raise him up…” and “The bright face of the gods…” ITS 1.4.43.1), to Brahma with the mantra “Brahman was first born in the east…” [TS 4.2.8.2], and to living beings with the mantra “Homage to beings!” [MNU 463). He should then eat what remains as if it were medicine.

203. Bodhāyana: Then, after returning from begging, he should place the bowl in a clean place, wash his hands and feet, sip some water, and make an offering in front of the sun with the mantras “His rays raise him up…” and “The bright face of the gods…” [TS 1.4.43.1). He should likewise make offerings to Brahma with the mantra “Brahman was first born in the east…” [TS 4.2.8.21, to Visṇu with the mantra “Visṇu traversed this…” [TS 1.2.13.1-2). and to living beings with the mantra “Homage to beings!” [MNU 463]. It is recognized that after an ascetic’s final sacrifice the sacred fires reside in the sacrificer himself. His in-breath is the householder’s fire (see Ch. 4.11 n. 81, his down-breath is the south fire, his diffused breath is the east fire, his middle breath is the hall fire, and his up-breath is the domestic fire. These five fires indeed abide in the self; hence, he offers only in his self. It is recognized that this is the sacrifice which is offered in the self, which abides 6. Daily Practices in the self, which is founded on the self; and that it leads the self to bliss. After making offerings to living beings with compassion, he should sprinkle the remainder of the food with water and eat it as if it were medicine. [BDh 2.18.7-10] 205. Yama: He should neither eat out of the begging bowl nor use the bowl to sip water. In the Kṛta, Tretā, and Dvāpara ages an ascetic may eat directly out of his begging bowl, but in the Kali age he should not eat out of the bowl or carry a pot [see Ch. 3.70 n. 31].

204. Bharadvāja: He should make a plate out of an old leaf that has fallen down and eat in it but never eat in a metal dish. If he eats out of a metal bowl, he should perform a Prajapatya penance [see Ch. 4.2 n. 1]. He should eat the food after going to a deserted spot outside the village, or to the wilderness, or to a deserted bank or sandy shore of a river, or to a lotus pond. Washing it at a sacred bathing place, he should place the bowl in a sheltered spot. After washing his feet with three applications of earth and likewise also the hands, he should sip some water and control his breath six times. After reciting the hymn to food50 together with OM and the Gayatri verse, and thinking of the food as having the nature of the Highest Self, he should drink some water, saying, “You are an underlayer for ambrosia,” and make an offering of food in his breath. If, while he is eating, he finds some food contaminated with tiny bits of hair or insects, he should throw away just that portion, wash his hands, and continue eating. If a hair gets into his mouth, he should discard that mouthful immediately from his mouth, rinse his mouth twelve times with water, and continue eating.

205. Bṛhaspati: After completing his daily duties and with his speech, mind, eyes, and sex organs under complete control, he should gather almsfood in a subdued manner and eat it in a secluded place.

206. While he is eating, he should never touch the food with his left hand or with his feet, nor should he touch his feet, head, or private parts.

207. Outside mealtime, an ascetic should not take anything into his mouth except medicine and the toothstick.

208. Viṣṇu: He may eat as almsfood barley meal, milk, ghee, well-ripened fruits and roots, vegetables, oil-cakes, or grist.

113 50. The identity of this hymn is uncertain. The Ypra (58.46-47) gives the following mantra: “Food is Brahma, the taste is Visṇu, and the eater is Śiva. A twice-born man who eats as he meditates in this manner is not tainted by the defilements of food.” A longer hymn in praise of food is given in Vidyarnava 1979, 165, the first sec- tion of which is TA 8.2.

114 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 211. These are the different types of food that bring success to a yogin. One should eat them daily with a totally focused mind.

212. When he is about to eat, the ascetic should first take one drink of water silently and with a collected mind and then eat the first oblation, saying, “For the in-breath, svāhā!” 213. He should eat the second, saying, “For the down-breath, svāhā!”; the next, saying, “For the diffused breath, svaha!”; the fourth, saying, “For the up-breath, svāhā!”; and the fifth, saying, “For the middle breath, svāhā!” 214. After offering in this manner the oblations in the breaths, he should eat the remainder in silence. He should then drink water again once, sip some water, and touch his heart.

215-16. Yama: A mendicant should go out to beg when the smoke has stopped rising and the pestles have stopped pounding and when the sacrifice has been completed. He should not go to a place filled with people who live like dogs51 or packed with hermits, or when the people have not yet taken their meal. He should take only what would sustain his life, and not eat as much as he can get. Let him never eat for the pleasure of it.

217. When one eats almsfood that is pure in its origin and has been sprinkled with water, and from which oblations have been offered, each mouthful becomes equal to a sacrifice.

218. It is sprinkled with water while reciting OM, and it is offered in the internal fires of one’s self consisting of the five breaths, while saying “svaha” at each offering.

219-20. The in-breath is the eye, the day, and the sun. The diffused breath is the ear, the night, and the moon. The down-breath is speech, mind, and fire. The middle breath is water, mind, and lightning. And the up-breath is wind and space. Offering food to these breaths with a collected mind, he becomes sated; becoming sated by eating, he is freed from his triple debt [see Ch. 1.14].

221. It is stated everywhere that one should eat the almsfood after sprinkling it with water. Samvarta states: Gathering five, seven, or eight morsels of almsfood, a sage should sprinkle it with water and eat all of it with a collected mind.

222. This may refer to either of two groups of people. The first group consists of people of a very low caste, who are depicted as śvapaka, or cooking dog’s meat. The second is a class of ascetics who are said to imitate the habits of dogs or observe the “dog vow” (kukkuravrata). See Digha Nikaya, III, 6-7.

223. Daily Practices 115 222. Kapila: Returning then from the village with a single bowl, he should sprinkle the almsfood with water and eat it immediately. He should not speak at all with anyone. He should not beg for anything else other than medicine. Living in this manner all his life, a mendicant will become liberated. 223. One should consider the following if there is a suspicion of some flaw. Kratu states: He should sprinkle the almsfood with water with the fourfold mantra [see Ch. 5.82], make offerings to Visṇu, Brahma, the sun, and living beings with mantras containing their respective marks [see Ch. 6.204], and give some food to the needy.

224. He should make the lotus of his heart turn its face upward by controlling the in-breath and the other breaths through the suppression of inhalation and the like and offer the food in the fire of Brahman, which is the size of a span he is thus freed from all defilements.52 225. He should neither taste the food nor talk about the six tastes while he eats. Remaining the same whether the food is cooked well and badly, he should not take delight in the one or despise the other.

225. The same author states: He should not throw food away or eat too much; he should neither speak ill of any food or collect too much of it. Let him not treat with contempt cows, Brahmins, the sun, the moon, fire, wind, and water.

226. Kapila: If it does not go against his vow, he may accept even any stale food. If he entertains the desire to put on fat, he should control his breath three times and sip water again. He should place the bowl on a support or on a spot he has cleaned two or three times; sprinkle that bowl with water reciting OM; and consecrate the almsfood with the triple prayer [see Ch. 5.82]. He should at least worship a mouthful of food with the mantra “Viṣṇu traversed this …” [TS 1.2.13.1-2). He should not eat without making a food offering. Making food offerings to living beings and similar practices, as well as sharing one’s food with the needy, are praiseworthy.

227. Sages subsisting on almsfood live happily like bees without causing harm to any living being.

228. “May the moon alone eat the food”: the person who eats food reflecting in this manner eats immortality. He eats food in his in-breath, saying, “For the in-breath, svāhā!” He eats food in his down-breath, saying, “For the down-breath, svāhā!” He eats food in his diffused breath, saying, “For 52. This is a rather tentative translation of an elliptical passage with Tantric overtones. The breath is controlled by making the moments of inhalation, retention, and exhalation even and progressively longer.

116 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism the diffused breath, svāhā!” He eats food in his up-breath, saying, “For the up-breath, svāhā!” He eats food in his middle breath, saying, “For the middle breath, svāhā!” Whoever eats food is fire. Whatever food one eats, all that is the moon. He should wash the bowl and take it after consecrating it with the triple prayer. After eating thus he is freed from sin. 230. Viśvāmitra: An ascetic who practices begging in the manner of a bee should offer food to the first four; he should not, however, make offerings to the remaining four.53 231. He should offer to the sun reciting the two mantras “His rays raise him up…” and “The bright face of the gods…” [TS 1.4.43.11; to Brahmā while saying, “Brahman was first born in the east…” [TS 4.2.8.2]; and to Visṇu with the mantra “Visnu traversed this…” [TS 1.2.13.1-2].

232. Then he should make a fourth offering to all living beings. He should make offerings the size of a mouthful to the sun and so forth in the proper order.

233. An ascetic who gathers daily the food belonging to others and makes offerings of it commits a sin and has to perform a penance.54 234. For what reason should he give alms? And what reward does he reap by giving? Both the one who gives and the one who receives will go to hell.

234. Hārīta: Placing the begging bowl in his left hand, he should take the lid off and clasp the bowl with his right.

235. He should beg as much almsfood as would satisfy his hunger. Returning, then, he should set down the bowl and sip some water in full control of himself.

236. Taking a mouthful of food mixed with all the condiments, an amount that would cover the four fingers, he should place it separately in the bowl with a collected mind.

237. He should then make offerings of food to the deities beginning with the sun and to living beings. Sprinkling the food with water, the ascetic should silently eat the food from a plate made of leaves but never out of the begging bowl.

238. The text does not specify the identity of the two sets of four. The first set clearly refers to the sun, Brahma, Viṣṇu, and living beings. The second set appears to include gods, ancestors, and human beings.

239. The Sanskrit “tyajati” means literally “he abandons or discards.” Within the context, it refers in all likelihood to the “abandonment” of food in a sacrifice or oblation; the depositing of a sacrificial offering is often referred to as its abandonment (tyaga). These offerings may include oblations to ancestors and alms to other people; see Ch. 6.251-52.

240. Daily Practices 239. However, he should never eat from a plate made of the leaves of the following: banyan, sun plant, bo tree, Kumbhi plant, and Tinduka and Karañja trees. 55 240. Even in an emergency, however, he should never eat out of a brass plate. All ascetics who eat out of brass plates are referred to by the name Palāśa,56 241. An ascetic who eats out of a brass plate takes upon himself all the sins of both the tinker who made it and the householder who owns it.

241. Yama: Vessels made of gold or iron are not appropriate bowls for ascetics either for collecting alms or for eating.

242. When almsfood is put in a bowl made of gold, silver, copper, brass, or iron, the donor gets no merit and the receiver goes to hell.

244-45. Likhita: He should neither eat out of the begging bowl nor use the bowl to sip water. In the Kita, Tretā, and Dvāpara ages an ascetic may eat directly out of his begging bowl, but in the Kali age he should not eat out of the bowl or carry a pot [see Ch. 3.70 n. 31]. He should rather eat from a plate made of leaves but never put the food on the back side of the leaves 246-47. When the leaves of Palasa,57 lotus, or banana are unavailable, he should forgo eating. Even when other leaves are unavailable, he should refrain from eating food placed on Kusa or some other type of grass or on the ground, or out of vessels made of gold, silver, brass, copper, iron, or a part of an animal [see Ch. 6.130 n. 44].

248. He may eat off of a Palasa leaf or, in an emergency, directly out of his hand. A householder who eats off of a Palasa or a lotus leaf should observe a lunar fast [see Ch. 5.11 n. 5]. An ascetic and a forest hermit who do so, however, reap the reward of a lunar fast.

249. Medhātithi: A mendicant does not commit a sin by eating from plates made of gold, silver, copper, brass, shell, or stone; he does commit a sin if he accepts any of them.

117 250. Yama and Likhita intend to point out that an ascetic is not allowed to take for his own use, whether it is to collect almsfood or for eating, vessels made of gold and the like. Medhātithi’s view, on the 55. The respective botanical names of these are Ficus indica, Calotropis gigantea, Ficus religiosa, Bignonia suaveolens (the name Kumbhi, however, applies to a variety of trees), Diospyros embryopteris, and Pongamia glabra.

56. A class of demons (Rākṣasa) are known by the name Palāśa, which literally means “flesh eater.” 57. Butea frondosa.

118 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism other hand, is that an ascetic commits no sin when in an emergency he takes for his own use such vessels and eats from them, so long as they belong to someone else. When even such vessels belonging to others are unavailable, he should eat directly out of his hand. One should not eat from vessels made of brass and the like merely because leaves are unavailable. Rather, one may eat from them only when there is an imminent danger of death,58 according to Harita’s statement: “Even in an emergency, however…” [Ch. 6.240]. 251. Atri gives the rule regarding the disposal of the food offerings: He should not give a food offering to a needy person or throw it away as he pleases. A wise man should throw it in water or bury it in the ground.

252. Kratu speaks about giving almsfood to others and about the disposal of that food when the ascetic is prevented from eating it:59 A person who collects almsfood in the manner of a bee and then gives it to Brahmins goes to a terrible hell; one who eats such food should observe a lunar fast.

253. Almsfood is permitted to twice-born people when they are performing a penance or a vow and in a time of distress. For others such a gift constitutes a theft, while for ascetics it is equal to a sacrifice.

254. Śandilya declares that ascetics should eat only once a day: Going to a village in the evening, he should silently collect almsfood. Just once every day he should eat eight mouthfuls of food.

255. Jābāli the Elder: He should never eat at night or eat again after he has eaten. A renouncer who eats at night undoubtedly falls.

256. If, after the time for the twilight worship has passed, an ascetic eats at night, all his religious activities-worship, silent prayer, control of breath, and food offerings-will become fruitless; a penance is ordained for him.

257. Vasistha speaks about eating twice: He may eat in the morning and in the evening what he receives from a Brahmin household, with the exception of honey and meat. He should not eat until he becomes satiated. [VaDh 10.24-25] This provision applies to the infirm.

258. The meaning is that an ascetic who fears that he will die if he continues to fast may eat to save his life and do so even from a forbidden vessel.

259. The text here appears to be corrupt, and the manuscripts give widely divergent readings. The two verses that follow deal only with the prohibition about giving away almsfood. They do not deal with the disposal of uneaten food.6. Daily Practices Rites Following the Meal 119 258. Next, I explain the rites that follow the meal. In this regard, Saunaka states: After eating he should sip some water and silently recite the mantra “May my speech be in my mouth, my breath in my nose…"[TS 5.5.9.2]. Then, after sipping water, he should worship the sun with the mantra “As we gaze from the darkness. . .” [TS 4.1.7.4], clean the bowl with water and a cord of cow’s hair while reciting the seven Great Utterances, control his breath three times, and silently recite the Gayatri verse one hundred and eight times. He should spend the rest of the time engaged in silent prayer and meditation. Then, at the evening twilight when the sun has set, he should silently recite the Gayatri verse while he is seated until the stars appear. Thereafter, he should meditate until he falls asleep. He should meditate also when he is awakened from sleep.

260. Yama: Things made of gold and silver, vessels used in sacrifices, and the bowls of ascetics the rule is that these are purified with just water.

261. Likhita: After worshipping the sun following his meal, he should always read the Purānas. Reading the Puranas purifies the heart and thus develops the love of Viṣṇu.

262. Śankha and Likhita: A begging bowl may be made of one of the following: wood, gourd, cane, and clay. It is cleaned using water and a cord of cow’s hair. It is to be cleaned every day. While he does this, it is not necessary to sip water. He should not throw the bowl on the ground or permit it to come into contact with something impure. After the meal he should sip water, sip once again, and sprinkle water on the articles.60 It is not inconsistent to carry a sling of cord, in the same way as other articles.61 262. Śankha: After worshipping the sun following his meal and sitting down on his seat, he should control his breath, silently recite the Gayatri verse one hundred and eight times, and again meditate on Nārāyaṇa.

263. He should spend the rest of the day reading the Puranas and occupied in other similar activities. Then, after performing the evening twilight worship, he should engage in yogic exercises; he should do so also when he wakes from sleep.

264. The Sanskrit term “dravyāṇi” is rather vague. In all likelihood, the water is sprinkled on the ascetic’s belongings, such as the bowl.

265. This elliptical sentence is far from clear. The meaning may be that, as an ascetic is permitted to possess other articles, so he is permitted also to have a sling for carrying the water pot.

1,20 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 264. When every day a man thus performs meditation as his principal activity but also does his ritual duties, he is fit for becoming Brahman. 265. Visvamitra: After his meal he should worship the sun with the mantra “As we gaze from the darkness…” [TS 4.1.7.4]. I have declared the five ways of begging for mendicants [see Ch. 6.80].

266. A mendicant who lives in this manner is truly an ascetic; he truly belongs to an order of life. After performing the twilight worship in the prescribed manner, he should engage in meditation.

267. The morning twilight worship is performed using the verses addressed to Mitra; the midday worship, using the verses addressed to the sun; and the evening worship, using the verses addressed to Varuna.62 268. The twilight worship of the rising sun is known as Sarasvati, while the midday worship is called Sankarī, and the evening worship, Vaisnavī. 269. A Brahmin, if he is wise, should always perform the meditation in this manner. This meditation has been taught by me for achieving success in silent prayer and sacrifice.

268. If a man performs the twilight worship wearing purificatory rings made of cow’s hair, every evil deed he has performed will be washed away at once.

269. Seated facing the east on Darbha grass and holding Darbha grass in his hands, he should recite the Gayatri verse one thousand times or one hundred times with a fully collected mind.

270. The three immaculate Great Utterances preceded by OM and the Gayatri with three feet-these are known as the highest state.

271. He should always wear a purificatory ring made of Kusa grass in his right hand, especially when he is eating. He is thus not defiled by the flaws in the food.

272. Wearing a sacrificial string and a top knot, carrying a triple staff, and furnished with a seat and a water pot, he should perform all the rites prescribed in the Vedas and the scriptures. An ascetic achieves success if he always performs yoga; he does not achieve it by any other means.

273. Medhātithi: After his meal he should himself wash his bowl with water and a cord of cow’s hair as he recites the Great Utterances, the Gayatri verse, or the syllable OM.

274. For the verses addressed to Mitra and Varuna, see Ch. 6.47. According to the Bodhayaniyabrahmakarmasamuccaya, p. 54, the mantras to be recited at midday are the following five: “As we gaze from the darkness…” (TS 4.1.7.4). “His rays raise him up….” “The bright face of the gods…” (TS 1.4.43.1). “That eye favorable to the gods ,” and “Who arose from the mighty ocean…” (TA 4.42.5).

275. Daily Practices 276. Then he should control his breath three times and silently recite the Gayatri verse one hundred and eight times. If he needs to speak at all, he should say only something useful.

276. He should then calmly spend the rest of the day in meditation. He should engage in twilight worship when the sun glows red until the appearance of stars.

277. He should again engage in meditation until he falls asleep. When he wakes from sleep he should meditate again and, while standing, silently recite again the mantras of the morning twilight worship.

278. Bharadvāja: After sipping a handful of water, saying, “You are the cover of ambrosia,” he should brush his teeth while reciting OM. He should throw the remainder of the food together with the plate into water, sip some water, control his breath three times, sip water again, and silently recite the mantra “May my speech be in my mouth, my breath in my nose. . .” [TS 5.5.9.2]. He should then sprinkle himself with the mantra “Waters you bring delight” [RV 10.9.1-3] and carry out the worship with the mantra “As we gaze from the darkness…” [TS 4.1.7.4]. Then, he should wash his begging bowl while reciting OM, silently recite the Gayatri verse one hundred and eight times, and, taking a cord of cow’s hair, rub the dry begging bowl with it while he again recites OM. After tying it as he recites the mantra “The quarters, the directions…” [TS 1.3.10.2], he should set the bowl down while reciting the Gayatri verse and worship the sun glowing red. A mendicant who thus takes his meal in the prescribed manner attains the highest goal.

Evening Duties 121 280. I describe next the evening twilight worship. On this point Saunaka writes: Rites such as bathing are done in the evening in the same way as before. After completing that entire set of rites, he should make an offering of water to the sun glowing red in the same manner as before.

281. Then he should worship the sun with the verses addressed to Varuna and complete the rites connected with twilight worship. Remaining seated, he should engage in meditation until he becomes sleepy. If he awakens he should again meditate. Such a man is fit for becoming Brahman.

282. Hārīta specifies the place where an ascetic should spend the night: After eating in the bowl, he should wash it while reciting a mantra. That bowl of his is not defiled like a cup at a sacrifice.

122 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 283. Then, after sipping some water and controlling his breath, he should worship the sun. He should spend the rest of the day engaged in silent prayer, meditation, and reading the epics. Then, after performing the twilight worship, he should spend the night in a temple or a similar place. 284. Śāṇḍilya: He should renounce all ritual activities, with the exception of the Veda. Building a hut outside the village, then, he should live there or at the foot of a tree.

285. Kratu: Free from attachments and doubts, undefiled and practicing yoga, he should live in a deserted house, a cave, a fire stall, or a temple.

286. Vasistha speaks about the prohibition of couches and the like, the covering for the body, and the obligation to sleep on the ground: He should always spend the night wearing a single garment, covering his body with an antelope skin or with grass that has been nibbled by cows, and sleeping on the ground.63 He should do so in the outskirts of the village, in a temple, in a deserted house, or at the foot of a tree. Mentally rehearsing his daily vedic recitation, he should always live in the wilderness and not roam in the vicinity of village cattle. [VaDh 10.9-16] 287. The same author comments: He should not eat until he becomes satiated. He may live within a village. He should not be crooked, deceitful, or irresolute. [VaDh 10.25-27] 288. Dakṣa addresses the issue of living without a companion and the question of who is entitled to live in a religious house and who is not: One is a true mendicant, two are said to form a sexual pair, and three are called a village. When they are more than that, they constitute a city.

287. A mendicant should not form a city, a village, or even a pair. If an ascetic forms these three, he falls from his duty.

288. In such groups gossip about kings, almsfood, and the like become rampant. Close association inevitably breeds love, calumny, and envy toward each other.

289. Mendicants who have become weak by performing austerities and silent prayers, who are sick or old, who are under evil planetary influence, and who suffer from a physical handicap are entitled to live in a religious house.

290. The critical edition of the VaDh has the reading anityām vasatim vaset, which translates as “He should not have a stable residence.” In the citation by Yadava, however, the passage is intended to show how an ascetic should spend the night, hence my somewhat nonliteral translation of nityam vasatim vaset as “he should always spend the night.” In this context, moreover, covering the body appears to refer to an ascetic substitute for a bed sheet.

291. Daily Practices 292. A mendicant who is healthy and young is not entitled to live in a religious house. If, for example, such a mendicant engages in sexual activity while living in a religious house, he defiles that place and also causes distress to the old people living there.

123 293. Kapila, on the other hand, approves of living with companions: He should greet respectfully teachers, old people, and those given to austerities who visit him. He should regard them as Viṣṇu himself. The practice of sharing what he has with them according to his ability in the performance of religious rites is also recommended as praiseworthy. He should live in the company of ascetics who are not cantankerous and follow common customs.

294. Śaunaka: He should neither build a house himself nor have one built for him. He should occupy one that is already built. Then, he should meditate on Brahman and keep his mind focused only on Brahman as he falls asleep. Or he may enter a temple free of heretics and somehow spend the night there, either keeping awake or sleeping. Then, sitting down, he should sip some water, control his breath three times, and sip again. At night he should sip water taken from a water pot placed on a wooden plank, while during the day he should use flowing water. He should not leave a holy place that is pleasant and has a lot of water. He should not develop an intense attachment to a sacred bathing place.

295. Vayu: At the end of the night water is to be drawn in the prescribed manner into a clean pot. He should himself throw away water that has remained in a pot a day and a night, even though it may be pure.

Behavior toward Ascetics 296. Next, I will explain what a householder should do when a mendicant visits him for food or lodging. In this connection, Jābāli the Elder writes: Even though a Brahmin may have mastered all four Vedas, offered Soma sacrifices, and performed a hundred sacrifices, an ascetic is far superior to him; they are as different as a sesame seed and Mount Meru.

297. If a man does not get up from his bed or chair when he sees an ascetic, on account of that deed that foolish man will be reborn in animal wombs after death.

298. One should not denigrate an ascetic, be he virtuous or sinful. People who are malevolent toward ascetics end up in hell.

124 Rules and Regulations of Brahmanical Asceticism 299. Dattatreya: A Brahmin who carries the emblem of the triple staff is Nārāyaṇa himself in visible form. So, when a man worships him, he thereby worships Visnu himself.

300. Non-mendicants should worship a mendicant who is totally devoted to his duties, irrespective of whether he is virtuous or vile, or whether he has taken his vows a long time ago or just recently.64 301. An ascetic who carries the triple staff is an image of Visṇu. One should always worship him with a devout heart using the eight-syllable mantra containing the name of Nārāyaṇa.6 302. The triple staff is the emblem of Visnu. It is the means of liberation for twice-born people and signals the cessation of all rules [see Ch. 2.51 n. 203. That is the teaching of the Veda.

301. The law contained in the triple Veda was once assaulted by Buddhists, heretics, and the followers of Kanāda, and it was protected by Visnu carrying a triple staff (see Ch. 1.2 n. 11.

302. Jamadagni: If someone gives to an ascetic food that has dried out and that had been cooked separately, the fool will go to hell on account of that sin.

303. An ascetic and a vedic student are both entitled to receive cooked food. If a man eats without giving food to these two, he should observe a lunar fast.

304. One should first pour water on the ascetic’s hand, then give the almsfood, and finally pour water on his hand again. That almsfood is equal to Mount Meru, and that water is comparable to the ocean.

305. Visṇu himself eats in the house of a man where an ascetic eats. The triple world eats in the house of a man where Visṇu eats.

306. All the sins that a householder may have accumulated during his entire life are reduced to ashes when an ascetic spends a single night with him.

307. If a man ignores those who do not cook and feeds people who do cook, all his labor with regard to divine and ancestral rites will be in vain. 310. If a man turns away a good ascetic who is neither defiled nor sinful, he will hand over his merits to that ascetic and take over the ascetic’s sins. 311. Whether he is a saint or a sinner, a fool or a sage, an ascetic should be honored, O Yudhisthira, even if he simply wears an ocher robe and carries a staff.

308. I have tried to make some sense of this somewhat unclear and possibly corrupt verse by assuming an avagraha before bhikṣubhih.

309. This mantra is om namo nārāyaṇāya-“OM Homage to Nārāyaṇa!” 6. Daily Practices 312. Atri: One who is giving the almsfood should first pour water on the mendicant’s right hand and then put the almsfood in the bowl that is carried in his left hand.

310. The pouring of water while giving almsfood has been ordained to satiate the gods and ancestors. They become sated indeed when that food is given.

311. Even if a man gives the entire earth, it would not equal the merit of preparing almsfood and giving it to a mendicant, who is an image of Visnu.

312. When man gives to a renouncer a begging bowl, a seat, a staff, a sling, or a water strainer, he reaps the reward of giving a cow.

313. If a man builds a hermitage to house sick mendicants or cares for them with healthy food and the like, he obtains an eternal reward.

314. Jābāli the Elder: Almsfood that has been kept aside, licked by cats and mice, left open to the wind, or dried up is equal to honey and meat.

315. The person who accepts almsfood that is stale or that had been previously offered to gods does not commit sin, but the donor goes to hell.

316. One should first pour water on the mendicant’s hand, then give the almsfood, and finally pour water on his hand again. That almsfood is equal to mountains, and that water is comparable to the ocean. Almsfood given in this manner satiates the gods.

317. Jābāli: If a man ever robs something from the hands of an ascetic, the fool will go to hell on account of that sinful deed.

318. When a man gives to a renouncer a triple staff, a water strainer, a begging bowl, or a seat, he reaps the reward of giving a thousand cows.

322-23. When a man gives to a triple-staffed ascetic a begging bowl of one of the four kinds furnished with all requisites after filling it with sacrificial food and offers himself as well, he rescues all those abject sinners who are burning in hell and, raising himself by himself, attains the highest state.

324. As many bowls and as much food as he gives, for that many thousands of years he will rejoice in heaven.

325. That ends the sixth chapter, entitled “Daily Practices,” of the Collection of Ascetic Laws.

125