पुराणे विश्वासटिप्पन्यः

[[The Eminence and the Philosophy of Puranas Source: prekshaa]]

Note: This is the first part of a series of the English translation of Mahamahopadhyaya Vidwan Sri N. Ranganatha Sarma’s Kannada monograph titled, purāṇagaḻa nele mattu tattvavicāra published in 2010.

Preface

In the expansive accomplishments of Indians in the field of literature, historical works (itihāsa) like the Vedas, Upanishads, Srimad Ramayana, and Mahabharata, and Puranic works like skāndapurāṇa, viṣṇupurāṇa and others are world-renowned works that bring pride to any country. The various stories, wise sayings, and more importantly, philosophical elements that are related to the Atman, are contemplative topics that attract scholars. From the ancient times, our people have called the Ramayana and Mahabharata as works of itihāsa or history. Therefore, we must consider Sri Rama, Lakshmana, Bhishma, Drona and others as real people who lived at some point in history, i.e., they were historical persons. Because they are an inextricable part of our mahākāvya-s (great literature), the supernatural and magical descriptions woven around them by the poet is entirely appropriate.

The eighteen mahāpurāṇa-s (Great Puranas) are widely known. Because all streams of philosophy in India are centred around the Atman, the literary body of work beginning with the Vedas have upheld the primacy of the Atman in its inquiry. The Veda is inaccessible to the human being’s ordinary faculties. Because it is widely accepted that the Puranas are the creations of humans, we can clearly see the human hand at various places therein. Owing to various reasons, human thought has assumed various forms, and we see some mutually opposing elements in the Puranas. However, because the Vedas are regarded as apauruṣeya (non-human origin), not a single line can be altered in them. But its meaning can be stretched and expanded and interpreted according to will and fancy. However, a philosopher endowed with pure consciousness, an honest seeker of Truth will clearly realise its true meaning.

There is an important difference between Indian philosophical inquiry and its Western counterpart. In our process of contemplating on the Ultimate Truth, we assign it various names such as Hari, Hara, Ganapati, Surya, and Shakti. We also assign to each of these various attributes, forms, and temperaments. Westerners assign no such names and attributes but use words such as soul, consciousness and so on in their inquiry. In reality, names like Hari, Hara, etc, are sectarian conceptions. The Indian who is habituated to sectarian worship from time immemorial doesn’t free himself from its thrall and is content to be immersed in it. Sects like Christianity and Islam describe philosophy using terminology such as Christ and Prophet and attribute temperaments and behaviours to the Ultimate Truth, and like Indian sects, are steeped in sectarian delusions. Such terminology and beliefs do not bring happiness to the genuine philosopher who is a seeker of Truth. Therefore, the person who sets aside all such sectarian beliefs and embarks on a real quest of the philosophical Truth will definitely find it. This is my conviction.

In reality, our Puranas are quests for such a philosophical Truth. However, a few sectarian fanatics have sidelined this quest for Truth and have twisted its contents in order to establish the supremacy of their respective sects. They have composed their own verses and added them to the Puranas. They have added lines which extol their sects and have created proofs for nonexistent premises. The sentences in the Puranas are unlike that of the Vedas which are chanted using the udātta-anudātta swara pattern. They also don’t contain Vaidika terms. There is no tradition of memorizing the Puranas. Therefore, it is easy to introduce interpolations in them.

According to Dr. Hazra, who has undertaken substantial research in the Puranas, the Vishnu Purana is the oldest. In his opinion, the date of this Purana is roughly 400 C.E. Other Puranas have been composed in an unbroken fashion all the way up to the fourteenth century C.E. Their source material can be traced back to Veda Vyasa who preached some Puranic concepts to his disciples, sūta and romaharṣaṇa. Thus, according to Dr. Hazra, the notion that Veda Vyasa wrote all the Puranas, became popular among our people.

The Bhagavata beautifully propounds the tenet that unsullied devotion (Bhakti) is the chief method of realizing the Bhagavan, who is the form of saccidānaṃda (Unqualified, Formless Bliss). Love (Prema) is included among the nine types of Bhakti. Therefore, several poets have described that the love that the Gopis had for Sri Krishna was the reason for them to obtain Mukti (spiritual liberation). This is also the essence of Jayadeva’s gītagoviṃda. The Bhagavata delineates on the centrality of Bhakti and expounds on the nature of Mukti using the Vedas as its premise. The nature of Mukti is where the Jiva (Living Self) realizes its true nature. In every chapter of the Bhagavata, we can clearly detect the Advaita philosophy of Sri śaṃkarācārya. The essence of Srimad Bhagavata is that Bhakti is the main vehicle for obtaining the afore-described nature of Mukti.

Several years have passed since I translated into Kannada the Vishnu Purana, and the 10^(th,) 11^(th,) and 12^(th) chapters of the Bhagavata. After they were published, several knowledge-lovers averred that the prefaces that I wrote for these translations were very appealing. To read all those prefaces, one needs to purchase five books. Not everyone can afford it. Some also told me that if all these could be compiled in one volume, a bigger number of people could read it and find joy. Thus, I thought of publishing such a compilation. The result is the present work titled The Eminence and the Philosophy of Puranas.

But who would come forward to print and publish this book? As an answer, my esteemed friend, Sri M.S. Srinivasa Rao readily offered to do so. This eminent gentleman has published several valuable books through his organization, Udayana Prakashana of which he is the owner. This is a matter of great joy for me. I immediately began work on the manuscript. However, I was unable to read and write (Note: Vidwan N. Ranganatha Sarma had lost his eyesight in the twilight years of his life). So, how could I make preparations for the book? As usual, my friend, Sri Yellapura Krishna Sarma came forward and organized the prefaces of those earlier books and got them ready for publication. For this great help, I shall always be grateful to Sri Krishna Sarma and Sri M.S. Srinivasa Rao.

I am also eternally grateful to my other friend Vidwan Ananta Sarma Bhuvanagiri, and Vidushi Smt Leelavati who went through the manuscript and proofread it.

In the end, I wholeheartedly remember the timely assistance rendered by the Vice Chancellor of the Karnataka Sanskrit University, Sri Mallepuram G. Venkatesh. He classified the chapters, gave them titles, wrote the blurb on the back cover, and beautified the work.

I submit this work to the readers with honour and affection.

Vidwan N. Ranganatha Sarma
9 July, 2010.

Intro

Eminence of the Puranas

[[Eminence of the Puranas Source: prekshaa]]

Puranas have occupied a special status in the realm of Bharatiya literature. The purpose of Puranas is to elucidate Dharma, Darshana (philosophy) and universal ethics. Keeping these as their foundation, Puranas narrate the importance of devotion, glories of Tirtha-Kshetras, Creation and Dissolution (of the world), and the lineages of various Rishis and Kings known to tradition. The Puranas are the basis for the various forms of contemporary Hindu Dharma. The meaning of the word Purana can be derived as purā bhavaṃ purāṇaṃ, or that which is ancient literature. The other derivation, purāpi navaṃ purāṇaṃ is also common. This means Purana is that work which expounds the eternal, unbroken and ever-new Dharma, and tenets of philosophy. Both meanings are equally valid. Our tradition declares that the Puranas describe the subtle meanings of the Veda by simplifying them in the form of stories and sub-stories.

itihāsapurāṇābhyām vedaṃ samupabṛṃhayet ।
bibhedyalpaśṛtād vedo māmayaṃ praharediti ॥

That there are 18 Puranas is well-known. The following Sloka is a good method to remember the names of these Puranas.

ma-dvayam bha-dvayam caiva bra-trayaṃ va-catuṣṭayam ।
a-nā-pa-liṃ-ga-kū-skāni purāṇāni pracakṣate ॥

Matsya, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Bhagavata, Brahma, Brahma-Vaivarta, Brahmanda, Vamana, Varaha, Vayu, Vishnu, Agni, Narada, Padma, Linga, Garuda, Kurma, and Skanda – these are the eighteen Mahapuranas (Great Puranas). Likewise, there also exist eighteen Upapuranas (or minor Puranas). Among these, only the Sanatkumara, Narasimha, Kapila, Manava, and others are extant. Others remain only in name.

There is difference of opinion in this categorization as well. For example, according to some, the Shiva Purana belongs to the Mahapurana category. Others classify it as an Upapurana. There is similar difference of opinion with respect to the Narada and Bhagavata Puranas. The very word Bhagavata is itself mired in controversy as to whether it denotes the famous Vishnu Bhagavata or the Devi Bhagavata. Sridhara Swami, in the first few lines of his commentary on the Vishnu Bhagavata declares, “bhāgavatam nāma anyadityapi nāśaṃkanīyaṃ (It must not be suspected that there exists another Bhagavatam.).” We need to accept his verdict and understand the term Bhagavata to mean Vishnu Bhagavata.

The primary sources for Puranas are very ancient. The word Purana occurs in the Atharva Veda (11.7.24) and the śatapatha brāhmaṇa (13.4.3 – 13). The bṛhadāraṇyaka upaniṣad mentions, “itihāsaṃ purāṇaṃ vidyā upaniṣadaḥ” while the chāṃdogya upaniṣad declares, “itihāsapurāṇaṃ paṃcamaṃ vedānām vedaḥ.” The āpastambha dharmasūtra contains a sentence, “atha purāṇe ślokān udāharanti.” When we examine all these, the antiquity of the Puranic literature becomes crystal clear. However, the verdict of modern scholars is clearly unanimous that the extant, voluminous mass of Puranic literature is not all that antiquarian. Of these, some belong to the Gupta Era (300-550 CE). Researchers also opine that Puranic literature witnessed a continuous growth till the tenth century CE.

The Skanda Purana is the most voluminous Purana comprising 81,000 Slokas while the Markandeya Purana is the least comprising just 9,000 Slokas. The Bhavishya Purana mentions the name of the founder of the Sikh sect Guru Nanak, as well as Bhattoji Dikshita, author of the siddhāṃtakaumudi, all names of recent history. Dr. Hazra has conducted extensive research on the Puranas. According to his opinion, the Vishnu Purana, dated 400 CE, is the oldest. This is chronologically followed by the Vayu Purana (500 CE), Bhagavata (600-700 CE), and Kurma Purana (700 CE). The mention of the Vayu Purana in Banabhatta’s harṣacarita is noteworthy. Overall, we may concur with Dr. Hazra’s opinion that till the 14^(th) Century CE, several new stories, episodes and interpolations were added to Puranas such as the Skanda.

Subject matter of the Puranas

Amarasimha, author of the amarakośa has given five main characteristics for the Puranas:

sargaśca pratisargaśca
vaṃśo manvantarāṇi ca ।
vaṃśānucaritaṃ cāpi
purāṇam pañcalakṣaṇam ॥

Purāṇa is one which describes sarga, pratisarga, vaṃśa, manvantara and vaṃśānucarita.

sarga = the world’s First Creation [Cosmogony].
pratisarga = dissolution of Creation
vaṃśa = lineage of the Gods and pitṛ-s (ancestors)
manvantara = history of the fourteen Manus beginning with the Manu named svayaṃbhu.
vaṃśānucarita = history of the Solar and Lunar lineages

Although this is the prescribed model for a Purana, not all Puranas reflect all these characteristics. The Vishnu Purana is the sole exception. Because the Vishnu Purana contains a harmonious blend of all these characteristics, it is only fitting that it is given a high place. Apart from the five characteristics, we observe the following subjects dealt with in the Puranas: Dharmaśāstra, Vedanta, Yoga, sāṃkhya (a philosophical school), jautiṣa (astronomy), Vaidya (medicine), vyākaraṇa (grammar), dhanurveda (archery), saṃgīta (music), śilpa (sculpture), alaṃkāra (prosody), and so on. Some Puranas contain purely sectarian matters. We also notice the competition between the Shaiva and Vaishnava sects. There are episodes which glorify a particular Devata and condemn others. Such episodes reflecting narrow-minded sectarian passions are later interpolations. Those who embark on a study of Puranas must necessarily be cautious of such interpolations.

Authorship and Period of Puranas

The total number of Slokas of all the eighteen Puranas is about 4,00,000. Therefore the question that naturally arises is this: who wrote such voluminous books? Tradition gives the following answer: “aṣṭādaśapurāṇānām kartā satyavatīsutaḥ: The Son of Satyavati (Vyasa) is the author of the eighteen Puranas.” The Padma Purana avers:

nistārāya tu lokānām
svayaṃ nārāyaṇaḥ prabhu: ।
vyāsarūpeṇa kṛtavān
purāṇāni mahītale ॥

Accordingly, we need to accept that Narayana who took the form of Veda Vyasa authored these eighteen Puranas. However, the Bengali author and scholar, Sri Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyaya who has examined the works of both Indian and Western scholars of Puranic literature provides valuable insights in his book, Sri Krishnacharit. We can summarise his findings as follows:

“When we examine all the eighteen Puranas, we find that numerous Slokas are identical in all of them. In some places, we see some textual variations.

The second part of the Brahma Purana contains the detailed story of Sri Krishna. The fifth part of the Vishnu Purana contains the same story. There is absolutely no difference between the two. All the Slokas in the twenty-eight chapters of the fifth part of the Vishnu Purana are exactly seen in the Brahma Purana. If the author of both these Puranas was the same, there was no need for such detailed repetition.

Besides, it is nearly impossible for the same author to have such a marked difference in literary style. The styles of Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana are so distinctive that there can be absolutely no unifying relationship between the two. To the reader of the two works, it will clear that the authorship is different.

Additionally, the same person will not write about the same topic in several different works. Neither will he repeatedly try to describe and elaborate the same thing over and over.

And then, in the eighteen Puranas, we notice multiple repetitions of the same story, and the same topics of Sastra. The story of Sri Krishna is one such great example of this fact. It appears in the first part of the Brahma Purana, the fifth part of the Vishnu Purana, in the Vayu Purana, in the tenth branch of the Srimad Bhagavata, in the third chapter of the Brahmavaivarta Purana, in the Padma Purana, Vamana Purana, and Kurma Purana. In the same manner, we can observe the multiple repititions of many subjects across many Puranas.

Besides, there is another significant aspect in all of this. If the same author had written all the eighteen Puranas, we would not notice so many glaring internal contradictions.

The Harivamsha also contains a detailed story of Sri Krishna.”

[[Dating of the Puranas and Interpolations Source: prekshaa]]

The Vishnu Purana declares, “The expert on the Puranas, Veda Vyasa has composed the Purana-samhita that includes ākhyāna upākhyāna gāthā and kalpaśuddhi. He taught it to his disciple, sūta romaharṣaṇa. In turn, sūta romaharṣaṇa taught it to his six disciples, Sumati, Agnivarca Mitrāyu, śāṃsapāyana, akṛtavraṇa and sāvarṇi. Of these, akṛtavraṇa, sāvarṇi, and śāṃsapāyana, who belonged to the kāshyapa gotra became the authors of the samhita-s. The basis of these three samhita-s was romaharṣaṇa’s samhita. The eighteen Puranas were composed n the basis of these four samhita-s. Apart from these, other sages composed the upa-puranas.” (aṃśa 3, chapter 4 Sloka: 15-26).

In this manner, we learn that romaharṣaṇa’s disciples eventually composed the eighteen Puranas. The Vishnupurana is one among them. This is made clear in the Vishnupurana itself in which Vyasa’s father Parashara narrates this account to Maitreya! The śrīmad bhāgavata says ¹ that traiyāruṇi, kashyapa, śāṃsapāyana, akṛtavraṇa, sāvarṇi and hārīta studied the fundamental samhita-s from Vyasa’s disciple, romaharṣaṇa. However, the same work says that Vyasa’s son, Shuka-Muni narrated the bhāgavata to the emperor Parikshita. This order of the composition of the Purana-samhita occurs in the Vayupurana and Agnipurana as well. Although names of the disciples slightly vary, the overall theme remains the same. The essence of this discussion is that Veda Vyasa must have composed just the Purana-samhita. Over time, it must have taken the form of the eighteen Puranas at the hands of his disciples and their disciples. Each topic in Vyasa’s original samhita must have been vastly expanded by these disciples and their disciples. If we accept this, the traditional opinion that Vyasa was the author of all the eighteen Puranas seems to have some credence. Vyasa’s disciples and their disciples belonged to various regions and lived in different periods. This also resolves the aforementioned confusion of repetition of the same topics in multiple Puranas. Besides, the raw material for Vyasa’s Purana-samhita was derived from a tradition that already existed in his time. We have already noted how the word Purana occurs in the Atharva Veda and the śatapatha brāhmaṇa. Thus, Vyasa drew from a highly ancient Puranic raw material and composed a seminal samhita in book form. Over the course of time, the eighteen Mahapuranas and Upa-Puranas were composed using Vyasa’s samhita as their base. However, based on this inference, we must not claim that the entire Puranic lore available to us in their present form were all composed by these ancient Rishis. In the medieval period when the Shaiva and Vaishnava sects were engaged in intense sectarian conflict, some unethical adherents composed scores of Slokas and slipped them into the Puranas. In an era when printing had not been invented, making such interpolations was an easy matter. Here we find the answer to the objection that there are many internal conflicts in the Puranic lore.

The prefaces and epilogues to Puranas must have been added much later. Whether they were written by the original Purana authors or were interpolated is difficult to say. From this, we also find a satisfactory answer to the question as to how Vyasa’s father Parashara narrated the Vishnupurana to him. We must deduce the same with regard to the composition of other Puranas as well. This fate has not escaped even our Itihasa-s like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Let’s agree that Vyasa himself wrote the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata itself says that Vyasa first narrated it to his disciple romaharṣaṇa. In turn, romaharṣaṇa narrated it to his son ugraśrava who narrated it to Rishis such as śaunaka. However, there is absolutely no reason for Vyasa to mention the name of ugraśrava. Therefore, it is clear that this preface was written by someone else.

And now, it must be said that contemporary scholars who have assigned different periods to the Puranas have erred. In the fourth aṃśa of the Vishnupurana, which narrates the lineage of the emperors of Kaliyuga, the Navanandas are mentioned (Chapter 24). Likewise, other Puranas also contain such historical material. Based on such events of recorded history, such scholars attempt to determine the date of the Puranas on a historical timeline. Traditional scholars reject this method of dating. They aver that the Rishis possessed divine clairvoyance, which enabled them to foresee the entire future events of the Kaliyuga, which they have recorded in the Puranas. Modern scholars reject this entirely. However, it appears that both future events and events of the recorded historical past were interpolated—this seems to be a reasonable conclusion. The overall summary can be stated as follows:

The raw material for the Puranas is extremely ancient.
Veda Vyasa slightly expanded this Puranic raw material and wrote a samhita.
Based on Vyasa’s samhita, his disciples and their disciples composed the eighteen Puranas categorised by topic.
It is true that the extant Puranas contain interpolations.
Because the Vishnupurana says, “Munis [sages] composed the Upa-puranas,” we can conclude that they were indeed composed by some anonymous Munis. It is incorrect to say that contemporary authors composed the Upa-puranas.
Typically, all Puranas mention the eighteen Puranas and the Upa-puranas. Therefore, these prefaces and epilogues were written at a later time and added to the original text.
The authors who expanded the Puranas were our ancient Munis and not later day authors.
Modern scholars and researchers assign different dates and conclude that Puranas are comparatively of recent antiquity. However, not a single Purana is of recent origin. We can only say that Puranas belong to the post-Mahabharata period.

Notes

Vishnupurana

Importance of the Vishnupurana

[[Importance of the Vishnupurana Source: prekshaa]]

The Vishnupurana is important from several perspectives. As mentioned earlier, the five characteristics of Puranas are contained in this Purana. Unlike other Puranas, this does not contain details of Vrata-s. Nor does it contain the glories of tīrthakṣetra-s (places of pilgrimage). The sacred observances in this Purana are entirely in consonance with the Vedas and *dharmasūtra-*s. Wearing the sacred ash, sacred marks, nāma-s, and other sectarian displays of symbolism and rituals are absent in this work. It does not mention any elaborate details of various Dharmic practices. Owing to these reasons, this Purana is notable for its overall integrity, and has been subjected to the least amount of interpolations. It is true that the Third Amsa of this Purana contains significant details of śrāddha (death ceremonies). Indeed, it is surprising to note that compared to the other topics in this Purana, the śrāddha details are quite extensive. Perhaps, many portions in this section are interpolations.

The linguistic style of the Vishnupurana is charming. The prose passages that are interspersed therein are truly lovely. The other specialty is the extremely limited usage of the ārṣaprayoga (diction and usage of the Vedic Sanskrit style in both prose and poetry). No Puranic episode has been unnecessarily stretched. The stories of Dhruva and Prahlada are enchanting akin to a piece of good poetry. Likewise, the story of Sri Krishna which occurs in the Fifth Amsa qualifies as good poetry.

Parāśara Maharshi narrated this Purana to his disciple, Maitreya. The Purana comprises six *Amsa-*s, and each Amsa in turn, comprises several chapters. The number of Slokas in the Vishnupurana roughly totals to twenty-three thousand. Sridhara Swami has authored a commentary titled ātmaprakāśa (literally, Light of the Soul). He is the same renowned Vidwan who also wrote commentaries for the Bhagavad Gita and Srimad Bhagavata. He was a great luminary of the Bhakti school. We do not have exact details of Sridhara Swami’s time. One estimate places him in the sixteenth century CE. In his works, he has cited ancient commentators like citsukhayoni and others. We also find another commentary on the Vishnupurana titled viṣṇucittīya. The name of the author remains unknown. In the beginning of this commentary, there is a eulogy of Sri Viṣṇucitta Yati. This enables us to conclude that the work was composed by a disciple of this Yati (monk) and named in the honour of his Guru. Apart from this work, we also have the Vaiṣṇavākūtacaṃdrikā, the critique of Ratnagarbha. Thus, the existence of numerous such commentaries shows the distinction of the Vishnupurana.

We can summarize the contents of the Vishnupurana as follows:

The First Amsa: Story of the creation of the world, which is imbued with twenty-four Elements (Tattva). The story of the creation of the various prajāpati-s (Supreme Being, son of Brahma) devatā-s, pitṛgaṇa-s (group of Divine Ancestors) and marudgaṇa-s (Group of Wind Gods). Stories of Dhruva and Prahlada. The glory of Vishnu.

The Second Amsa: Description of the earth; the nine continental divisions; description of the adholoka (Nether World) and ūrdhvaloka (Upper World); description of the Solar Wheel and the Nine planets; episode of Jaḍabharata and ṛbhu and nidhāghara.

The Third Amsa: Description of the Sons of Manu; the different Vyasas who appear in each of the Four Yugas; the Dharma of the Four Varnas; customs of the brahmacarya (Celibate) and gṛhastha (householder) Ashramas, and elaborate injunctions of Sastras for each.

The Fourth Amsa: Lineages of Vaivasvata Manu, and ikṣvāku with a brief exposition of Sri Rama’s story; lineages of Soma, Yadu, and Kuru; mention of the Kings who would rule Bharatavarsha in the future; lineage of the māgadhā-s; Kings of the Kali Yuga and description of the Kali Dharma.

The Fifth Amsa: Detailed narration of the story of Sri Krishna; the destruction of the Yadava lineage; coronation of King Parikshit; description of the ascent of the Pandavas to Heaven.

The Sixth Amsa: Description of the Kali Dharma; importance of śūdra-s and women; exposition on the concept of Time; description of the naimittika praḻaya (periodic dissolution of the world) and prākṛta praḻaya (comprehensive destruction of all the Worlds); the Ultimate Form of the Bhagavan; Brahmayoga; succession of the disciples of Rishis; epilogue.

Parashara Maharshi states that the Vishnupurana is entirely consonant with the Veda: etatte yanmayākhyātaṃ purāṇaṃ vedasammatam (6.8.12). From this it is clear that the topics contained in the Vedas are discussed in this Purana. For example: nāho na rātrirnabho na bhūmi: nāsīttamo jyotirabhūcca nānyat (1.2.23). This Sloka is a magnification of the Rg-Vedic nāsadīya sūkta, which avers, nāsadāsīt no sadāsīt. Other Slokas such as sahasraśīrṣā puruṣaḥ sahasrākṣaḥ sahasrapāt (1.12.58 thru 65) are explanations for the famous puruṣa suktam. Likewise, we also notice the expositions of the meanings of the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita in several sections. Apart from similarity in meaning between the Vishnupurana and Vedas and Bhagavad Gita, we also observe linguistic similarity. Overall, it is undoubted that the Vishnupurana was highly renowned and extraordinarily popular from really ancient times. We can also conclude that Mahakavi Kalidasa had thoroughly studied the Vishnupurana and was deeply influenced by it. There is a close match in the description of the Kings of the ikṣvāku lineage found in Kalidasa’s epic poem, Raghuvamsa with that found in the Vishnupurana. Describing the King Raghu, Kalidasa says, rājā prakṛtiraṃjanāt (4.12). This Kalidasan etymological derivation of the word rājā, meaning, “one who provides delight to his citizens,” is found in the Vishnupurana: rājā bhūjjanaraṃjanāt (1.13.93). In the Raghuvamsa, the Rishi Vasiṣṭha describes King Dilīpa’s devoted service of the Divine Cow Nandini as follows:

prasthitāyām pratiṣṭhethāh sthitāyām sthitimācareh ।
niṣaṇṇāyām niṣīdāsyām pītāṃbhasi piberapah ॥ (1.89)

The Vishnupurana instructs the method by which the disciple should serve his Guru:

sthite tiṣṭhe vrajedyāte nīcairāsīta cāsati । (3.9.4)

When we notice such comparisons, it is clear that Kalidasa was indeed influenced by the Vishnupurana.

[[The Spiritual Tenets of Vishnupurana Source: prekshaa]]

In the Vishnupurana, the verses that profoundly inspire and extol devotion towards the nation are especially noteworthy. These verses unambiguously declare that Bharatavarsha is a Karmabhoomi par excellence, that one takes birth in this land due to the merit of Punya and that this rare fortune is not easily available to everyone:

atra janma sahasrāṇāṃ sahasrairapi sattama।
kadācillabhate janturmānuṣyaṃ puṇyasañcayāt॥
gāyanti devā: kila gītakāni dhanyāstu te bhārata bhūmibhāge।
svargāpavargāspadamārgabhūte bhavanti bhūya: puruṣā: suratvāt।। (2.3.23, 24)

We have already mentioned that the Vishnupurana is akin to a poetry of high standard containing lovely descriptions. As an example, we can consider this description of the autumn season:

mayūrā maunamātasthu: parityaktamadā vane ।
asāratāṃ parijñāya saṃsārasyeva yoginaḥ ॥
utsṛjya jalasarvasvaṃ vimalāḥ sitamūrtayaḥ ।
tatyajyuścāṃbaraṃ meghā gṛhaṃ vijñānino yathā ॥
tārakā vimale vyomni rarājakhaṇḍamaṇḍalaḥ ।
candraścaramadehamātamā yogī sādhukule yathā ॥

This description of the autumn season, prolifically filled with a superb lineage of similes, occurs in the tenth chapter of the fifth Amsa and is extremely enchanting. Likewise, the description of the Gopis who were immersed in devotion towards Sri Krishna, is also lovely.

taccitta vimalāhlāda kṣīṇapuṇyacayā tathā ।
tadaprāpti mahāduḥkha vilīnāśeṣapātakā ॥ (5.13.21, 22)

It is noteworthy that Mammata, in his kāvyaprakāśa (in Ullasa 4.81, 82) cites both these verses. In fact, the fifth Amsa which contains Sri Krishna’s story, is itself an epic poem.

The Vishnupurana not only engages in deep contemplation about spiritual topics but expounds high ethics in a deeply meaningful fashion. Several writers of subhāṣitas have compiled numerous verses from the Vishnupurana in their works on ethics and morals. We can consider this verse as an example:

yā dustyajā durmatibhiḥ yā na jīryatijīryataḥ ।
tāṃ tṛṣṇāṃ saṃtyajet prājñaḥ sukhenaivābhipūryate ॥
jīryanti jīryataḥ keśā dantā jīryanti jīryataḥ ॥
dhanāśā jīvitāśā ca jīryatopi na jīryataḥ ॥ (4.10.26, 27)

The verses in the sixth Amsa that talk about the excesses occurring in the Kali Yuga are highly interesting:

sarvameva kalau śāstraṃ yasya yadvacanaṃ dvijaḥ ।
vivāhā na kalau dharmyā na śiṣyagurusaṃsthitiḥ ॥
na dāmpatyakramo naiva vahnidevātmakaḥ kramaḥ ।
vedādānaṃ kariṣyanti vaṭavaścākṛtavratāḥ ।
yaśca yascābalaḥ sarvaḥ sa sa bhṛtyaḥ kalau yuge ॥

The elements of astronomy discussed in this Purana are more less affirmed by modern science. There is evidence to show that the author of this Purana had knowledge about astronomy. We can summarize the essence of the astronomical topics in this Purana as follows. All this occurs in chapters eight through twelve in the second Amsa: “The Sun does not rise or set. In common parlance, when people see him, they say that he has risen and when he fades away, they say that he has set. Reasons have been set forth to prove the durational variations in day and night. The Sun sucks water from the sea and in turn, showers rain. When the Moon sits in an equidistant territory between the Sun and Earth, the New Moon occurs. Winter Solstice, Summer Solstice, the Equator, the Aries and other constellations have all been recognized according to scientific principles. The Earth’s shadow has been called Rahu. On the Full Moon Day, Rahu lives near the Moon and on the New Moon Day, lives near the Sun. The sky contains an infinite cluster of stars. This Great Wheel of Celestial Illumination is bound by the vāyuraśmi (literally, Aerial Rays), which keeps it together in Space (ākāśa). The Sun has held the Earth in its place. The Sun and other planets have been held together by the Pole Star acting through the agency of the selfsame vāyuraśmi. In turn, the Pole Star has been held in its place by the śiśumāra Constellation (constellation between Pegasus and Aquila). Finally, Sri Narayana holds the śiśumāra Constellation in its place.”

The term vātaraśmi that also occurs in the Vishnupurana stands for the power of gravity.

Spirituality

Now we can examine the spiritual concepts that the Vishnupurana propounds. Because this Purana is consonant with the Veda, the topics that it contains are entirely Vedantic (or Upanishadic) and not sectarian. Although it contains elements of the sāṅkhya School, these elements are Vedantic contributors and do not belong to the sāṅkhya system propounded by Kapila. The Vishnupurana does not vilify other darśana-s. However, it does criticize the cārvāka, bauddha, and jaina schools. Suffice to say that this is a rather common criticism because these schools do not accept the authority of the Veda.

As the name suggests, the Vishnupurana is dedicated to extolling the glory of Mahavishnu. We can now consider this question: when we say Vishnu, do we refer to the Parabrahma responsible for the creation of the trimūrti? When we study this Purana in a comprehensive and integrated fashion, we understand that the saguṇa Vishnu (Vishnu with external attributes and qualities) was manifested by the Advaita Brahma, which is nirguṇa (non-attributes), nirākāra (having no shape or form) and whose nature is Pure Consciousness (sat) and Pure Knowledge (Jnana). Thus, the Vishnupurana expounds Advaita Brahma. When this Brahma, through the power of its māya manifests itself in a tangible form, it shows itself as Vishnu, Brahma and Shiva, the trimūrti. Of these, Vishnu-mūrti (mūrti = form, attribute) is the perfect embodiment of the sattva-guṇa. Thus, we arrive at the conclusion that this Purana accords special esteem to Vishnu and praises him with great reverence. We can briefly elucidate this with some inferences.

The Nature of paramātman

The nature of the highest Spiritual Knowledge is very pure and crystal clear. However, as this verse shows, the power of illusion makes it appear to our eyes as a transactional truth.

jñāna-svarūpam-atyanta-
nirmalaṃ paramārthataḥ ।
tamevārthasvarūpeṇa
bhrānti-darśanataḥ sthitaṃ ॥ (1.2.6)

This verse clearly says that the aforementioned Brahma appears to us as the physical world due to the power of illusion. We must realise that Vishnu is essentially the embodiment of the Ultimate (philosophical) Knowledge and that the name of this Knowledge is Brahma:

viśṇor jñāna-mayasyoktam
taj-jñānaṃ brahma-sañjñitam ॥(1.22.51)

The term vijñānamadvaitam (1.22.48) affirms this. The Knowledge that is bereft of all contrasts, that which is Pure Consciousness, and that which language cannot express, and that which is realizable only through experience is known as Brahma:

pratyastamita bhedaṃ yat
sattā-mātram agocaram ।
vacasām ātma-saṃvedyaṃ
taj-jñānaṃ brahma-sañjñitam ॥(6.7.53)

This Brahma of Pure Consciousness is the Ultimate Nature of the saguṇa Vishnu and that it is extremely rare, avers the next verse:

tacca viṣṇoḥ paraṃ rūpam
arūpākhyam anusattamam ॥ (6.7.54)

Devotees worship this saguṇa Vishnu who is endowed with a physical form, as one among the trimūrti-s. However, if we say that this Vishnu is also formless, the inevitable conclusion is that it is the selfsame Advaita Parabrahma. Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva are the different forms of the same Parabrahma. This Parabrahma becomes Vishnu when he is perfectly imbued with the sattva-guṇa. If he is imbued with the rajo-guṇa, he becomes Brahma, and if he is imbued with the tamoguṇa, he is worshipped as Shiva. Thus, only the names are different in accordance with the dominance of guṇa. However, on the plane of philosophy, there is absolutely no difference. Creation, Order and Dissolution occur through the One Formless Brahma, who merely takes on the different forms of the trimūrti. The Vishnupurana expounds this philosophy at every step.

For the sake of fuller and greater clarity, we can consider some verses that bolster this.

Advaita Darshana in the Vishnupurana

[[Advaita Darshana in the Vishnupurana Source: prekshaa]]

1. viṣṇurbrahmasvarūpeṇa svayameva vyavasthitaḥ ॥ (1.2.56)

2. sṛṣṭisthityanta karaṇīyaṃ brahmaviṣṇuśivātmikāṃ ॥ (1.2.66)

3. tvaṃ kartā sarvabhūtānāṃ tvaṃ pātā vināśakṛta ।

sargādiṣu prabho brahmaviṣṇurudrātmārūpadhruk ॥ (1.4.15)

4. śaktayo yasya devasya brahmaviṣṇuśivātmikāḥ ।

bhavantyabhūtapurvasya tadviṣṇoḥ param padaṃ ॥ (1.9.56)

5. prasīda sarva sarvātman kṣārakṣaramayeśvara ।

brahmaviṣṇuśivākhyābhiḥ kalpanābhirudīritaḥ ॥ (5.18.51)

6. sargasthitivināśānām kartā kartṛpatirbhavān ।

brahmaviṣṇuśivākhyābhirātmamūrtibhirīśvaraḥ ॥ (5. 30.10)

From the foregoing verses, it is clear that the Bhagavan is One but devotees create different saguṇa forms and worship him accordingly. As we mentioned earlier, Vishnu is glorified as the embodiment of the sattva-guṇa because he is regarded as being closest to the Formless Brahma. The sattva- guṇa is the causal element for this. The following verse confirms this:

sa paraḥ paraśaktīnāṃ brahmaṇaḥ samanantaram ।
mūrtam brahma mahābhāga sarva brahmamayo hariḥ ॥ (1.22.63)

Of all the great powers of the Formless Brahma, Sri Hari, who is visible as the Manifested Embodiment is the most excellent, and occupies the immediate second place. Further, of these powers of this Unmanifested Brahma, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are the most important:

brahma viṣṇu śivā brahman pradhānā brahmaśaktayaḥ ॥ (1.22.58)

Of these, the Vishnupurana regards Vishnu’s power as the best. In fact, Vishnu himself tells Sankara on occasion, “There is no difference between me and you. The entire world is merely a form of both of us. The dvaitis who are caught in the guiles of avidyā think we are both separate:

yo’haṃ satvaṃ jagaccedaṃ sadevāsuramānuṣaṃ ।
matto nānyadaśeṣaṃ yat tattvaṃ jñātumihārhasi ॥
avidyāmohitātmānaḥ puruṣā bhinnadarśinaḥ ।
vadanti bhedaṃ paśyanti cāvarorantaraṃ hara ॥ (5.33.48, 49)

Origin of the World

The story of the process of the creation of this world narrated in the Vishnupurana largely resembles the one found in Kapila’s sāṅkhya system. According to the sāṅkhya School, prakṛti and puruṣa are the two primordial elements of this world. The puruṣa represents the jīvātma (soul). There is an infinite number of jīvātma-s. However, the primordial jīvātma is independent and is not created by any human. But according to the Vishnupurana, Vishnu is this independent primordial entity.

From this primordial entity, prakṛti, the manifestation of avidyā becomes visible, and this prakṛti is responsible for the infinite forms of this world. However, this world, and the prakṛti which is responsible for it, is not separate from Vishnu. Jīvātma, who is also known as kṣetrajña (Conscious Principle in the corporeal frame) is simply another form of Vishnu, and is not a separate Principle. Indeed, it is superfluous to say that this axiom is the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.

The process of creation is described in great detail beginning with the second chapter of the first Amsa through the fifth chapter*.* Because readers would assume this process to be similar with that found in the sāṅkhya School, it was necessary to provide the foregoing clarification. The process of creation and philosophical expositions described in the Vishnupurana like that found in the Srimad Bhagavad-Gita and the Bhagavata, is completely in tune with Vedanta. We can briefly examine the relevant verses. The following verse says that Vishnu is responsible for the creation, sustenance and destruction of the world.

viṣṇoḥ sakāśād uddhūtaṃ
jagat tatraiva ca sthitam ।
sthiti-saṃyama-kartāsau
jagatosya jagacca saḥ ॥ (1.1.31)

Next, the following verse says that jīvātma, the Manifest, the Unmanifest and Time are all forms of the Formless Brahma:

parasya brahmaṇo rūpam
puruṣaḥ prathamaṃ dvija ।
vyaktāvyakte tathaivānye
rūpe kālastathā param ॥ (1.2.15)

avidyā manifested itself in the world at the beginning of creation precisely due to Vishnu. Because there is no world without avidyā, “avidyā pañca parvaiṣā prādhurbhūtā mahātmanaḥ ॥ (1.5.5)”

We have already mentioned that the philosophical exposition in the Vishnupurana is nothing but Advaita. We can now see other proofs that further confirm the same. It has already been stated that the Formless Brahma is bereft of form, colour, name, and other attributes.

paraḥ parāṇāṃ paramaḥ paramātmātmasaṃsthitaḥ ।
rūpavarṇādinirdeśaviśeṣaṇavivarjitaḥ ॥ (1.2.20)

It also describes Sri Krishna as the Formless Brahma and that he came to the earth as an avatara for uplifting the world: “yatrāvatīrṇam kṛṣṇākhyaṃ parabrahma nirākṛtiḥ ॥ (4.12.4)”

Just like how space, time and other elements are responsible for the creation of trees by their mere existence, Sri Hari too, is responsible for this world without himself undergoing any change: “tathaivāpariṇāmena viśvasya bhagavān hariḥ ॥ (2.7.27)” He becomes the primordial prakṛti and manifests himself as the world. This suggests vivartavāda (a method of asserting the Vedanta doctrine) in the Vishnupurana: “sa eva mūlaprakṛtiḥ vyaktarūpī jagacca saḥ.” In this connection, adherents of Advaita Vedanta who quote the Vedic phrase, “mṛttiketyeva satyaṃ“ will note that its meaning has been clearly enunciated in the “mahī ghaṭatvaṃ ghaṭitaḥ kapālikā” verse. Thus, apart from Pure Knowledge, all knowledge derived from the material world is merely transient. This is suggested by the succeeding verse: “tasmānna vijñānamṛtesti kiñcit, kvacit kadācit dvija vastujātam ॥ (2.12.41, 42)”

In that case, the question arises as to how this world, characterised by dvaita, is visible to our eyes? The Vishnupurana says that Pure Knowledge or Brahma, has no physical form and that the physical world is seen as such by the ignorant (i.e., devoid of this knowledge) through the power of illusion. It further says that people lacking intellect confound transient knowledge with Pure Knowledge and continue to suffer (1.4.39, 40). Things like mountains are the outward forms discernible by science. When Karma melts away and Knowledge becomes untainted by error, worldly differences cease to exist (2.12-39, 40). However, people who continue to spot only differences are attached to avidyā (5.33.49). The world appears as full of contrasts due to the power of avidyā (13.17.38). However, the Formless and Pure Brahma which is One, is also known as Ishwara. The question “why” arises. The Vishnupurana answers that this name is given out of courtesy (1.9.46). The One Brahma is the creator, protector, observer, and destroyer all at once (1.2.70). He is himself the enjoyer, consumer, work, and the doer of work (2.9.50).

We observe clearer and emphatic declarations of these aspects in the stories of Prahlada, and ṛbhu-nidāgha. Narrating the real nature of Vishnu, Prahlada tells his father Hiranyakashyipu that Vishnu is the one by whom the universe has been created and who is Himself the universe:

yato yaśca svayaṃ viśvaṃ sa viṣṇuḥ parameśvaraḥ ॥ (1.17.22)

Elsewhere, he says that the Devas and humans are all forms of Vishnu and that they appear apparently different (1.19.47). When Hiranyakashyipu binds Prahlada with serpents, the latter says that he himself got it bound from the indivisible knowledge that he was Vishnu himself. At that moment, all his sins were washed away and his soul was cleansed. Thus, the serpents automatically fell away. This portion of the Vishnupurana is extremely memorable.

sarva gatvādanantasya sa evāhamavastithaḥ ।
mattaḥ sarvamahaṃ sarvaṃ mayi sarvaṃ sanātane ॥
ahamevākṣayo nityaḥ paramātmātmasaṃśrayaḥ ।
brahmasañjñoshamevāgre tathānte ca paraḥ pumān ॥ (1.19.85, 86)

We can also consider the succeeding verse:

evaṃ sañcintayan viṣṇuṃ abhedenātmano dvija ।
tanmayatvamavāpyāgryaṃ mene cātmānamacyutaṃ ॥
visasmāra tathātmānaṃ nānyat kiñcidajānata । ahamevāvyayoSnantaḥ paramātmetyacintayat ॥ (1.20.1, 2)

Likewise, we notice this principle of non-difference in the story of ṛbhu-nidāgha. The term Advaita has been directly used in this episode in many places. In this story, Jadabharata clearly tells King Sauvira, “vijñānaṃ paramārthosau dvaitinotathyadarśinaḥ.” The atman which is One, appears differently due to reasons related to the gross body. When this covering of the body and other gross material melts away, difference no longer exists. Jadabharata then narrates the story that underscores the tenets of Advaita. Nidāgha is ṛbhu’s disciple. Even after the passage of a substantial period, Nidāgha does not develop the temperament required for Advaita. When ṛbhu observes this, he repeatedly visits the disciple’s house and gives several discourses expounding the Advaita philosophy. The following lines that occur in this story are noteworthy. Nidāgha says that apart from ṛbhu, nobody else had developed the Samskara required for Advaita.

nānyasyādvaita saṃskārasaṃskṛtaṃ mānasaṃ tathā ॥

Advaita is indeed the essence of Pure Knowledge:

paramārtha sārabhūtaṃ tadadvaitamaśeṣataḥ ॥

Thus, according to ṛbhu’s discourse, Nidāgha eventually embarked on the path of Advaita and realized that all creatures in this world were not different from him.

nidaghospyupadeśena tenādvaita parosbhavat ।
sarvabhūtānabhedena dadṛśe sa tadātmanaḥ ॥

After narrating this story, Jadabharata tells King Sauvira: “just as how the same sky appears as white and black to the deluded person with defective vision, in the same manner, the One Atman appears different to the ignorant person. Only the One exists. He is indestructible, He is me, He is you, He is indeed everything. Give up your attachment for difference:

sītanīlādibhedena yathaikaṃ dṛśyate nabhaḥ ।
bhrāntidṛṣṭibhirātmāpi tathaikassana pṛthak pṛthak ॥
eka samastaṃ yadihāsti kiñcit ।
tadacyuto nāsti param tatosnyat ॥
so’haṃ sa ca tvaṃ sa ca sarvametat ।
ātmasvarūpaṃ, tyaja mohabhedam ॥ (See also: Amsa 2: Chapters 15 and 16)

We can cite hundreds of lines that expound and extoll Advaita in the aforementioned manner. In spite of this, if misrepresentations are made by deliberately twisting the meanings of words, it only means that prejudices are compulsorily force-fitted into the original intent and we cannot claim that we have understood what the Vishnupurana has set out to say.

Pure Knowledge is One and indivisible. It is the Brahma without attributes, unchangeable and pure. By its innate power, it takes physical forms such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. In this Trinity, Vishnu, the predominantly Sattvic form is the best. By the power of illusion vested in the Brahma, differences in life forms and the entire world is created. This is the essence of the spiritual tenets contained in the Vishnupurana.

[[The Real Education that Puranas Offer Source: prekshaa]]

The Path of Sadhana

The Vishnupurana has accepted Bhakti and the performance of Karmas laid down by the Sastras as valid paths of Sadhana. The Inner Life will be purified by performing Karmas. The Bhagavan will reside in that Inner Life. When that occurs, Pure Knowledge will be realized and the highest pedestal called Vishnu will be attained (1.6.12, 13). Only people who perform Karmas will reach the exalted world of Prajapati and others. Only Yogis and Sanyasis will realize the Ultimate Brahman. Those who contemplate on the twelve sacred syllables, “oṃ namo bhagavate vāsudevāya” will attain Moksha through the portals of Sacred Knowledge (1.6.37 thru 40). Although Dhruva witnessed the physical form of Vishnu, he did not attain Moksha. After meditating upon Vishnu for a prolonged period, he was freed from the bonds of virtue and sin and finally attained Moksha (1.20.34). For the attainment of Moksha, even virtue, like sin, is an obstacle. The full meaning of Gita’s verse, “jñānāgniḥ sarvakarmāṇi bhasmatāt kuruterjuna” becomes crystal clear in Dhruva’s attainment of Moksha. This is the sequence: attainment of Pure Knowledge through meditation upon the Bhagavan; Pure Knowledge leading to freedom from virtue and sin; from this, the attainment of Moksha. The description of the attainment of Pure Knowledge (jñāna-Yoga) is beautifully brought out in the conversation between khāṇḍikya and keśidhvaja. This occurs in the seventh chapter of the sixth Amsa and can be called the heart of the Vishnupurana. The absorbing facet in this portion is the mention that Vishnu can be meditated upon as having Eight Arms (aṣṭabhuja). It mentions that the devotee must meditate upon each of these physical aspects and gradually erase the entire saguṇa form of Vishnu. By doing this, the devotee will eventually grasp his Formless aspect. Reaching this stage is known as Samadhi. In this Samadhi, the distinctions of meditator, the object of meditation, and meditation (the three together is known as tripuṭi) will cease to exist. This state is called the nirvikalpa Samadhi. The person who attains this Samadhi is truly fulfilled. In this state, differences that arise due to ignorance (or illusion) will be destroyed and the person will attain full unison with the Bhagavan and will become abhedi (one who has overcome differences):

vibhedajanakeSjñāne nāśamatyantikaṃ gate ।
ātmano brahmaṇo bhedamasantaṃ kaḥ kariṣyati ॥ (6.7.96)
When the ignorance that causes differences is completely destroyed, who can create any difference in the realisation that the person and Brahma are the same?

The following verse which describes the nature of Bhakti is truly splendid.

yā prītiravekānām viṣayeṣvanapāyinī ।
tvāmanusvarataḥ sā me hrudayānmāpasarpatu ॥ (1.20.19)

Praying to Vishnu, Prahlada says, “no matter what birth I take, let my devotion for you remain steadfast and unswerving.” Further, he says, “Those bereft of wisdom have firm attachment and love for objects that they think bring them happiness. Let my heart which constantly chants your name, also have the same attachment and love for you. Let it not sway even a bit.” The truly blessed person who is endowed with this unswerving devotion will have nothing to do with Dharma, Artha, or Kama. Moksha resides in his palm: “muktistasya kare sthitāḥ.”

Vishnupurana and Srimad Bhagavatam

Among the ten renowned *avatara-*s of Vishnu, the Vishnupurana contains the stories of five: kūrma, varāha, nṛsiṃha, rāma, and kṛṣṇa. Of these, Sri Rama’s story is narrated very briefly while Sri Krishna’s story is highly elaborate. The famous story where nṛsiṃha slays the demon Hiranyakashyipu occurs in just one line and is not given any importance. The story of the ten *avatara-*s of Vishnu is provided in a detailed fashion in the Srimad Bhagavatam. It occupies a highly significant place in that Purana. Although the Vishnupurana emphasizes on the importance of Bhakti, this emphasis occurs in a subtle fashion. However, in the Bhagavatam, the exposition of Bhakti is exhaustive and extremely appealing. We can recall here that the very purpose of the Bhagavatam is to offer a discourse on the primacy of Bhakti. In instances where the bhāgavata (expositor of Vishnu Bhakti) describes Bhakti, he forgets himself and is immersed in the Bhagavan. It appears that the goal of the Bhagavatam is to elaborately explain every single facet of the Vishnupurana. However, in the Bhagavatam, we do not see the lilting linguistic style and simplicity of the Vishnupurana. When we consider other aspects such as the sameness of subject and phrasal similarity, we can conclude that the Bhagavatam is akin to a commentary on the Vishnupurana. However, it is our definite opinion that the author of the Bhagavatam certainly had the Vishnupurana in front of him.

Importance of the Puranas

The tradition of reciting and listening to Puranas has come down to us from ancient times in this sacred Bharatavarsha. In both villages and cities, it was common to witness Purana recitations in temple premises in the evenings. The thawing of this tradition in recent times is proving highly dangerous for the growth of our Sanatana culture. It is equally a matter of great regret that our children do not have even a basic acquaintance of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. A good section of contemporary Hindus have not even heard of great Bhaktas like Dhruva, Prahlada, Markandeya or Ambarisha; they are ignorant of extraordinarily courageous heroes like Nala, Harishchandra, or Yayati; they know nothing about virtuous women like Damayanti, Anasuya, or Chandramati. This is the direct consequence of the decline of the tradition of Purana recitation and listening. More alarming is the fact that even the educated class of Hindus show a wanton negligence towards Puranas. Some have even gone to the extent of hurling contempt against Puranas, “We don’t need your Purana!” However, the truth is exactly the opposite of this attitude. When our ancients declared that the Puranas are part of the fourteen branches of learning, they weren’t merely praising the Puranas. We must not forget the fact that the very purpose of the Puranas is to inform and educate the masses about the most essential topics related to both worldly knowledge and spiritual literacy. The stories narrated in the Puranas are extremely thrilling. The moral and ethical principles that one must learn from these are invaluable. The philosophical tenets expounded therein in simple terms sans tough theories are worth contemplating throughout life. Specialist topics such as Yoga, jyautiṣa (astronomy), etc., that occur incidentally are essential knowledge for every person. Although the long lists of lineages and dynastic histories might bring boredom, we must not forget that they have historical value. Besides, the sections on ācārasaṃhita (related to right conduct) and dharmasaṃhita (expositions on Dharma) are useful for cultured and ethical people.

It is true that the Puranas contain numerous episodes involving supernatural and fantastic elements. Some people object to these on the grounds that they are unbelievable. However, this truth remains—let those who want to believe, believe; but even the non-believers have some profound value or philosophical tenet to take home. So far, no systematic study of all the Puranas has taken place in the method prescribed by the Sastras. If scholars who are well-versed in both our traditional knowledge like Vedanta and modern learning undertake this task with Shraddha, it will be a profound service rendered to Indian learning itself.

The Creation Process as Described in the Vishnupurana

[[The Creation Process Described in the Vishnupurana Source: prekshaa]]

In the creation process described in the Vishnupurana, there is a mix of Kapila’s sāṅkhya system and some elements of Vedanta. It is difficult to harmonize the two. From an overall perspective, there exist several internal contradictions between the two. The commentary of Sridhara resolves these contradictions, brings about integrity between the premises and conclusions and shows a beautiful harmony. The Vishnupurana describes the process of Creation respectively, in the following order: avyakta (Unmanifested), mahat (Big or Great), ahaṅkāra (Ego) and sūkṣmabhūta (Subtle Bodies). Although this is not unacceptable to Vedantins, they do not agree with the proposition that the inert avyakta causes Creation. Therefore, they accept the Atman, which is an aspect of the Primordial Energy, which is also the root of the Twenty-four Elements laid down in sāṅkhya. The Vishnupurana has endorsed this Primordial Energy. It is notable that the Vishnupurana uses the Vedantic word avidyā to denote avyakta used in sāṅkhya. The Primordial Energy which is the root cause of this world is the selfsame Formless Brahma. This Brahma takes on the forms of Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra due to the interplay of the triguṇa, something that this Purana describes repeatedly. Although this Brahma is without attributes, it contains great powers which are inconceivable by the intellect just like how fire contains heat within it. Akin to the indivisibility between Energy and its Possessor, there is no inconsistency in the Advaitic philosophy expounded in this Purana. The chief stand of the Vishnupurana is that Vishnu is the most excellent manifestation among the (three) saguṇa manifestations. Therefore, Vishnu is extolled as the greatest. Because both Brahma and Rudra are also saguṇa manifestations of the Formless Brahma, these three together, that is, the Trimurtis are equal and indivisible. This is the unambiguous philosophy of this Purana. The following words clarify that Narayana is indeed Brahma:

brahmānārāyaṇākhyosau (4.1)

brahmasvarūpī bhagavān (1.4.4)

svayaṃ viśveśvaro hariḥ brahmā bhūtvā (1.2.61)

brahmarupadharaḥ śete bhagavanādi kṛt hariḥ (6.4.4)

We can also notice another specialty here. The Vishnupurana declares that in the process of Creation, Brahma transformed his body into different forms (i.e., creatures). He is described as both Creator and Creation. Besides, he is described as nimittamātramevāsau and jagacca saḥ. Thus, it is clear that the Formless Brahman is both the causal and material reason for this world. It must also be remembered that this is the axiom of Maharshi Badarayana’s Brahmasutra.

Avidyā is born when the Formless Brahman dons the manifested form of Brahma after being imbued with Rajas. This avidyā is the avyakta mentioned by sāṅkhya exponents. From this is born the principle of mahat. This mahat is also known as buddhi (intellect) and Brahma. Some Puranas refer to this principle of mahat as Brahma, who is popularly called the Creator. In the Vishnupurana, the creation of mahat is known as the First Creation. From it arises the ahamkara (Ego) from which flows the pañcatanmātra (the Five Subtle Elements: sound, touch, form, taste, and smell). From these were born the tangible physical elements which are accessible to the invisible senses. Later, immovable creations like trees and creepers were born. After this were born worms and insects. Next were born the Devatas. In the final step, humans were created (1.5.19 thru 23). Humans have an excess of the three guṇa-s namely Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Humans have a greater share of sorrow than joy. Humans are excessively active. Because they possessed the knowledge of both the external world and inner inquiry, Brahma was delighted. Here, it is suggested that humans are more blessed than Devatas. This is because these creatures (humans) have a right to perform Karma and are therefore entitled to both Swarga (Heaven) and Moksha. Thus, the Devatas have themselves extolled the glory of Bharatavarsha as follows:

gāyanti devā: kila gītakāni
dhanyāstu te bhārata bhūmibhāge।
svargāpavargāspadamārgabhūte
bhavanti bhūya: puruṣā: suratvāt।। (2.3.24)

jānīma naitat kva vayaṃ vilene
svargaprade karmaṇi dehabandhaṃ ।
prāpsyāma dhanyāḥ khalu te manuṣyāḥ
ye bhārate nendriya viprahīnā: ॥ (2.3.26)

The following verse dripping with national love is also notable:

atra janmasahasrāṇām sahasrairapi sattama
kadācillabhate janturmānuṣyaṃ puṇyasañcayāt ॥ (2.4.23)

The Vishnupurana describes the borders of Bharatavarsha as follows:

uttaraṃ yat samudrasya himādreścaiva dakṣiṇam ।
varṣaṃ tad bhārataṃ nāma bhāratī yatra santatiḥ ॥(2.3.1)

According to the Vishnupurana, we learn that Bharatavarsha comprises nine regions including the indradvīpa (literally, The Island of Indra). Of these, the names of only eight islands and mentioned and the ninth is left unnamed. It simply says, ayaṃ tu namasteṣām (2.3.7). Commentators have declared that here, the word ayaṃ stands for Bharatavarsha. The Varahapurana includes Bharatavarsha along with indradvīpa. Thus, such commentators are reliable. Bharatavarsha is part of the bharatakhaṇḍa. In this context, we can recall that we invoke the name bharatakhaṇḍa as part of the Sankalpa process. However, it is very tough to locate the exact boundaries for both bharatakhaṇḍa and Bharatavarsha. It is mentioned that the kirāta-s reside in the eastern part of the land of Bharata, and that yavana-s reside in its western part. In the middle region reside the people belonging to the Four Varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The rules and prohibitions prescribed in the Dharmasastras are applicable to these people of the Four Varnas. Therefore, this land is the karmabhūmi. All other countries (desha-s) are bhogabhūmi, or land of pleasure and enjoyment (atonyā bhogabhūmayaḥ). The rules and prohibitions of the Dharmasastras do not apply to them. However, even the people of those lands worship the Bhagavan in their own fashion. Thus, it is suggested that even such people attain the Exalted State in an indirect manner.

There is another noteworthy point in all this. It has been mentioned that trees and creepers were born after the Senses came into play. From this, it is implied that even trees and creepers have sense organs. The Mahabharata phrase antaḥsaṃjñayabhavantyete bolsters this opinion.

[[Surya Vamsa and Chandra Vamsa in the Vishnupurana Source: prekshaa]]

Lineages in the Vishnupurana

The lineages enumerated and described in the Vishnupurana are primarily of the Kshatriyas. It does not contain lists or descriptions of lineages of Brahamanas or other Varnas. The reason for this omission is perhaps because these other lineages are innumerable, infinite and not useful. Even modern histories primarily deal with royal dynasties.

In the present context, the entire human race was created by the Bhagavan. Among this, the class of people who were distinguished to rule over kingdoms was divided as the Solar and Lunar dynasties. When we examine the two, we discover several elements that are interesting and highly useful for researchers. Our purpose is to delineate some notable aspects of eminent royal dynasties.

The Solar Dynasty

The following is the order of the (creation) of the Solar Dynasty: Vishnu-Brahma-dakṣa-vivasvān (Sun). vivasvān’s son is Manu. In turn, Manu has ten sons including ikṣvāku. The most memorable kings of this dynasty include marutt, māndhātā, triśaṅku, hariścandra, sagara, bhagīratha, ṛtuparṇa, daśaratha, śrīrāma, agnivarṇa and śīghraga. The king Maru went into the Yogic State and it is said that he still resides in the Kalapa village and that he will establish the Solar Dynasty in the next Kruta Yuga. It is also narrated that the ikṣvāku dynasty will continue till the end of the reign of the king Sumitra: ikṣvākūṇām ayaṃ vaṃśaḥ sumitrānto bhaviṣyati (4.22.13).

Further, this Solar Dynasty splits into another branch from one of his sons named Nimi. In this branch are born famous kings such as janakavaideha and Sita Devi’s father, sīradhvaja-janaka. The Nimi dynasty will continue to rule till the close of king Kruti’s reign. The original ancestor of both Sri Rama and Janaka is the selfsame ikṣvāku. All members of the Janaka lineage are well-versed in the Knowledge of Atman.

The Lunar Dynasty

The following is the order of the Lunar Dynasty: viṣṇu, brahma, atri, candra, budha, purūrava. The spread of the Lunar Dynasty is far more extensive than that of the Solar Dynasty. One branch of this dynasty is in this order: purūrava’s son Jahnu and his son, gādhi (Vishwamitra’s father) and so on. purūrava’s other son āyu originated another branch whose order is as follows: nahuṣa, dhanvantri, yayāti, Yadu, kārtivīrya, and so on. The aforementioned dhanvantri is the renowned founder of Ayurveda. However, the story that dhanvantri emerged during the Churning of the Ocean is hard to reconcile with his Lunar Dynasty-origin. The Yadu mentioned here is the first ancestor of the Yadava-Vamsa to which Srikrishna belonged. Because Yadu is much earlier than kārtivīrya, he can be placed at least in the tretāyuga. Thus, we can agree that several eons passed between Yadu and Srikrishna. Because Madhu, vṛṣṇi, and sātvata were also born in the Yadava lineage, Srikrishna is also known by the names of mādhava vārṣṇeya and sātvata. In this circumstance, we find a curious episode. Jyāmagha is another personality born in the Yadava lineage. He is described in great detail as a bhāryāvaśya, i.e., one who is scared of his wife. In fact, he had no equal to anyone in this fear of the wife.

bhāryāvaśyāstu ye kecit bhaviśyantyathavā mṛtāḥ ।
teṣāṃ tu jyāmaghaḥ śreṣṭhaḥ śaibyāpatirabhūnṛpaḥ ॥ (4.12.13)

One of the great warriors born in this Yadu dynasty was Vasudeva. Vasudeva’s mother was māriṣā. Vasudeva’s sisters were pṛthā (kunti), śrutadevā and śrutaśravas. Because pṛthā was given in adoption to Kuntibhoja, she eventually became famous as Kunti. It is well-known that the Pandavas are the sons of Kunti. Her sister, śrutadevā’s son was Dantavakra. The son of her other sister śrutaśravas was śiśupāla. Thus, the Pandavas and Dantavakra and śiśupāla are respectively, sisters’ sons. Later, Srikrishna’s lineage continues with pradyumna, aniruddha, vajra, pratibāhu and sucāru.

Puru is another son of yayāti. In Puru’s lineage is born the king duṣyanta. A king named Hastina born in this lineage establishes the city named hastināvati. amīḍha is the son of Hastina. amīḍha’s son is divodāsa. It is highly interesting to note that divodāsa’s sister is the famous Ahalya who appears in the Ramayana. Ahalya’s son is śatānanda. His Brahmana son satyadhṛti was an expert in archery. His son is the renowned kṛpācārya who appears in the Mahabharata. In divodāsa’s dynasty is born the famous Kuru-Raja. He births the various branches of the Kuru lineage populated by warriors like bṛhadratha and jarāsaṃdha. In another branch, the lineage grows through people like Janhu, śantanu, Kaurava and Pandava. Thus, jarāsaṃdha is linked to the Pandavas in a patrilineal relationship. The Pandava dynasty continues till the end of the reign of kṣemaka. On this side, jarāsaṃdha’s lineage continues till the close of the reign of ripuñjaya who is murdered by his minister Sunika, who then enthrones his own son pradyota. After this, the Empire of Magadha changes hands under various kings until it passes on to mahāpadma, who is also known as Nanda. He was an extraordinary warrior who had subdued all the kings of his time. Mahāpadma’s father was Mahānandi. His mother was a śūdra woman. Mahāpadma, together with his eight sons were known as the navananda-s (Nine Nandas). The story of how Kautilya installed Chandragupta (Maurya) on the Magadha throne after killing the Nine Nandas is well-known. Finally, it must be remembered that the Yadavas and the offshoots of jarāsaṃdha belonged to the Lunar Dynasty.

Like Maru of the Solar Dynasty, devāpi, a king of the Lunar Dynasty attains the Yogic State and lives in the same kalāpa village. It is said that he will revive the Lunar Dynasty in the next Yuga cycle.

Then we have another interesting episode. Anu, the other of yayāti, begins his own branch of the lineage. This branch witnesses the birth respectively, of the kings diviratha, dharmaratha, and citraratha. Citraratha was also known as romapāda. He was sonless. Therefore, his friend Dasharatha (Srirama’s father) gave his daughter Shanta to him for adoption (4.14-18). An exact opposite story is found in the Harivamsha:

Dharmaratha’s son was Chitraratha. Chitraratha’s son was Dasharatha. He had another name, romapāda. He had a daughter named Shanta. (Harivamsha: 13.44 thru 46).

Thus, according to the Vishnupurana, romapāda has an adopted daughter named Shanta, who was the (biological) daughter of Dasharatha. But according to the Harivamsha, Dasharatha who is also known as romapāda has a biological daughter named Shanta. Therefore, there is a mutual contradiction in the matter of the real name of romapāda between the Vishnupurana and the Harivamsha. It is not clear from the Harivamsha whether Shanta is the biological or the adopted daughter of romapāda.

[[The Life of Srikrishna in the Vishnupurana Source: prekshaa]]

The Life of Srikrishna

The fifth Amsa of the Vishnupurana is dedicated to the story of Srikrishna. Among the ten Avataras of Vishnu, the stories of Srirama and Srikrishna are renowned. Because Valmiki Maharshi’s Srimad Ramayana is exclusively reserved for Srirama’s story, it could have been the intent of the Purana authors to expand the story of Srikrishna here. There is a famous tradition that Srikrishna himself was a previous avatara of Vishnu. However, in the Vishnupurana, it is clearly mentioned in several places that Srikrishna is an aspect of Vishnu.

amśāvatāro brahmarṣe yo’yaṃ yadukulodbhavaḥ ॥ (5.1.2) viṣṇoraṃśe bhuvaṃ yāte
yohamamśāvatīrṇasya mukhaṃ drakṣyāmi cakriṇaḥ ॥ (5.17.2)
bhagavad vasudevāmśo dvidhā yo’yaṃ vyavasthitaḥ ॥ (5.18.26)
aṃśena lokāmāyataḥ prasādasumukhaḥ prabho ॥ (5.29.25)

In the story of Srikrishna’s Avatara, there are descriptions of the conch, discus, etc., that he wears. There is also mention of him sitting on the Garuda, and several supernatural stories attributed to him. When these are viewed from the perspective of (Vishnu’s) other Avataras, it is easy to understand the reason behind the saying that Srikrishna was the most complete Avatara.

The fifth Amsa is actually a lovely poem that narrates Srikrishna’s story. There is greater abundance of poetic elements compared with Puranic elements in this section. The description of the autumn season, the sport of rāsa, separation pangs of the Gopis, the story of Kubja, abduction of the pārijāta, and the story of Usha—all these have been memorably portrayed. After the close of Srikrishna’s Avatara, Arjuna is defeated by Dasyus and goes into deep depression. He is then consoled by Vyasa Maharshi. All these have an incredible power of attraction for connoisseurs. The episode of Arjuna’s lament has been portrayed here in a far beautiful manner than in the Mahabharata. Srikrishna appears nowhere in this episode. The other noteworthy fact is that the incident involving the stealing of the clothes of the Gopikas does not figure in the Vishnupurana.

Two Contradictions

Akrūra was fully aware of Srikrishna’s greatness and was himself a great Bhakta. The manner in which such a personality behaved in the Syamantakamani episode seems rather strange. Not only is he involved in the conspiracy to murder satrājita, he secretly stashes the Syamantakamani with himself unbeknownst to Srikrishna. Thus, it appears as a contradiction that this great devotee of Srikrishna should backstab his own Lord.

Similar is the case of the great bhāgavata and the sagely person, Uddhava who was a faithful servant of the evil Kamsa.

Mention of the Kali Yuga

Normally, all Puranas contain a mention of the Kali Yuga in some form or the other. It is common to find descriptions of how in that Yuga, Adharma will perform a deadly dance. Because the mention of Kali Yuga in the Vishnupurana is contextual, it makes for highly delightful reading. When the (chronological) order of the description of the lineages reaches Mahapadmananda, the Vishnupurana says, “tataḥ prabhṛti śūdrā bhūpālā bhaviṣyanti.” This is verily meaningful. We learn that Mahapadmananda was coronated in 410 BCE. The Vishnupurana informs us that Parikshit was born 1500 years prior to that. That was the entry point of Kali. After Srikrishna completed his Avatara, Kali took firmer roots. Following this, Adharma began gaining ascendancy. In such a circumstance, the behaviour of those who wield political power is described very beautifully. Readers must definitely study this episode (4.24.123-151).

The Vishnupurana says that in the Kali Yuga, three easy features contribute to the welfare and well-being of the people. This is described as follows: in the Krta Yuga what is accomplished through penance, in the Treta Yuga what is accomplished through Yajnas, and in the Dwapara Yuga what is accomplished through a systematic worship of Bhagavan, the same is accomplished in the Kali Yuga by merely chanting the name of Hari. Thus, great Dharmas will be realized with minimal effort.

Women will gain an equal share in the merits (Punya) of their husbands just by serving them with purity in thought, word and deed.

Sudras will have no dietary restrictions in the Kali Yuga. He will attain the Exalted State through sincere service. Thus, in several ways, Kali Yuga engenders the attainment of auspiciousness and happiness with the barest effort. We must be grateful to the Purana authors who recognised the natural weaknesses of the mind and people’s laxity in their conviction in Dharma, and gave us such easy method to attain spiritual merit.

Spirituality

We have already described the spiritual tenets embedded in the Vishnupurana. Although it reflects the Upanishadic philosophy, we must notice the traces of the Bhāgavata tradition therein. For example,

oṃ namo vāsudevāya
namaḥ saṃkarṣaṇāya ca ।
pradyumnāya namas tubhyam
aniruddhāya te namaḥ ॥ (5.18.58)

This verse clearly shows the conception of the Four Divisions (caturvyūha). However, the Vishnupurana says that these four Murtis including vāsudeva are different forms of the same Formless Bhagavan. We can consider this verse:

bhūtātmā cendriyātmā ca
pradhānātmā tathā bhavān ।
ātmā ca paramātmā ca
tvamekaḥ pañcadhā sthitaḥ ॥ (5.18.50)

The Omniscient and the Most Exalted Parameswara is an aspect of the Brahman’s Light:

paranjyotiracintyaṃ yattadaṃśaḥ parameśvaraḥ ॥ (5.7.48)
sopyaṃśaḥ sarvabhūtasya maitreya paramātmanaḥ ॥ (6.4.36)

Even Balarama is the Bhagavan himself. The Vishnupurana says that the Bhagavan donned two separate Avataras as Balarama and Krishna in order to regulate the world.

bhavānaham ca viśvātmannekameva ca kāraṇam ।
jagatosya jagatyarthe bhedenāvām vyavasthitau ॥ (5.9.32)

Even the Devatas worship the manifested form of the Parabrahman. Nobody has realized the ultimate tenet behind his original aspect.

bhavate yatparaṃ rūpam tanna jānāti kaścana ।
avatāreśu yadrūpaṃ tadarcanti divaukasaḥ ॥ (4.4.17)

brahmaviṣṇuśivā brahman pradhānā brahmaśaktayaḥ ॥ (1.2.58)

We clearly understand from such verses that Vishnu is the saguṇa form of the Parabrahman. The Parabrahman which transcends speech, which is nirguṇa and which is self-complete is nominally known as Bhagavan. The verse which says this is notable:

aśabdagocarasyāpi tasya vai brahmaṇo dvijaḥ ।
pūjāyāṃ bhagavacchabdaḥ kriyate hyupacārataḥ ॥ (6.5.71)

The Knowable Parabrahman transcends name and classification, and exists as Pure Consciousness and Pure Knowledge:

na santi yatra sarveśe nāmajātyādikalpanāḥ ।
sattāmātrātmake jñeye jñānātmanyātmanaḥ pare ॥ (6.4.37)

[[The Nature of Moksha and Srimad Bhagavatam Source: prekshaa]]

The Nature of Moksha

The Vishnupurana says that comprehensive dissolution of the world constitutes Moksha. In this context, the term “comprehensive dissolution” must be understood to mean an absence of rebirth, i.e., a merging into the Parabrahman. Akin to how water merges with water. It is impossible for two intrinsically separate objects to fully merge with each other. When a body of water merges with another body of water, the latter will swell in quantity. However, the Parabrahman does not swell in this fashion. Therefore, the integral revelation (darshana) of ahaṃ brahmāsmi is itself Moksha.

The Path of Sadhana

The birth and death of the human is caused by his sins and virtues. Birth is simply the donning of the body. The body is the house of sensual enjoyment. In turn, enjoyment is the experience of the fruits of sins and virtues. When the relationship between sins and virtues is severed, Moksha dawns automatically:

kṣīṇādhikāraḥ sa yadā puṇyapāpavivarjitaḥ ।

tadā sa bhagavad dhyānāt param nirvāṇamāptavān ॥ (1.21.34)

The Vishnupurana describes the manner in which Prahlada attained Moksha in these verses. Likewise, although keśidhvaja was Enlightened, he performed his Karma with great diligence but remained aloof from its fruits and thereby attained Moksha. We can consider the foregoing term bhagavad dhyānāt. The actual method of performing this dhyāna is beautifully described in the conversation between khāṇdikyajanaka and keśidhvaja. The discourse of keśidhvaja which occurs in the seventh chapter of the sixth Amsa is as follows:

“The Ultimate Nature of Vishnu is the Knowledge of Brahman. Therefore, it is not easy to meditate upon. It is:

pratyastamitabhedaṃ yat sattāmātragocaraṃ।

vacasāmātmasaṃvedyaṃ tajjñānaṃ brahmasaṃjñitama ॥ (6.7.53)”

This is the highest form of Vishnu-Bhakti. Its other aspect is the kṣetrajña (or the jīvātma). Its third aspect is the power of avidya (generally speaking, ignorance). The power of kṣetrajña is clouded by avidya. This kṣetrajña resides in all creatures in different forms. The Formless and the Ultimate Truth (Brahman) lends itself to meditation in its purest form only by the self-realized Yogis. However, the aspirant (or beginner) must meditate upon the Manifested Form of the Bhagavan. That Form must be a beautiful Murti of the eight-armed or four-armed Vishnu. That Murti must be embellished with the conch, discus and mace. Once the mind and the intellect is firmly embedded in this Murti, it must meditate upon the Murti that is bereft of the conch, discus and other weapons. This Murti must have only the rosary beads. Once the mind and intellect is firmly embedded in this Murti, it must meditate on the indivisible Murti of Vishnu sans any embellishment or ornamentation. After this stage, the mind and intellect must meditate on the Bodiless Atman. Once this stage is mastered, the mind and the intellect must merge itself into the Formless Nature of the Atman. This is known as Samadhi. In this State of Samadhi, the real nature of the Bhagavan will reveal itself. It is only then that the seeker will find complete fulfilment. Attaining a state of Becoming and residing with the Bhagavan in an indivisible (or inseparable) manner is known as Mukti or Moksha. The attitude of thinking that the Paramatman and the individual are separate is the work of the aforementioned ignorance. Once this ignorance is destroyed, differences cease to exist:

vibhedajanakejñāne nāśamātyantikam gate ।
ātmano brahmaṇo bhedamasantam kaḥ kariṣyati ॥ (6.7.96)

Worldly transactions occur on the difference-creating knowledge of “I,” “me” and “Mine,” derived from ignorance.

ahaṃ mametyavidyeyaṃ vyavahārastathānoḥ ।
paramārthastavasamlopo gocare vacasāṃ na yaḥ ॥ (6.7.100)

The Vishnupurana propounds that bhakti and unattached Karma are the vehicles for attaining True Knowledge (Jnana).

Bhagavatam

The Specialty of the Bhagavatam

yaśodāyā bhāgyaṃ samupacitapuṇyaṃ vrajasadāṃ
vidhiḥ kaṃsādīnāṃ nidhiranavadhirvedavacasāṃ ।
matiḥ kaunteyānām gatiramṛtadhātrī janibhṛtāṃ
maho me hrudyāstāṃ kimapi tirayanmohatimiram ॥

The Bhagavatam is renowned as one among of the eighteen Puranas. bhagavantaṃ adhikṛtya kṛto granthaḥ bhāgavataṃ - the Bhagavatam is a work composed about Bhagavan Vishnu. This is the derivation of the word Bhagavatam. Some people also call it the Vishnu Bhagavatam. This is because another work by the name Devi Bhagavatam exists. This book is about the Bhagavati, Devi (Parvati). Both works comprise twelve Skandas (Subjects) and eighteen thousand verses. Both contain all the characteristics befitting the definition of a Bhagavata. When we consider its linguistic style, the Devi Bhagavata is analogous to the rest of the seventeen Puranas. However, the Bhagavata mentioned in the Padma Purana and Skanda Purana is the Vishnu Bhagavata.

Be that as it may. From the ancient times, the Bhagavatam has earned the esteem and affection of scholars and Vidvans. Every follower of the Vaidika Dharma has embraced and adored it. It is a delightful work embodying the stories of the various avataras of the Bhagavan (Vishnu) as well as other incidental stories. It can be said that the Vedantic tenets propounded in such a systematic fashion in this Purana do not appear in the other seventeen Puranas. The Bhagavata Purana is the crown-jewel of Puranic literature. It is not a coincidence that from times immemorial, our ancients have chosen the Bhagavatam for their discourses along with the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which are regarded as Itihasa-s (generally speaking, history). Just like how the Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Bhagavad Gita are regarded as the prasthānatraya (the Philosophy Trio), the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Bhagavatam are regarded as the pravacanatraya (Discursive Trio).

Composition of the Bhagavatam

Maharshi Vyasa composed the Mahabharata, which nourishes and expands the meaning of the Veda, for the benefit of the women, Sudra and Brahmanas. He incorporated timeless philosophical concepts in sections like the Bhagavad Gita with extraordinary clarity. However, even after he completed this great endeavor, his mind did not find peace. He sat on the banks of the Saraswati River, brooding. When the Sage Narada appeared before him, he confided his mental distress to him. To which, Narada said: “You have not described the glory of the Bhagavan in all its fulness. You have not upheld the greatness of the path of Bhakti with the extraordinariness it merits. If you compose another work that fills this shortcoming, you will overcome your distress and attain peace.” Heeding his advice, the great Muni, Vyasa authored the Bhagavatam—this is what we learn from the work (Bhagavatam: Skanda 1, Chapters 4-5). After completing the work, Maharshi Vyasa taught it to the Rishi, Suka. And then, for seven days, Suka discoursed the Bhagavatam to Maharaja Parikshit who was stricken with a curse (Bhagavatam 1-19).

[[The Tenth Skanda of Bhagavatam Source: prekshaa]]

The Padmapurana continues this story of Parikshit in the following manner: “After Parikshit listened to the Bhagavatam, he passed two hundred years in the Kali Yuga. Then, in the Kali Yuga, a man named Gokarna narrated the Bhagavatam to his brother dhundhakāri and freed him from his birth as a ghost. After thirty more years had elapsed, Brahma’s thought-children Sanatkumara and others narrated the Bhagavatam to Maharshi Narada.” (Padmapurana, uttarakhaṇḍa).

Indeed, the story narrated in the Padmapurana in this connection is noteworthy. “A woman named Bhakti was born in the Dravida country, grew up in Karnataka, stayed in some places in Maharashtra, and grew old in the Gurjara country (Gujarat)! She had two children named Jnana and Vairagya. When she took them along to Vrindavan, her youth returned. However, both Jnana and Vairagya continued to be stricken with old age and weakness and for this reason, Bhakti was lamenting on the banks of the Yamuna. Maharshi Narada sensed her grief and approached Sanatkumara and sought a solution for Bhakti’s plight. Then, Sanatkumara organized a Bhagavatam discourse on the banks of the Ganga. Bhakti was immediately transformed into an epitome of love. Her children, Jnana and Vairagya regained their youth.”

Although this story is fantastic, it is profoundly meaningful. The germination of Jnana and Vairagya is through the path of Bhakti. Bhakti nurtures and strengthens both. The suggestion in this story is as follows: Bhakti is the main Rasa of the Bhagavatam and it takes the seeker towards Jnana and Vairagya.

It is relevant to recall some verses from the Padmapurana in this regard.

vedopaniśadām sārājjātā bhāgavatī kathā ।
atyuttamā katho bhāti pṛthagbhūtā phalākṛtiḥ॥

“The story of the Bhagavatam was born from the essence of the Vedas and Upanishads. Although it appears to be different from them, it is enchanting like an excellent fruit that emerged from them.”

nigamakalpatarorgalitam phalaṃ śukamukhādamrutadravasaṃyutaṃ ।
pibata bhāgavataṃ rasamālayam
muhuraho rasikā bhuvi bhāvukāḥ॥

“From the Kalpavruksha of the Veda, the fruit called Bhagavatam has fallen down. This Bhagavatam emanated from the tongue of Maharshi śuka. It has fallen down because a parrot pecked it. It is filled with sweet ambrosia (i.e., the Moksha-giving nectar). O sentimental Bhaktas who are also Rasikas! Drink this ambrosia right on this earth till you are contented!”

svarge satye ca kailāse vaikuṇṭhe nāstyayaṃ rasaḥ ।
ataḥ pibantu sadbhāgyā mā mā muñcata karhicit ॥

“This ambrosia is unavailable in svarga, satya-loka, kailāsa or vaikuṇṭha. Therefore, O fortunate people, drink it. Never forsake it!”

The Tenth Skanda

The Tenth Skanda is the heart of the Bhagavatam. This Skanda is wholly dedicated to the life of Srikrishna. It is divided into two parts, namely the pūrvārdha (literally, former half) and uttarārdha (latter half). The first comprises the following episodes:

The circumstances of Sri Krishna’s avatara
His exploits as an infant and child
Rearing cows, i.e., his relationship with cows
Story of the Gopikas
Killing of Kamsa
The sacred thread ceremonly of Balarama and Srikrishna
Description of their education
Srikrishna sends Akrura to Hastinapura and enquires after the welfare of the Pandavas.

The latter half contains a detailed narration of episodes including his encounter with kālayavana and so on. The description of Srikrishna’s character as seen in the Mahabharata is quite limited in the Bhagavatam.

As noted earlier, the Bhagavatam is a work in which Bhakti Rasa is predominant. Therefore, we notice a profusion of devotional hymns to the Bhagavan under some pretext or the other. Thus, we have abundant devotional hymns on various occasions. Some examples include the following: Brahma singing his praise when Srikrishna is still in Devaki’s womb; Vasudeva and Devaki extolling him as soon as his avatara manifests on this earth; Brahma once again praising him during the episode of cow-protection; the hymns by the wives of the Nagas, by kāḻi, the serpent, by Indra and by the Gopikas. Maharshi śuka seizessome circumstance and immerses himself in glorifying Srikrishna. He becomes thrilled when he recalls the Bhagavan’s greatness and forgets himself. It must be said that these hymns are not mere paeans but embody high Vedantic philosophy in them.

The Bhagavatam is a mahākāvya

We cannot place the Bhagavatam into watertight compartments as a collection of devotional hymns or as a philosophical treatise. It is also a mahākāvya (literally, “great poetry”). In the Bhagavatam, the Rasikas who love poetry will find an abundance of the elements that help Rasa to blossom and intensify Bhava (feeling, emotion, sentiment). The Tenth Skanda, especially the first part, is suffused with the śṛṃgāra (love, beauty) Rasa. Other Rasas like valour and compassion, and a range of Bhavas have been embellished. Those who are curious to know more may survey the following portions:

The childhood pranks and sports of Srikrishna and Balarama (Chapter 8)
Yashodha Devi who curdles curd (Chapter 9.3)
Description of monsoon and autumn (Chapter 20)
Rāsa sport (Chapter 29)
The song of the Gopis (Chapter 31)
The duet of the Gopikas (Chapter 35)
The episode of Mathura (Chapter 41-42)
The song of the Bee (Chapter 47)

All these episodes are extraordinary chunks of Rasa which can easily surpass the best of mahākāvya-s.

Antiquity of the Word “Krishna”

The hero of the Tenth Khanda is Srikrishna. The name “Krishna” is of untold antiquity. Verses 85, 86, 87 of the eighth Mandala, verses 42, 43, 44 of the tenth Mandala of the Rg Veda Samhita aver that a Rishi named Krishna is the seer of these verses. However, it is unlikely that this Rishi Krishna is the same Krishna of the Bhagavatam. The Chandogya Upanishad has the following: “taddhaitadghorāṅgirasaḥ kṛṣṇāya devakīputrāyoktvovācāpipāsa eva sa babhūva.” (3.17.6). From this, we learn that a preceptor named Ghora belonging to the āṅgirasa gotra taught the secrets (i.e., philosophy) of the Yajna to Krishna. However, nowhere else is it mentioned that this Ghora was the Guru of Krishna. According to the Vishnupurana and Bhagavatam, sāndīpani is mentioned as Krishna’s Guru. And then, Upanishads like gopālatāpanī also mention Krishna’s name and contain descriptions of the Gopis. Researchers opine that these Upanishads are not ancient.

The tradition of Krishna-Bhakti was already pervasive even before the time of the renowned grammarian, Panini (700 BCE). The Bhaktas of Srikrishna and Vāsudeva were known as Vāsudevakā-s. This is unambiguously confirmed by the Panini aphorism, vāsudevārjunābhyām vun (aṣṭādhyāyī 4.3.98).

Dr. D.V. Gundappa, who has now attained Heaven but who lives in our hearts forever, carried out in-depth contemplation over Srikrishna. In his classic work, Srikrishna parīkṣaṇaṃ, his contemplative churning has come out in a crystal clear fashion. We have quoted some lines from that work here.

We can classify Srikrishna’s story into four categories: (1) Childhood (2) Sport with the Gopis (3) Statecraft (4) Philosophical discourse.

[[Srikrishna’s Childhood Pranks and the Philosophical Tenets of the Bhagavatam Source: prekshaa]]

The first aspect is Srikrishna’s childhood. Like in the daily lives of most children in the world, we notice several playful and naughty episodes in the boy Krishna’s life. These pranks appear exaggerated in the episodes of stealing butter and milk. The poet inflates these themes in order to create a panoramic and strong picture in the minds of the readers. In poetry, it is a natural process to take a small or minor element and exaggerate it to gigantic proportions. However, in history, courts of law, and banks, the subjects we speak must be carefully weighed and expressed without any inaccuracy. Numbers and weights and measures are not important in poetry. The intrinsic nature of the subject must be clearly imprinted in the reader’s mind. Owing to this intent, the words of the poet become a magnifying glass. A mustard seed will become a pumpkin. Those who read poetry keeping in mind that it is indeed poetry will not confound the poet’s exaggeration as an error. It is essential for the success of poetry to inculcate a feeling of wonder in the mind of the connoisseur. Therefore, we don’t need to get into the minute details of the descriptions of Krishna’s boyhood exploits.

(Srikrishna Parikshanam, pp 32-33)

As regards the play with the Gopikas, the following is DVG’s conclusion:

Srikrishna was not lascivious or a womaniser.
He fulfilled the desires of those who came to him seeking fulfilment.
He gave treatment for their diseases.
It was the treatment done through gentle persuasion and not punishment. It was akin to the method of instruction of a teacher who has genuine affection for his pupils who are still children.
Srikrishna’s methods worked. Those who sought his help eventually reverted to the right path.
The Gopikas were not loose women; they were not prostitutes.
Apart from being loyal to their husbands, they had devotion only for Srikrishna, and no other man.
This devotion stemmed from their recognition that he was indeed the human form and incarnation of Paramatman.
Just as how Draupadi had five husbands, the Gopis had two husbands. Krishna was their Divine husband.
The Gopas—i.e., their husbands, did not feel that their wives were separated from them.
Sexual lust is a common human impulse. It has no distinctions of man and woman. It is well-concealed in some; in others, it is explicit. No harm or fury is caused to the society from people who don’t express it freely. It becomes a disease to those who are unable to control it. Thus it calls for treatment.
Thus, the moniker of corajāraśikhāmaṇi (crown-jewel of thieves and Casanovas) applied to Srikrishna is actually an allegation hurled at him by poets and Harikatha exponents. In reality, it is a humorous exaggeration; however, it has become so extreme as to cover the truth and publicize untruth. (pp 35-36)

DVG has analysed these elements in great detail by providing a solid body of evidence.

“The Gopis were suffering from a disease called sexual desire. It did not lend itself to any other cure. Thus, Srikrishna was that Divine Doctor who gave it the treatment that would cure it and put them on the path of virtue.”

This is DVG’s stand. In addition, he offers a caution. He says that this method was a special Dharma (viśeṣa Dharma) of Divine People like Srikrishna who had mastered their senses, had transcended desire itself and all their actions were solely aimed at the welfare of the world. Therefore, only Ishwaras like him could adopt such methods. If ordinary humans attempted such endeavours, it would culminate in certain disaster.

When we examine works like the Bhagavatam and Vishnupurana, we find substantial evidence for this stand of DVG.

The Mahabharata and the 11^(th) Skanda of the Bhagavatam are good works to analyse Srikrishna’s policy of statecraft and his philosophical expositions.

A Profound Constitution of Poetry

Describing the glory of the Bhagavatam, the Padmapurana says:

pibata bhāgavataṃ rasamālayam ।
muhuraho rasikā bhuvi bhāvukāḥ ॥

This is extraordinarily meaningful. In fact, the tenth Skanda, especially, is a Constitution of Poetry imbued with the laws of Rasa and Bhava. Earlier in this essay, we have already seen several instances that prove this. The same holds true for the latter portion of this Skanda. Episodes such as Rukmini’s love for Krishna (Chapters 53, 54), the love-laden conversations of Krishna and Rukmini (60), the episode of Sudama (80-81), meeting of the Nandas and the Yadavas on the battlefield of Kurukshetra (82), abduction of Subhadra (86)—all these are congealed cakes of Rasa. Tender feelings of love, mirth, and affection are expressed here in a truly beautiful manner. All these episodes can easily vie with and even triumph over any Mahakavya.

Philosophical Discursion

A specialty of the Bhagavatam is its brilliant analysis and contemplation of deep philosophical topics in the form of hymns and discourses. It deliberately creates several situations, and all these situations are interwoven within the story of the Bhagavatam. The story of the Bhagavan (Srikrishna) is a pure canvas on which to paint profound philosophical tenets. Further atop it is pictured an abundance of spiritual topics in an appealing manner.

What are the philosophical and spiritual treatises expounded herein? Is it Dvaita? Advaita? Vishishtadvaita? Or some other Darshana? All sects of Sanatana Dharma have written commentaries on the Bhagavatam in accordance with the teaching of their own sects. Following the āgama of the pañcarātra, a new philosophical school named bhāgavata-darśana has been propounded by recent commentators and scholars. Indeed, Vidvans have the special ability to strangle the nuances of language and dig out newer meanings according to their convenience. Bhartruhari, the great philosopher who predated Adi Sankara says the following about the meaning of the Veda:

tasyārthavādarūpāṇi niḥśritāḥ svavikalpajāḥ ॥
ekatvināṃ dvaitināṃ ca pravādā bahudhā matāḥ ॥ (vākyapadīya, brahmakāṇḍa, śloka 8)

Using the interpretative verses and phrases of the Vedas, the Advaitins and Dvaitins have propounded all sorts of statements arising solely out of their defects of their own minds.

Note: In the foregoing verse, arthavāda literally means, “statement of meaning.”

After this, Bhartruhari has set out his own stand in “satyā viśuddhistatroktā…” Bhartruhari was an Advaitin. He was an exponent of the śabdabrahma (transcendental sound of the Veda). Seekers of philosophical Truth may examine these verses of the tenth Skanda of the Bhagavatam:

evaṃ svamāyāraciteśvasau pumān ।
guṇeṣu rāgānugato vimuhyati ॥ (1.43)

2. bhavo nirodhaḥ sthitirapyavidyayā ।
kṛtā yatastvayyabhayāśrayātmani ॥ (2.39)

3. tadanu tvaṃ hyapraviṣṭaḥ praviṣṭa iva bhāvayase ॥ (3.14)

4. rūpaṃ yattat prāhuravyaktamādyaṃ ।
brahma jyotirnirguṇam nirvikāraṃ ॥
sattāmātraṃ nirviśeṣaṃ nirīhaṃ ।
sa tvaṃ sākṣāt viṣṇuradhyātmadīpaḥ ॥ (3.24)

5. eka eva paro hyātmā sarveṣāmapi dehināṃ ।
nāneva gṛhyate mūḍhairyathā jyotiryathā nabhaḥ ॥ (54 - 44)

5. yathā śayāna ātmānaṃ viṣayān phalameva ca ।
anubhuṅktepyasatyarthe tathāpnotyabudho bhavaṃ ॥ (54 - 48)

[[Who is an Outsider to the All-Pervading Srikrishna? Source: prekshaa]]

Srirama and Srikrishna

Mahavishnu incarnated as Srirama in the Treta Yuga and as Srikrishna in the Dwapara Yuga. Both incarnations were donned for destroying evil and upholding Dharma. Srirama did this work in the form of an ordinary mortal. He voluntarily subjected himself to all the trials and tribulations that fall upon any human being in this world. He was assailed by several problems. He confronted all of these with extraordinary courage, triumphed, and became renowned as a Mahatma and puruṣottama (literally, the best among men). When deities like Brahma praise him verily as the Paramatman, he says, “What are you saying! I am an ordinary person named Rama. I am Dasharatha’s son.” (ātmānaṃ mānuṣaṃ manye rāmaṃ daśarathātmajam (yuddha kāṇḍa: 120.11)). He does not dream of any other woman apart from Sita.

Srikrishna’s story is of another sort. Right at his birth he shows his divine form and tells them who he really is. His childhood exploits are superhuman. The Yadavas, Pandavas, and Rajas of faraway kingdoms know that he is indeed the Lord of the World, that he is Mahavishnu. They know that he has taken this avatar for the well-being of the world. However, it is difficult to say with certainty how people like Rukmi, Jarasandha, Shishupala and others regarded him. But even people who know who he really is sometimes behave with him in an immature fashion. This is difficult to explain.

Srikrishna never hides his real form. When time comes, he shows that he is indeed the Paramatman through his words and deeds.

Srikrishna did not opt for strict monogamy. Apart from eight wives, he married thousands of other women. He indulged in amorous play with Gopis in Nandagokula. Although he was fond of beauty and amour, the number of sixteen thousand and a hundred wives attributed to him does not sit well with our imagination. Likewise, the claim that he sired lakhs of children from these women stretches our belief. Thus, we can only surmise that such fantastic imputations were the methods which the Bhagavatas used in order to emphasise the infinite strength of endless glory of Paramatman.

It is important for the reader to remember what the Bhagavata says: Srikrishna was always present in the home of each of these wives as their husband and performed the daily rites of ceremonial bath, Sandhyavandanam, Homam, charity, etc. That is, there were sixteen thousand Srikrishnas, residing in these homes each.

Regarding Srikrishna’s sport with the Gopikas, we have already summarized Dr. D.V.G’s opinion. In this context, we can also note the following.

It was perhaps the intent of the Bhagavatas to show that the love that the Gopikas had towards Srikrishna was one of the expressions of Bhakti. The behaviour of these women who ignored even their husbands and merged with Srikrishna is certainly against commonly accepted rules of morality. However, their intense love was not reserved for an ordinary mortal but for the omnipresent Bhagavan. The stand of the Bhagavatas is that this love was the ultimate Dharma that transcended this world. Thus, although the primary impulse of these women stemmed from lust, it was not impure. In reality, Srikrishna was not the “other man” to these women. He was the very Atman that resides in the heart of every unstained connoisseur. He was not an outsider to anyone. If it is Dharma on the part of a man who forgets his wife and children in his intense Bhakti for the Bhagavan, the same reasoning should hold valid for women who do likewise. In this context, it is not appropriate to even make distinctions of gender. Bhakti is nothing but the highest and most truthful love one has towards the Bhagavan. But once again, the objection that the love of the Gopikas originated in the impulse of lust will arise. But that very objection is immaterial by itself. Fire will burn a person who touches it irrespective of his impulse. Likewise, sugar will taste sweet if we put it in our mouth.

Uddhava goes to Brindavana from Madhura carrying Srikrishna’s message. The Gopis approach him and confide their anguished pangs of separation from Srikrishna. Like frenzied women, they cry their hearts out. Uddhava who is stunned by this sheer intensity of their love for Krishna says:

kvemāḥ striyo vanacarīrvyabhicāraduṣṭāḥ
………. (47-59) “Where are those women who are endowed with a lustful nature, roaming around in the forests? And where are these women who have such profound and intense Bhakti for Srikrishna? Just like how the best medicine gives the desired results even if it is consumed in ignorance, Paramatman personally bestows his divine blessings even to fools who inadvertently chant his name.”

Even as Uddhava roams around the streets of Brindavana, his mind is occupied with the thoughts of this intense love of the Gopikas. At one point, he is overcome with emotion:

āsāmaho caraṇareṇujuṣāmahaṃ syāṃ
vrundāvano kimapi gulmalatauśadhīnāṃ ॥ (47-61) “Shouldn’t I be born in this Vrundavana as a bush, shrub, creeper and plant sanctified by the dust of the feet of these Gopikas?”
“The Vedas continue to seek the best path to attain the Bhagavan. But these cow-tending women have already attained that exalted status by following the path prescribed by the Arya-Dharma, invisible even to the Vedas!”

This is well and good. From all this, we definitely get the justification of the Gopikas. However, does this mean that Srikrishna, the very embodiment of Dharma, can use the love of the Gopikas in this condemnable fashion? Can he endorse and encourage such behaviour? To answer this question, we must not regard Srikrishna as a mere human being. Because he is the very Parameshwara who rules and sustains the entire cosmos, he has conducted himself in like manner in his avatara as Srikrishna. The profound devotion that originates in a Bhakta owing to the accumulation of virtues in past births is given a boost by Srikrishna. This is his method of working.

ye yathā māṃ prapadyante tāṃstathaiva bhajāmyaham ॥ (bhagavad gīta 4.11) Those who worship me with specific desires, I grant them those desires accordingly.

The Gopikas were endowed with peerless love for him. Thus, it was Srikrishna’s duty to bolster it and bless them accordingly. He never became bound by their love. When duty summoned him, he broke those bonds like a strand of grass and departed for Mathura. He never looked back at Brindavana nor did he remember the Gopis. After years pass, they meet him again at Kurukshetra, an incident in which the outpouring of their love reaches a climactic pitch. At this juncture, he delivers a profound discourse on spirituality, consoles them and sends them back.

The Bhagavan is unattached and free. Who is an outsider to the Paramatman who is all-pervading and omniscient, who resides in the very Atman of everyone? Who is the “other woman?” Where is the woman in this world that he has not touched? Which is the place, which is the transaction that is a secret to him? Where is that virtuous woman (pativrata) who can keep away Bhagavan Vayu as the “other man?”

When the Gopikas meet Srikrishna at Kurukshetra after several decades, he says to them:

“Even animals who repose Bhakti in me, attain Moksha. You developed love for me on account of your own virtues. That love will make you merge in me and deliver Moksha. I am the Beginning, End, I am the Insider and Outsider to every sentient and other beings.” (83-45, 47)

The Bhagavats were not unaware of the moral restrictions governing the relationship of the Gopikas with Srikrishna. Indeed, Parikshita poses this question to the Rishi Shuka:

“Bhagavan took the avatara of Srikrishna in order to establish Dharma and destroy evil in this world. Thus, He who acted as the bridge to Dharma, who delivered discourses on Dharma—how did such a person commit the sin of associating himself with other women? What was the intent of committing such heinous actions?”

The reply of Rishi Shuka was as follows:

“We have seen many instances of Parameshwara transgressing the path of Dharma and performing undesirable acts. This is not a sin in whose those are endowed with divine resplendence. They’re akin to fire which burns and consumes everything. However, those who do not have this resplendence must not even contemplate such actions even in their mind.” (33-27-31)

However, the person who incarnates for the explicit purpose of educating and disciplining the world must definitively walk only on the path of Dharma and become an ideal for others, right? Why did the ideal embodied by Srirama become side-lined in the case of Srikrishna? To learn the answer to this, it must be remembered that Srirama conducted himself entirely as a human being. However, Srikrishna upheld and repeatedly showed his divinity.

[[The Glory of Bhakti in the Vishnupurana and the Bhagavatam Source: prekshaa]]

Since childhood, Krishna continued to reveal his divinity at every turn. Every danger that he encountered were splintered into pieces akin to thick clouds in the face of a typhoon. No matter the gravity of the threat, he never lapsed into worry even for a single moment. He regarded the world as a plaything and conducted himself accordingly. There is no rule that says that the conduct of divine beings must be acceptable to us although their teachings are enlightening. Sri Rama conducted himself entirely like a human being. He was consonant with the common rules of the world and Sastric dictums and lived his life accordingly. Never once did he cross the line of Dharma. However, Krishna was genuinely otherworldly. He became the cause for Sastras. The line of Dharma is applicable to people who are bound by Karma and not to Devatas. Who can draw the line of Dharma to a divinity that proclaims, “na māṃ karmāṇi badhnanti na me karmaphale spṛhā?”

A question must be posed to the modernists who object to Krishna’s conduct: “How did you learn of Srikrishna’s dalliances with the Gopis?” Their answer: “It is written in the Bhagavatam.” To which we ask: “The selfsame Bhagavatam also says that Srikrishna was the Paramatman incarnate and that he is not bound by any Karma.” To this response, their reply will be in violation of all rules of logical debate. They are incapable of responding honestly.

It is my conviction that the Gopika episode was inserted by the Bhagavatas in order to expound a certain nuance of Dharma. But for that, they would have omitted the Gopika episode entirely. Indeed, who really forced them to include it?

The Bhagavatam says that even the sworn enemies of Krishna such as Shishupala attained Moksha through the constant contemplation of Srikrishna. In which case, was it Dharma on the part of Prahlada who rebelled against his own father? Was it Dharma on the part of the hunter Kannappa who touched the Shivalinga and placed his feet on it? The truth is that in the Empire of Bhakti, there are no rules and restrictions. Bhakti by itself is the greatest Dharma which burns all rules and restrictions to ashes. In essence, the unflinching love of the Gopis is just another facet of the most exalted Bhakti towards Bhagavan.

In my opinion, the eleventh and twelfth Skandas of the Bhagavatam are the most important. The philosophical tenets spread over this Great Purana in other Skandas have been presented in these two Skandas in their best essence. Srikrishna has discoursed the essence of the Vedanta to Uddhava in these Skandas. These mark the closure of Srikrishna’s Avatara. At this stage, this is his final discourse delivered to his most favourite friend, disciple and devotee, Uddhava. The Bhagavan kept Uddhava merely as an excuse and gave his immortal message of divinity for the benefit of the world. It is also his great benediction. Additionally, this is the same message that the Rishis Shuka and sūta-purāṇika preached in consonance with the Bhagavan’s discourse.

Sri Vishnupurana and Sri Bhagavatam

Among the ten renowned Avatars of Mahavishnu, the Vishnupurana narrates details about the five famous ones, namely, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Srirama and Srikrishna. Among these, the story of Srikrishna appears extensively. The episode where Nrsimha slays the demon Hiranyakashyipu occurs only incidentally. Although this episode indicates the glory of Bhakti, the story is not elaborated. However, in the Bhagavatam, all these episodes are narrated in a detailed fashion. It may be recalled that the Bhagavatam was composed to explicitly uphold the greatness of Bhakti. The hymns related to Vāsudeva and others in the Caturvyūha (literally, “four emanations” of Vishnu) occur in both puranas. The similarities between both these puranas are marked with respect to matters such as their premises and philosophical expositions. It is not incorrect to say that the Bhagavatam is the exalted detailing of the Vishnupurana.

The Greatness of the Bhagavatam

The Bhagavatam has occupied the topmost spot of honour among Puranas and remains popular. The Bhagavatam itself declares that it is the distilled essence of the entire Vedantic corpus. The Padmapurana says that the Bhagavatam is the fruit filled with the juice of Amruta which dropped from the Kalpataru of Vedanta. Indeed, the sheer number of commentaries on the Bhagavatam is itself proof of its eminence and popularity. As of now, thirty-five commentaries are available. Among these, Sridhara Swamin’s bhāvārthadīpikā, Veeraraghavacharya’s bhagavatacandracandrikā and Vijayadhvaja’s padaratnāvalī remain the most acclaimed commentaries, respectively belonging to the Advaita, Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita schools. And then, Vallabhacharya’s subodhini is another notable commentary belonging to the Shuddhadvaita school. In the thirteenth century CE, a famous Vidvan named Bopadeva earned extraordinary scholarship in the Bhagavatam and authored a commentary titled harilīlāmruta. Although it reads like a table of contents of the Bhagavatam, he has captured the essence of the philosophical hypothesis of the work. This work has a commentary by Madhusudana Saraswati.

The eminence of the Bhagavatam lies in its showing us the easiest path to realize the Paramatman. The Bhagavatam clearly demonstrates the fact that the path of Bhakti is the easiest as far as ordinary people are concerned. The Bhagavatam contains a section that says that Veda Vyasa was not satisfied even after composing the Mahabharata and that his heart found fulfilment after authoring the Bhagavatam. The section in the Padmapurana that extols the glory of the Bhagavatam avers thus: when Bhakti is not given enough prominence, both Jnana (Pure Knowledge/Realization) and Vairagya (Renunication) lost their strength and eventually decayed. They were revived after Bhakti regained its primacy only after listening to the Bhagavatam. The summary of this is as follows: Jnana and Vairagya, the vehicles for attaining Moksha will be spurred into action only through Bhakti. The story of Prahlada shows the innate necessity of Bhakti. The Bhagavan is pleased more quickly by Bhakti than through conduct, charity and penance: “priyatenanyayā bhaktyā hariranyadviḍambanam.”

Likewise, the Bhagavatam also teaches the Yoga of non-attachment in which the devotee must sincerely perform his Karma and offer the fruits thereof to the Bhagavan. Karma supplies the purity of consciousness required for attaining Jnana. However, the path of Karma must essentially be accompanied by Bhakti. If the efforts that a person invests towards attaining Jnana are not imbued with Bhakti, all such efforts will be fruitless and will bring sorrow. Bhakti is nine-fold: śravaṇa, kīrtana, smaraṇa, pādasevana, arcana, vandana, dāsya, sakhya, and ātmanivedana. Or listening intently (to Bhagavan’s name and glories), singing, contemplation, feet-worship, homage, salutation, servanthood, friendship and offering of the Self. Indeed, even Moksha is not as enjoyable as Bhakti. Indeed, a genuine Bhakta does not want Moksha and wishes to remain an eternal devotee. In this fashion, the Bhagavatam extolls the infinite joy of Bhakti.

ātmārāmāś ca munayo nirgranthā apyurukrame।

kurvantyahaitukīṁ bhaktimittham bhūtaguṇo hariḥ ॥ (1.7.10)

[[Bhakti as an Enabler of Jnana Source: prekshaa]]

ātmārāmāś ca munayo nirgranthā apyurukrame। > kurvantyahaitukīṁ bhaktimittham bhūtaguṇo hariḥ ॥ (1.7.10)

It can be said that one of the specialities of the Bhagavatam is its depiction of Bhakti imbued with tender love. It narrates how the Gopis attained exaltation through this tender love whose origins lay in the sexual impulse. The Bhagavatam clearly says that although their love was initially tainted with lust, because it was centred on the Paramatman himself, they were ultimately elevated. Akin to how raindrops which fall inside the pearly shell themselves become pearls. Thus, it is the intent of the Bhagavatas that because the Bhakti of the Gopis was concentrated on the Highest, its consequence was similarly excellent.

Mere performance of Karma does not fully extinguish the bonds of Karma. The person who has not realized the Atman becomes qualified to perform Karma. The line, “trayyāṃ jaḍīkṛtamatiḥ madhupuṣpitāyāṃ vaitānike mahati karmaṇi yujyamānaḥ (6.3.25)” reminds us of Bhagavad Gita’s “yāmimāṃ puṣpitāṃ vācaṃ pravadantyavipaścitaḥ.” Thus, the path of Karma is for those who have not acquired the knowledge of Atman. In the final reckoning, the Bhagavatam says that the Vedas do not prescribe Karma as the final goal: “āhurdhūmradhiyo vedaṃ sakarmakamatadvidaḥ (4.29.48).”

The Bhagavatam advocates Murti-Puja (incorrectly translated as “idol worship) for the seeker. However, while performing it, the seeker must imbibe within him an attitude that the Bhagavan exists in all emotions and impulses and must this worship for developing inner poise and equanimity. On the contrary, if he confounds the Murti with the Bhagavan himself, the Puja becomes a mockery:

yo māṃ sarveṣu bhūteṣu santamātmānama īśvaram ।
hitvārcāṃ bhajate mauḍhyād bhasmanyeva juhoti saḥ ।। 3.29.22

Bhakti as an Enabler of Jnana

Although the role of Bhakti is extolled as a vehicle for attaining Moksha via Jnana, in reality, it is merely a causal factor and it is not Jnana by itself. Both Jnana and Vairagya will be strengthened through Bhakti, as we recall the story of the Padma Purana. Likewise, we can cite this verse from the Bhagavad Gita:

bhaktyā māmabhijānāti yāvānyaścāsmi tattvata: ।
tato māṃ tattvato jñātvā viśate tadanantaram ॥18. 55॥

The Bhagavatam also clearly avers that Bhakti is an instrument for Jnana:

tāvat paricaredbhaktaḥ (11.18.39)
The son of Vena, king Pruthu attained the Jnana imbued with renunciation and eventually gave up his mortal body through incessant contemplation on the Bhagavan. (4.23.11)
The Bhagavan himself gives a discourse to Devahuti saying that through intense Bhakti Yoga, the human joins the Paramatman (3.27.5 thru 16).
Through my benediction, my Bhakta will realize the ultimate philosophy and attain Kaivalya (3.27.28 and 29)

Finally, this appears to be the summary of the Bhagavatam: Karma Yoga is ideal for those people in whom renunciation is yet to take root. Bhakti Yoga is ideal for those people who are neither deeply interested in either renunciation nor have intense attachment for worldly life. Jnana Yoga is ideal for those who have already attained renunciation.

Who are the Bhagavatas?

The word Bhagavata can be derived as bhagavān bhaktiḥ asyeti bhāgavataḥ. This term acquires its meaning from Panini’s aphorism, bhaktiḥ (Asthadhyayi: 4.3.95). Further, the meaning of the word bhaktiḥ can be derived as bhajyate sevyate iti bhaktiḥ. Bhakti is that which is worthy of being served. The word Bhakti is not an abstract noun, it is an instrument of Karma. Thus, a Bhagavata is a Bhakta of the Bhagavan.

However, when we call this Purana as the Bhagavatam, the word derivation becomes different: bhagavantaṃ adhikṛtya kṛto granthaḥ bhāgavataṃ. That is, the Bhagavatam is work written for the purpose of extolling the Bhagavan. This derivation of adhikṛtya kṛto granthaḥ is supported by Panini’s aphorism: 4.3.87.

Even among the Bhaktas, the most excellent Bhagavata is he who:

The person who sees the boundless wealth of Sri Hari who resides in all of Creation and vice versa is the most excellent Bhagavata (11.2.45). 2. The person who, despite grasping the objects of sense organs from the medium of sense organs does not feel happy nor develop enmity and regards the whole Creation as the triumph of the illusion woven by Mahavishnu is the most excellent Bhagavata (11.2.48). 3. The person who in matters of money doesn’t make a differentiation between “my money “and “others’ money,” and who has an equanimous attitude towards all of Creation, he who is endowed with true internal peace is the highest among the Bhagavatas (1.2.52).

These traits are applicable only to the one who has realized the Atman. The ardent seeker among the four categories of Bhaktas may be compared with the Bhagavad Gita’s verse, jñānitvātamaiva me mataṃ (7.18). The Jnani is the Most Exalted among all the Bhagavatas.

Dhyana Yoga or the Yoga of Meditation

Archana is among the Nine Methods of Bhakti. Murti-Puja is one such method. The Bhagavan says that it is Kriya Yoga (i.e., a subset of Karma Kanda). Among the Eight Forms of Murtis, the Murti which comes handy in Manasa-Puja (Mental Contemplation) is notable. The Homam performed with Agni is one among the Archanas. It is said that the Four-Armed Vishnu must be meditated upon in all these methods of worship.

And then, among the Nine Methods beginning with Shravana (Concentrated Listening), contemplation is regarded as Dhyana Yoga. This is called Upasana. In Upasana, Vishnu, the All-Encompassing Splendour must be invoked in the mind of the seeker in the First Stage of Seeking. Thus, the mind of the seeker will be firmly embedded in all the organs of this mental form of Vishnu. After this, the Seeker has to contemplate only on the face. He must not think about other organs. Thus, the Seeker’s mind will earn the strength to fully focus on the face. After mastering this strength, the mind must be fixated upon the Formless non-manifestation. Once the mind acquires sturdiness in this state, it must be affixed in Pure Brahman. If this is achieved, the distinction between the meditator and the Meditated will be erased. And then, Brahman will no longer remain an object of meditation. Because of this, the Bhakta will ascend to the state of Nirvikalpa Samadhi. At this stage, akin to how light merges with light, the Dhyana Yogi will realize the Oneness with Paramatman. In this State, the Yogi will be free from the illusion that “this is matter, this is knowledge, this is action.” (11.14).

The Seventh chapter of the Sixth Amsa of the Vishnupurana describes this Dhyana Yoga in a lovely manner.

[[The Four Vyuhas of Vishnu Source: prekshaa]]

The Four Vyuhas of Vishnu

The mention of the Four Vyuhas occurs in the pāñcarātra āgama. The Paramatman has four Avataras namely, vyūha, vibhava, arcāvatāra, antaryāmī. In the vyūha Avatara, there are four types namely, vāsudeva, saṃkarṣaṇa, pradyumna, and Aniruddha. This is the reason for the moniker of Four Vyuhas. Vyuha means Murti. Accordingly, the Trigunas of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are respectively referred to as vaikārika, taijasa, and bhūtādi. This terminology is used in the Bhagavatam in the same sense.

vaikārikastaijasaśca tāmasaścetyahaṃ trivṛt ॥ (11.24.7)

Likewise, mention is also made of the Four Vyuhas:

namaste vāsudevāya namaḥ saṃkarṣaṇāya ca। pradyumnāyāniruddhāya tubhyaṃ bhagavate namaḥ ॥ (11.5.29)

The terms, sātvata and bhagavata appearing in the pāñcarātra āgama are also liberally used in the Bhagavatam. The Vishnupurana also recognizes the Four Vyuhas:

Om namo vāsudevāya namaḥ saṃkarṣaṇāya ca।
Pradyumnāya namastubhyamaniruddhāya te namaḥ ॥ (5.18.58)

In all these places, the Four Vyuhas indicate the different forms and aspects of the Paramatman. There is no differentiation among all these Murtis.

While the original pāñcarātra āgama comprises 250 Samhitas, only 13 are currently extant. In the Lakshmi Tantra available to us now, saṃkarṣaṇa’s jiva emanates from vāsudeva. From saṃkarṣaṇa’s jiva emanates that of Pradyumna (signifying the Mind). From Pradyumna’s jiva emanates Aniruddha (signifying the Ego). The āhirbudhnya Samhita makes no distinction between the Four Vyuhas. Both the Vishnupurana and the Bhagavatam accept this non-distinction.

In his śārīrakamīmāṃsa, Sri Sankaracharya has criticized the conception of the Four Vyuhas (Brahmasutra 2.2.42 – 45). It must be clearly understood that this criticism is directed at the Four Vyuhas which makes distinctions. It is not directed at the Four Vyuhas as described in the Vishnupurana and the Bhagavatam. The pāñcarātra āgama is available in a scattered fashion and its hypothesis does not have a fundamental unity to it. The jiva is born from the Paramatman; the Mind is born from jiva; Ego is born from the Mind. Thus, Adi Sankara says that these conceptions are not backed by evidence and are full of errors and therefore, are not consonant with the Vedic philosophy. Further, Lakshmi Tantra and similar Samhitas expound the Four Vyuhas which are based upon duality. Besides, although some terms occurring in the pāñcarātra āgama do occur in the Bhagavatam, it does not describe their underlying philosophy nor does it mention anything about the method of Sādhana.

The Bhagavatam clearly embraces the philosophical course elucidated by the Bhagavad Gita. In reality, the secret of the Four Vyuhas has been indicated in the Bhagavatam itself. In the wakeful state, the world itself is known as saṃkarṣaṇa. In the dream state, Pradyumna manifests as light (Tejas). Pure Knowledge in the state of deep sleep (Sushupti), is known as Aniruddha. Vāsudeva is the Witness to all these Three States (Avastha). See: 12.11.21 and 22.

Vishnu is the Most Exalted

The Bhagavatam says that every human must worship Vishnu for his own auspice. It is indisputable that this work propounds the all-encompassing glory of Vishnu. It is for this reason that all Vaishnavas—irrespective of sects—regard the Bhagavatam with utmost reverence and consider it their foundational text. However, the Bhagavatam avers that worshipping the Sattva-Murti Vishnu brings joy and auspice. It does not assign the highest place to him from an attitude of creating divisions among the Trimurtis.

sattvaṁ rajas tama iti prakṛter guṇās tair
yuktaḥ paraḥ puruṣa eka ihāsya dhatte ।
sthity-ādaye hari-viriñci-hareti saṁjñāḥ
śreyāṁsi tatra khalu sattva-tanor nṛṇāṁ syuḥ (1.2.23)

The Paramatman is indirectly associated with the three gunas, namely virtue, activity and ignorance, and just for the material world’s creation, maintenance and destruction, He accepts the three qualitative forms of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. Of these three, all human beings can derive the ultimate benefit from Viṣṇu, the highest form of Sattva.

The One Paramatman assumes different names and forms for the purpose of Creation and other activity. One may refer to the following verses:

ādāvabhūt (11.4.5)
na te mayyacyuteje ca (12.10.22)
“Me (Vishnu), Brahma and Shiva are the fundamental cause for this Creation. I assume the form of Maya which is imbued with Gunas, and I create and protect and dissolve. According to my actions, I assume different names. The ignorant person, from his divisive mindset, sees distinctions in the non-dual Brahman as manifested in the Five Elements and as Brahma and Rudra.” (4.7.50 – 53)
namo jagatsthānalayodayeṣu
gṛhītamāyāguṇavigrahāya । (4.30.32)
dhatte yadā svadṛg bhūman
brahmāviṣṇu śivābhidhāṃ (8.7.23)

When the Rishi Markandeya, the great devotee of Vishnu, was in a state of Samadhi, Shiva appeared in his heart through Yoga. Then, when Markandeya emerged from his Samadhi, Shiva appeared before him in his physical form as well. At that point, Markandeya eulogises Shiva as follows:

namaḥ śivāya śāntāya satvāya pramruḍāya ca ।
rajośuṣepyaghorāya namastubhyaṃ tamojuṣe ॥

It is notable that in this sloka Shiva is praised as an exalted or special form of the three gunas. When Shiva speaks to this Rishi, he says, “the three of us, Brahma-Vishnu-Shiva are those who grant Moksha. People endowed with True Knowledge (Jnani) do not see distinctions among me, Achyuta (Vishnu) and Brahma.” After this, Markandeya says, “Swamin, You have created this universe by your mind and then You have yourself entered it. You are the embodiment of the Trigunas as well as their director. You are second to none. You are the Guru and the Parabrahman. I bow down to you.” (12.10)

Shiva was not invited to the Yajna of Daksha, which is why even Brahma and Vishnu did not attend it. Daksha who condemned Shiva and Bhrugu Maharshi, Vishnu’s Bhakta but imprecator of Shiva, were both punished by the pramathagaṇa-s (Chapter 7, Section 4.2).

Those who create artificial divisions between Shiva and Vishnu and condemn them respectively might perhaps learn some lessons from such episodes.

It is true that the Trimurtis are manifested forms. However, the formless Parabrahman is their fundamental and real nature.

The Bhagavatam extolls Vishnu’s manifested form complete with the conch and discus. However, in various instances, it also clearly describes his un-manifested nature. Although both the manifested and un-manifested descriptions occur in a mixed form, we must have the clarity to separate them to gain a fuller understanding. This is because the Bhagavatam clearly elucidates the underlying philosophical tenets of the real nature of the Trimurtis.

guṇamayyā svaśaktyāsya sargasthityapyayān vibho ।
dhatte yadā svadṛgbhūman brahmāviṣṇuśivābhidhāṃ ॥ 1 ॥

O Almighty, O All-Encompassing, you are the Self-evident Knowledge. When you are involved in performing various acts of natural dissolution, you assume the names of Brahma and Vishnu through your own strength, which is imbued with Gunas.

jyotiḥ paraṃ yatra rajastamaśca ।
satvaṃ na, yad brahma nirastabhedaṃ ॥ 2 ॥

O Swamin, the real nature of your Divine Light is unknowable even to Brahma, Vishnu and Indra. It is scattered. It does not have the Gunas of Rajas, Tamas and Sattva. (This occurs in the hymn to Shiva. Skanda 8, Chapter 7, Verse 23. The fifteen verses starting with this describe the nature of Parabrahman.)

[[The Method of the Bhagavatam Source: prekshaa]]

“tat sṛṣṭvā tadevānuprāviśat anena jīvenātmānupraviśya nāmarūpe vyākaravāṇi.” The Upanishads mention this line about the Paramatman’s manifestation in the gross body. The non-dualists aver that the Paramatman first creates the body and then enters into it as jiva. In the Vedas, there is a non-duality indicator in the phrase, “anena jīvenātmanā.” However, the dualists supply the word saha and mention “jīvenā-saha,” meaning “along with jiva.” The mention of this manifestation occurs in the Bhagavatam.

svamāyayā sṛṣṭamidaṃ sadasallakṣaṇaṃ vibhuḥ।
praviṣṭa īyate tattat svaraupognirivaidhasi ॥ (11.7.47)

The Paramatman enters bodies such as the celestial and the human which he has created through Maya. Akin to how fire is inside a log of wood, he appears in the respective forms of these bodies.

sruṣṭvedaṃ manasā viśvātmanānupraviṣya yaḥ ।
guṇaiḥ kurvadbhirābhāti karteva svapnadrugyathā ॥ (12.10.31)

You create this world by your mind and then you enter it, and through gunas such Sattva, akin to how one witnesses a dream, you show yourself as if you are the doer.

Here, it is mentioned that the world has been created by the ‘mind.’ Thus, it becomes necessary to inquire whether this mind-creation is some kind of magic or whether it is indeed real. In many places in the Bhagavatam, there are descriptions that the Paramatman creates, maintains and destroys the world through his Maya. In all such instances, the word “Maya” occurs hundreds of times. So, what is the nature of the creation that occurred through Maya? Because every work is performed through the conscious intellect (Buddhi), it is clear that the mind assists it. Therefore, it is not necessary to explicitly use the word “by the mind.” It is mentioned that the gunas are the doers and that the one manifesting (the body) merely appears as the doer. Then it is also said that he is witnessing a dream as it were. So, who is it that performs the act of creation by the mind, who enters the body, who appears as the doer?

The exposition of Vedanta falls in three major traditions: Advaita, Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita. We have firmly tied ourselves to one of these traditions. Thus, in texts like Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Brahma-Sutras, and Srimad Bhagavatam, we try to find elements that conform to the tradition we believe in. We wantonly stretch the terminology and words in these texts and try to stubbornly prove that it is exactly our tradition that is found therein. However, we don’t exhibit this stubbornness in philosophical schools such as sāṅkhya and vaiśeṣika. This is because we have no devotion or attachment to them and therefore we regard their hypotheses dispassionately. But the moment we enter the realm of Vedanta, our objectivity flies out of the window. When the pride of ownership arises, the vision of objectivity is clouded by attachment. This is entirely consistent in our dealings in worldly affairs.

Srimad Bhagavatam itself declares that it is the essence of all of Vedanta. This statement has been met with universal acceptance. The Puranas have set out to vastly expand the meaning of the Veda. Indeed, in the Bhagavata Purana, we observe how entire Vedic verses are reproduced verbatim and their word-by-word meanings are explained. The Bhagavatam explains the same topic not once or twice but twenty times. Because the topic is difficult, it is taken up as part of different episodes and elucidated upon so that this method of repetition helps deliver greater clarity of meaning. This is also the purpose of the Bhagavatam. However, traditional commentators explain such philosophical topics according to the method devised by their sect or school. It has remained impossible for them to untangle themselves from the chains of orthodoxy. It appears that we have been unable to develop an objective view. We do not seem to understand what the work is really saying sans bias. We try to force-fit our opinions into the work. We try to stretch the sentences in the work so that it somehow agrees with our opinion.

Our Sastric scholars have laid down that in order to establish the essence of a philosophical work, we must follow specific methodology such as upakrama. Because it is impossible to describe all of them in the constraints of this piece, we can only consider the abhyāsa method. abhyāsa means repeating the same subject over and over in consonance with the context. The sentences (from the Bhagavatam) cited below should hopefully make scholars and thinkers reassess their views as to the philosophical direction which the Bhagavatam points to. The Parabrahman is second to none. Nothing else exists apart from it.

Everything that is perceived through the mind or speech or sight or through other sense organs, all of it is “I, and nothing but I.” Understand this truth through philosophical contemplation. (11.13.24)
Nature is the applicatory cause for the effect known as the world. The Purusha is the supervisory edifice for Prakrti. Time is what brings disturbance to Prakrti. I, who am verily the Parabrahman is also the three: Prakrti, Purusha and Time. (11.24.19)
The Ultimate Truth does not have distinctions. If anyone thinks that distinctions exist, such a person is ignorant. However, the distinctions that are manifested in the world are akin to microcosmic and macrocosmic Space, akin to the Sun inside water and in the sky, and akin to the air that exists inside our body and in the atmosphere. It is a mere apparition. (12.4.30)
Time, space, operation, doer, cause, activity, knowledge, matter, and fruit – through Maya, Sri Hari has manifested as these nine forms. (12.11.31)
nānyad bhagavataḥ kiñcid bhāvyaṃ sadasadātmakam (2.6.32). There is nothing in this world that is beyond Bhagavan.

More such phrases and verses may be seen: 2.6.15, 2.6.41, 2.7.39, 2.5.14, 6.4.47, 6.16.51, 8.3.3., 11.13.31, 11.28.6, 11.28.19, 12.11.31.

The Paramatman is Attribute-less, Unqualified, Pure Knowledge and shows himself with attributes due to Maya.

Sattva, Rajas and Tamas—these are the attributes of Buddhi and not that of the Atman. (11.13.1)
na vidyate yasya ca janma karma vā
na nāmarūpe guṇadoṣa eva vā (8.3.8)

Paramatman has no material birth, activities, name, form, qualities or faults. To fulfil the purpose for which this material world is created and destroyed, He assumes name and form through the power of Maya.

niṣedhaśeṣo jayatādaśeṣa: (8.3.24)

When we begin to reject forms and attributes, the thing that ultimately remains is Brahman. May Glory be to It!

nirviśeṣāya sāmyāya namo jñānaghanāya ca (8.3.12)

I offer my obeisance unto the Brahman, who has no material qualities but who accepts the three qualities goodness, passion and ignorance within this material world.

All the gunas take refuge in me who is without attributes and absolute. (11.13.40)

See also: 11.29.20, 1.2.31, 4.20.7, 4.21.34, 8.6.11.

[[May the Guru Sri Krishna Grant us Auspiciousness! Source: prekshaa]]

Our Sastric Vidvans have laid down that in order to establish the essence and authority of a philosophical work, we must follow specific methodology such as upakrama. Because it is impossible to describe all of them in the constraints of this piece, we can only consider the abhyāsa method. abhyāsa means repeating the same subject over and over in consonance with the context. The sentences (from the Bhagavatam) cited below should hopefully make scholars and thinkers reassess their views as to the philosophical direction which the Bhagavatam points to. The Parabrahman is second to none. Nothing else exists apart from it.

Everything that is perceived through the mind or speech or sight or through other sense organs, all of it is “I, and nothing but I.” Understand this truth through philosophical contemplation. (11.13.24)
Nature is the applicatory cause for the effect known as the world. The Purusha is the supervisory edifice for Prakrti. Time is what brings disturbance to Prakrti. I, who am verily the Parabrahman is also the three: Prakrti, Purusha and Time. (11.24.19)
The Ultimate Truth does not have distinctions. If anyone thinks that distinctions exist, such a person is ignorant. However, the distinctions that are manifested in the world are akin to microcosmic and macrocosmic Space, akin to the Sun inside water and in the sky, and akin to the air that exists inside our body and in the atmosphere. It is a mere apparition. (12.4.30)
Time, space, operation, doer, cause, activity, knowledge, matter, and fruit – through Maya, Sri Hari has manifested as these nine forms. (12.11.31)
nānyad bhagavataḥ kiñcid bhāvyaṃ sadasadātmakam (2.6.32). There is nothing in this world that is beyond Bhagavan.

More such phrases and verses may be seen: 2.6.15, 2.6.41, 2.7.39, 2.5.14, 6.4.47, 6.16.51, 8.3.3., 11.13.31, 11.28.6, 11.28.19, 12.11.31.

The Paramatman is Attribute-less, Unqualified, Pure Knowledge and shows himself with attributes due to Maya.

Sattva, Rajas and Tamas—these are the attributes of Buddhi and not that of the Atman. (11.13.1)
na vidyate yasya ca janma karma vā
na nāmarūpe guṇadoṣa eva vā (8.3.8)

niṣedhaśeṣo jayatādaśeṣa: (8.3.24)

When we begin to reject forms and attributes, the thing that ultimately remains is Brahman. May Glory be to It!

nirviśeṣāya sāmyāya namo jñānaghanāya ca (8.3.12)

I offer my obeisance unto the Brahman, who has no material qualities but who accepts the three qualities goodness, passion and ignorance within this material world.

All the gunas take refuge in me who is without attributes and absolute. (11.13.40)

See also: 11.29.20, 1.2.31, 4.20.7, 4.21.34, 8.6.11.

All of Creation is the mental sport of Maya. The physical world is not the truth, but an illusion.

The world which is tangible in the Atman should be considered as an illusion after firm contemplation. After that, it must be discarded and the person should be immersed in the real Self. It must never be recalled. (11.19.27)
This Rajasic Creation which is the consequence of the interplay of the Five Elements will show itself as manifested although it doesn’t exist. (11.28.22)
That which reveals itself both through normal and special emotions is all an illusion. (12.4.28)
I have told you in a condensed fashion all the different forms of my Vibhuti (Exalted Existence). These are all imaginary appearances of emotions and not Ultimate Truths. If one were to verbalise them, they are akin to flowers in sky. (11.16.41)
avidyayā manasā kalpitāste
yeṣāṃ samūhena kṛto viśeṣaḥ ॥ (5.12.9)

The special creations such as this earth and others which are made by the collection of atoms, those atoms are the creations of the mind through the power of Avidya.

The world created by the forces of Maya, which reveals in the Atman, is “avidyāracita svapnagandharvanagaropama.” The Bhagavatam clearly says this in 4.12.15.

For more, see: 11.13.34, 7.15.58, 4.29.35, 11.19.1, 11.22.54, etc.

“jīvo bramhaiva nāparaḥ”

1. I am the Ishwara, jīva, guṇa, guṇi and Everything. Nothing apart me exists anywhere. (11.16.38)

2. A Muni must constantly contemplate upon on me in solitude from a perspective of indivisibility. (11.18.21)

3. ‘Maharaja Parikshita: “I am Brahman, the Eternal Abode. I am also the Highest State, Brahman.” Fix your Consciousness in this Unqualified and Stainless Brahman. (12.5.11)

4. ātmanasya parasyāpi yaḥ karotyantarodaram ।
tasya bhinnadṛśo mṛtyur vidadhe bhayamulbaṇam ॥ (3.29.26)
Even to a person who sees the slightest of difference between him and the Paramatman, Death will cause enormous fear in him.

5. ahaṃ bhavān na cānyastvaṃ tvamevāham vicakṣvabhoḥ ।
na naḥ paśyanti kavayacchidram jātu manāgapi ॥ (4.28.62)
I am you. You are not different. Realize that you are me! The Jnanis never detect any difference between us.

See also: 1.5.27, 11.3.4, 5, & 6, 11.3.37, 11.12.17, 3.29.24, 3.33.26, 4.28.42, 4.31.18, 83.3.13, etc.

The Nature of Moksha

When a pot is broken, the space inside it once again merges into the ethereal Space. In the same manner, from the True Knowledge of the Atman, when the (attachment towards) body perishes, the jīva once again becomes one with Brahman. (12.5.5)
(After this discourse), Maharaja Parikshita became a Great Yogi. He became unattached and free from all doubts and became one with the Brahman. (12.6.10)
A bee known as Peśaskāri bring an insect and places it inside a niche in a wall. That insect keeps contemplating on the bee without giving up its original bodily form, and eventually acquires the nature of the bee itself. (In the same manner, the person who meditates upon me will verily become me: 11.9.23).
Avidya causes bondage. Vidya grants Moksha or freedom from bondage. In reality, the worldly life does not exist. Both bondage and freedom appear as much due to the Maya created by me. Worldly life is akin to a dream. (11.1.11 through 4)

॥ satyaṃ jñānaṃ anantaṃ brahma; ānando brahma ॥

Kevalānubhavānandasandoho nirupādhikaḥ (11.9.18)
vijñānam etat triy-avasthamaṅga (11.28.20)
viśuddhaṁ kevalaṁ jñānaṁ pratyak samyag avasthitam ।
satyaṁ pūrṇam anādy-antaṁ nirguṇaṁ nityam advayam ॥ (2.6.26)
jñāna-mātraṁ paraṁ brahma paramātmeśvaraḥ pumān (3.32.26)

Condemnation of Duality

dvaite dhruvārtha-viśrambhaṁ tyajopaśamam āviśa (6.15.26)
kiṁ bhadraṁ kim abhadraṁ vā dvaitasyāvastunaḥ kiyat (11.28.4)

Praise of Advaita

bhāvādvaitaṁ kriyādvaitaṁ dravyādvaitaṁ tathātmanaḥ । vartayansvānubhūtyeha trīn svapnān dhunute muniḥ ॥ (7.15.62)

māyāsṛṣṭāṃ nikhilajagatīmātmanānupraviśya
kṣemāyāsyā hariharavirincābhidānaṃ dadhānaḥ ।
śreyaḥprāptyai sugamapadavīmuddhavavyājatosmān
yovāśāsīt sa paramaguruḥ stūyatāṃ vāsudevaḥ ॥

naranākṛtiyaṃ taḻardum
paratattvada permeyaṃ prabhodhisi dhareyaṃ ।
poreyute duruḻara tariyute
guruvāgiha kṛṣṇanemage nīḍuge śubhamaṃ ॥

He who donned the human form
And extolled the glory of the philosophy of Brahman on Mother Earth
Protecting us, destroying the wicked
He who became our Guru, may that Krishna grant us auspiciousness.

***

Epilogue: Brahmanandavalli

[[Epilogue: Brahmanandavalli Source: prekshaa]]

Bramhavallī is also known as the Anandavallī. The austerities mentioned in the śīkṣāvallī are of the nature of saguṇa. The Omkara and vyāhrutis (the Seven Divine Worlds) are mentioned as Brahman. Because words are merely causal factors, they fall in the realm of the non-Brahman. Likewise, even the vision of the Brahman that resides in the cave of our heart is a qualified experience due to its locational aspect. The ultimate philosophical truth says that only unqualified knowledge of the Brahman leads a person to true Moksha. The Bramhavallī sets out to describe precisely this truth. Worldly life is the root cause of all miseries. In turn, Avidya is the seed of worldly life. It will be destroyed only through the unqualified knowledge of the Brahman. The cessation of Avidya means the freeing of itself from its relationship with the Atman. Then, the fruit of Avidya, which is worldly life will also cease to exist thereby putting an end to rebirth. The Atman which is in the Jiva will reveal His true nature. This is called Moksha, or the freedom from worldly bondage. Acharya Sankara calls this “svasvarūpāvasthānam mokṣaḥ.”

The Upanishad describes the process of the creation of this universe in phrases such as “ātmana ākāśaḥ saṃbhūtaḥ.” Although this universe does not exist on the plane of the paramārtha (the ultimate philosophical reality), it is visible to our eyes as truth in the transactional world. Thus, although it is a transactional (or apparent) truth, the speciality of this Upanishad is how it uses the (reasoning, analogies, etc) techniques of the transactional world to arrive at this ultimate philosophical truth in a way that captivates our mind. In Islam and Christianity, there is no description of the creation process of the world. They simply mention that God created this world and wash away their hands after that. Because Space and other elements are manifestations of illusion, the Parabrahman must be understood as being indivisible.

Space took birth from Atman. After this, Elements like air and others respectively took birth. It is impossible for inert objects to generate anything because it lacks that capacity. If such an inert object births something, then it no longer remains inert. No object can be born from a stone-boulder. Thus, air was born from Space. That is to say, air was born from the Atman which took the form of Space. Likewise, fire was born from the Atman which took the form of air. This is the stand of Vedanta.

What does it mean when we say “Space took birth?” Space is visible to us as a void. However, it is impossible for us to even conceive of a scenario of how this world existed (or appeared) before Space was born. Acharya Sankara holds that avakāśapradatva and śabda are the qualities of Space. Even logicians hold that the quality called śabda is dependent on Space. However, the Cārvākas reject even the notion of Space.

The world famous scientist Albert Einstein said that Space is not a void but is actually an object. Even Quantum Physics opines that Space is not a void but is an object which contains extremely minute particles which are born and die on their own.

Quantum Physics has accepted space as plenum. It generates particles, it reabsorbs particles. It is something positive. It is not void. Einstein had a clearer understanding of Space, much clearer than Quantum Physics. (Maya in Physics, N.C. Panda, page 376)

Thus, science has accepted as truth what the Upanishads have said!

The Five Great Elements are Space, Air, Fire, Water and Earth. These are the fundamental elements of this world. Let us set aside for a moment that the Atman is the primary cause for these Elements. Although He is the very form of this world, he is not enmeshed with it. The fundamental ingredient responsible for the creation of this world is Space. The Upanishad says that the subtle particles in Space join together to birth air, after which Fire, Water, and Earth were respectively birthed. Sound, touch, form, liquid, and smell are manifested respectively within these. These are the attributes experienced by the Five Sense Organs. These are the five external attributes or sensations. The other attributes such as (sexual) desire, and anger are the attributes of the mind. Thus, we observe a certain scientific order in these Five Elements. It is left to scientists to uncover their material (i.e., related to matter) side.

Sri Sureshvarayacharya in the Ninth section of his commentary which begins with “yato vāco nivartante” has given us some invaluable insights. Consonant with it, we can offer some contributions.

Language retreats owing to its failure to describe the Brahman. Even the mind withdraws, unable to fathom it.

This is the broad meaning of the aforementioned “yato vāco nivartante.” When we say “language,” it means that if sound (i.e., speech) should describe something, that object should have an intrinsic attribute or quality familiar to us. This attribute can be one of the following: category (specimen, species, etc), trait, or action or behaviour. Or it can be a symbol or character assigned to a familiar person from ancient antiquity. These four are known as the causes for the intrinsic nature of a word (broadly, “sound,” or that which can be described by language). These are indeed causes or origins for how words are used in various contexts and meanings. Words have the power to inform us only of these. For example:

Category: the attributes that help us to accurately identify a horse, cow, and human, signified by the suffix, tva. Thus, aśvatva, gotva, manuṣyatva, etc.
Attribute: Whiteness, redness and therefrom, “pearl is white,” “rubies are red” etc.
Action/Behaviour: Digestion, teaching. Thus, “he is a cook,” “he is a teacher,” etc.
Symbol: He is Rama, He is Krishna, etc.

Apart from these four types of indicators (in the meaning of sound or language), there is no object-indicator in any language. In Brahman, there is none of these four types of indicators. Because Brahman is not already familiar, even symbolic terms like Brahma, Atma, etc., cannot inform us as to its nature. Descriptions of Devatas such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc., fall in the realm of qualified attributes. They are not descriptions of Unqualified Brahman. Given all this, which is the exact word or sound that can inform us of the nature of this Brahman? Even the mind cannot imagine the unfamiliar. Indeed, the mind perceives that which can be perceived by sound. Thus, how can such a mind perceive that which is the Ultimate Witness to the mind itself, that which is the Sound of sounds, viz, Brahman? Even the Upanishadic phrases such as satyaṃ jñānaṃ anantaṃ brahma cannot reveal to us the nature of this Brahman through the medium of language. It can merely indicate Brahman through implied meaning and then fall silent. The term Tattvamasi does indeed indicate to us the integrity between Jiva and Brahma. However, it retreats after failing to tell us the true nature of the self-resplendent Brahman!

Thus, the question arises: what is the real use of the Veda and the knowledge it embodies if it cannot tell us about this Brahman as a subject? However, there is indeed an intrinsic use. This use is its capacity to destroy Avidya! If we go to a person who is sleeping and shout, “hey, Devadatta, wake up!”, his sleep is destroyed and he wakes up. However, till the time he is asleep, he doesn’t understand the meaning of what we say. Yet, his sleep is destroyed. He wakes up. This is the real nature or power of language. Vedantic phrases such as satyaṃ jñānaṃ anantaṃ brahma, tattvamasi take away the human’s Avidya in this fashion. And the moment this Avidya goes away, the light of Brahman becomes self-resplendent. The ultimate benefit of Veda is this cessation of Avidya. This is the glory of language or sound. At any rate, absolute ignorance is weaker than even a minimal knowledge of language. The moment we say, “this is not a serpent but a rope,” the illusion that it is a serpent becomes dispelled immediately. The Tattvamasi phrase destroys Avidya and leads us to the realization of Aham Brahmasmi. However, with that realization, even Aham Brahmasmi dissolves with the cessation of Avidya. This is akin to how the medicine which cures the disease will also be destroyed along with the disease. In that exalted State, there is neither Aham (Me) nor Asmi (Being). Only the pure light of Brahman will lord over everything.

ānando brahmaṇo vidvān na bibheti kutaścana ॥

When we say the Joy of Brahman, it means the Joy of being the very Brahman. When the person who has realized this Brahmananda himself becomes Brahman, he has absolutely no fear from anything. Fear emerges from the false knowledge that there is something called the “other.” However, if there is nothing called “other,” what is the source of fear of the one who has realized Brahman? But then, another object is “visible” precisely due to Avidya. When this Avidya, the cause of all fear is destroyed, it is but natural for the absence of fear.

The final intent behind the Upanishadic phrase, “yato vāco nivartante” is that Brahman is not the meaning of any word nor sentence. It is also not accessible to any mental imagination, as indicated by the words, “manasā saha.” The intent behind the verse of the Kaṭopaniśad, “nāyamātmā pravacanena labhyaḥ,” is the same. The same Upanishad further says, “yamevaiṣa vṛṇute tena labhyaḥ.” The essence of all this is basically the following: the real nature of Brahman is realized through personal experience. This is the “direct” Brahman. The restrictions of the Five Sheaths will merge or culminate in it. We can reconsider the same example of the rope and the serpent when we finally realize that the rope is indeed not a serpent.

oṃ pūrṇamadaḥ pūrṇamidaṃ pūrṇātpūrṇamudacyate ।
pūrṇasya pūrṇamādāya pūrṇamevāvaśiṣyate ॥
oṃ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ ॥

Concluded

Skanda 12, Chapter 7, Sloka 4-6 ↩︎