Assam - gunpowder tech

Ancient Gunpowder Technology in Assam 87

Ancient Gunpowder Technology in Assam

Manjil Hazarika*

Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Cotton College State University Guwahati, Assam. Email: hazarikam@gmail.com

and Tridib Sharma**
Former Lecturer, Department of History, Pub Kamrup College, Baihata Chariali, Assam. Email: tridivoski@gmail.com

87

Gunpowder is a mixture of ingredients such as potassium nitrate (KNO3), also known as saltpetre or saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal in approximate proportions of 75%, 12.5%, and 12.5% respectively by weight. This granular mixture explodes on ignition because charcoal and sulfur are completely combustible and potassium nitrate is an active oxidizing agent.1 Gunpowder is used as a propellant for firearms as it burns rapidly and generates high amount of heat and gas. It can be considered as an explosive. Beside warfare usage, it is also used in fireworks for entertainment in present days. The traditional gunpowder is also known as black powder which is used to refer the earlier formulation and composition, different than the modern day smokeless powders. Invention of gunpowder changed the warfare techniques incredibly. Research into the origin and invention of gunpowder has revealed many unknown facts regarding its earlier technology, use and more importantly in ancient warfare in different parts of the world.2

Gunpowder was earlier believed to be invented in Europe3 (for a worldwide review of the evolution of incendiary devices and gunpowder see Partington); 4 however, Chinese precedence was later established by the work of Schlegel.5 Most publications6 pertaining to the origins of gunpowder emphasise the role played by Chinese alchemist in 9th century CE for mixing potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur to form explosive material * which was known as black powder later on. The names of these substances appeared long before 9th century in China.6 The first known formula of gunpowder appears in the Wu Ching Tsung Yao, a treaty on military techniques which was completed in 1044 CE. During this time, saltpetre mixed with nitrate in low content was used in simple bombs and grenades and in flame throwers made of hollow stem of bamboo. Subsequently, projectiles like fragments of metal or arrows from a tube was used which was followed by true gun in about 1280 CE with a metal barrel and a projectile closely fitted with the muzzle.7 Needham8 summarises that in the 10th century, there were bombs or grenades using gunpowder hurled by catapults resulting in deflagration or sudden combustion, rather than explosion. By 11th century, the experiments resulted in fire lance or flamethrower; however, by the 12th century, there was refinement in the formula in making saltpetre and finally, by the end of the 12th century, the metal-barreled gun or cannon appeared in which the explosive gunpowder was used to propel a projectile down a tube. Gunpowder may have reached India during the mid-13th century.9 Chinese gunpowder technology spread to Southeast Asia by the late 14th and early 15th centuries which had noteworthy impact on the warfare and territorial expansion in northern mainland South-east Asia.10 In this context, the advent of the Tai- Ahoms through the northern mainland South-east Asia to the upper Brahmaputra valley during the early part of 13th century may be scrutinised who may have brought with them the knowledge of gunpowder technology to this part of India.

Chinese as well as Indian sources indicate long antiquity of gunpowder in both the regions; however, there is no undisputed consensus regarding its origin and whether gunpowder was introduced in India from China or vice versa. One of the early publications by Elliot in 1867-1877 summarises the textual and historical sources indicating the early use of gunpowder in ancient and medieval India.11 Pant12 elaborates the weapons and warfare from the Stone Age to the present day India considering the archaeological and historical records wherein gunpowder is occasionally mentioned in his discussions.

The discovery of gunpowder is generally believed as a by-product of long-term alchemical experiments aiming at finding the formula for the elixir of immortality.13 The historical significance of gunpowder and its contribution in the formation of states in late medieval and early modern period across the world has been discussed in details by Buchanan.14 Hall15 discusses in details the pre- modern military technology of Europe and elaborates the technical aspects of the gunpowder weapons and its technology. Lorge16 has vividly discussed the importance of gunpowder technology in Asian warfare and summaries that the Asian people understood the potential of gunpowder technology in military revolution and applied in different ways to meet their own strategic challenges. The recent volume by Buchanan17 gives an overview of the problems of origin and recent developments in the study of the early use of gunpowder, its technology and the present scenario across the world. Howard18 in same volume discusses the realities and perception in evolution of black powder making in which he elaborates the ingredients used in greater details from technological point of view. In another intriguing paper of the volume, Bhattacharya19 discusses the applications and early developments of gunpowder in Ancient India on the basis of literary traditions, while Khan20 narrates the firearms of the medieval period of India. The volume by Dutta and Tripathy 21 highlights the martial traditions of North- east India including the warfare techniques among the different communities of this region.

In this paper, we aim at exploring the ancient technology of explosive and gunpowder, a hitherto unaddressed topic so far in the context of erstwhile Assam region, which has been divided into seven different states. There are occasional references in historical sources to the cannons, cannon balls, and guns used in warfare by the medieval Ahom rulers. Moreover, in certain Buranjis (chronicles) written during the Ahom period, it is mentioned that cannons were being gifted by other contemporary rulers as tokens of treaties to the Ahom kings. Gogoi22 and Bhuyan[^24] have discussed the war weapons used in medieval Assam.

Gunpowder in Medieval Assam: Historical Sources

Gunpowder, cannons and matchlocks formed an important part of the armoury of the Ahom army in medieval Assam. Although no precise date about its introduction can be established, yet it is generally believed that extensive use of explosives began from the time of Ahom king Suhungmung alias Swarganarayan Dihingia Raja (reign 1497-1539 CE). There are occasional references of the cannons and other artilleries in the Buranjis of the medieval period. The Ahom Buranji mentions that the Kachari king was directed to surrender all the silver daggers and large cannons23 and the Nagas made a treaty by offering a large gun to the Ahom king. 24 According to Nath25, “the Ahoms knew the use of gunpowder in firearms …they are credited with their first use in India. Probably they learnt the arts from the Chinese”. One of the earliest references of the use of fire arms by the Ahoms comes from the travel accounts of the French traveller Jean Baptise Tavernier (1605-1689 CE). Tavernier 26 mentions, “… it is believed that it is the same people who in ancient times first discovered gunpowder, which passed from Assam to Pegu (Burma/ Myanmar) and from Pegu to China. This is the reason why the discovery is generally attributed to the Chinese”. However, this observation needs more convincing data for further confirmation.

According to Wade 27 firearms were locally manufactured in Assam and as per tradition its use dates back to the reign of Sudangpha (reign 1397-1407 CE). He dates the manufacture of firearms to the invasion of the Muslim General from Bengal named Turbak in 1532 CE.

Prevalence and use of gunpowder is also noted by Sihabuddin Talish. Fathiya-i-Ibriyya also known as Tarikh-i-Assam was written by Ibn Muhammad Wali Ahmad, better known as Shihabuddin Talish, which was his poetical name. He was in the service of Mirjumla (1660 -1663 CE), the Mughal Subedar of Aurangzeb and in-charge of Bengal. He wrote about the Assamese thus, “they cast excellent matchlocks and artillery, and show great skill in this craft. They make first rate gunpowder,[[89]] of which they procure material from imperial dominion … the weapons of war are matchlocks and cannons…”.28 There is record of exchange of gold, musk, aloe wood, pepper, spikenard and silk cloth with salt, saltpetre, sulphur etc. near Guwahati.29

An assessment of the extent of explosives used can be made from the amount of ammunition taken by Mirjumla. According to the Alamgirnamah, Mirjumla had seized 370 mnds of gunpowder, 1960 chests of powder each weighing about 2 or 2 ½ mnds, 343 jumurs, 1200 ramchangi matchlocks, 675 borhiloi (artillery), 6570 patharkolai and 1828 iron shields. A huge amount of saltpetre, sulphur and lead were also captured. 30 Similarly there are records on the seizing of guns, cannons, balls, gunpowder etc. by the Ahom kings from neighbouring regions and also by the Mughals and British from Assam. 31

The light artillery (hiloi or muskets) were broadly of eleven types: Gathia, Jambur hiloi, Pohulorgi, Ramchangi, Saru hatnolia, Kamayan, Jambur, Kachai, Tow, Khoka hiloi, and Bachadari. Major artillery guns were broadly of five types: Biagom, Hatimuria, Baghura, Tubuki, and Mithaholong. Some other varieties of canons[^34] used were: Dumukhia, Tinichari mukhia, Juriamora, Soraimora, Singhamukhia and Lajuathoka. The varieties of cannon balls and bullets (guli) were named as: Tokou, Tamul, Bogori, Bel, Mah, Lau, etc. These cannons were of different size and calibres, graded according to the grades of portability (Pls. 1,2). The large cannons were made by moulding technique.32 The cannon balls and bullets were made of iron, stone, copper etc. by two techniques; chiselling the stones for giving roundish shape and moulding of metals. Some of the important places where these cannon balls were made are Marangi in Golaghat, Kaliabar in Nagoan, Guwahati and Hajo in Kamrup etc., however, these cannon balls are found in different parts of Assam and mention may be made of the discovery of eighteen cartload of stone cannon balls dug up at Kharghuli near Guwahati which are now preserved at the Assam State Museum, Guwahati33 (Pl. 3). Very recently, there has been recoded a huge deposit of 16th/17th century cannon balls in the Kajolichowki area in the vicinity of Guwahati which was an army sentry post during medieval period (Pl. 4). From these areas, it is common to find stray cannon balls while farming or digging.

Smithies were established by the Ahom kings and officers were specially appointed for their supervision. According to noted historian Bhuyan,34 “… smithies were established even in the place enclosures where muskets, cannons, swords, spears and arrowheads were made under the direct supervision of the King who also directed the training and manoeuvres of the recruits”. Assamese blacksmiths manufactured canons and matchlocks. One such canon was known as ‘Ripunjoy’ made by Gendhela Garia of north Guwahati in 1693 on the orders of Gargaya Handique Barphukan. Barbarua35 points out that the Ahoms acquired the art of using canons from the Chutias after the defeat of the Chutias by king Suhungmung who had acquired a canon called the ‘mithaholong top’ from the Chutias and introduced it in Ahom territories. Record says a ‘bortop’ measuring twelve haat in length and four haat in circumference towards the end is the largest cannon made during the Ahom period which was sent by Bohikhua Borphukan of Guwahati to King Rajeswar Simha. 36

Gunpowder Technology of Medieval Assam

The place names and the surnames of the people of Assam also indicate the areas where gunpowder was made and the people engaged in making this essential material and cannon balls. Xilakhuti khanikars manufactured canon balls. Canon balls were produced in Bhajani at Sibsagar. Xilakutias are the craftsmen who were engaged in making cannon balls of stone. The metal (iron, copper etc.) cannon balls were made by moulding technique accordingly. There were several officers like Bora, Saikia, Hazarika, Barua, Phukan, Hiloidari Konwar etc. who were assigned the works related to production of cannon and cannonballs. Banamali Saikia, an expert in making canon was an inhabitant of Teok in upper Assam. 37 The statues (sculpted by veteran Assamese artists Shri Biren Singha) erected at the “Saraighat War Memorial Park” at Agyathuri in Guwahati depict different activities and scenes of warfare by using cannons (Pls. 5,6,7).

High quality gunpowder was manufactured by the Ahoms. It was exclusively manufactured by the people of the Khargharia Khel or clan. There was an exclusive department to look after the production and the responsible officers were known as Khargharia Phukan and Khargharia Barua who were in-charge of the Khargharia Khel. 38 The cannons were looked after by the Hiloidhari officers. 39 A quantity of gunpowder was provided to every musketeer in a haversack, known as Kharmona.40 Kharupetia in Mangaldoi was famous for the manufacture of gunpowder. Topghars for canons and Kharghars for gunpowder were established in the Ahom Capital cities Gargaon and Rangpur. Mentions may be made about a Kharghar in Barpeta district and the Moran Kharghoria Doba41. Storage for ammunition was also established at Kharghuli in Guwahati. 42 The Khasis[[90]] also said to have acquainted with the art of preparing gunpowder in the neighbouring areas of Mawsinram, Kynchi and Cherra. The Jaintia king also possessed cannons which are still seen at Jaintiapur. 43 The Koch kings also possessed cannons, guns and matchlocks. 44

Saltpetre (potassium nitrate, KNO3) was manufactured separately. Saltpetre is locally known as Jakhar and it was manufactured exclusively by the people of the Jakharia Khel or clan. This Khel was controlled by a Jakharia Barua, an officer appointed by the Ahom monarch. There are several place names such as Kharghuli, Kharbari, Kharghar, Khargharar bari, Khargharia Doba etc. related to the production of gun powder indicating locations of this traditional craft in Assam in the bygone days. The Kharghar (store house of explosive/gun powder) close to the Royal Palace of Sivasagar authenticates its large scale use during the medieval period (Plate 8). Even there are certain surnames such as Kharghoria, Jakhoria, Kalaikharia etc. given to the craftsmen engaged in this specialised craft. It was mandatory to supply Khar to the state during the Ahom period and there was a provision of a tax known as Jakhar Kar who fails to contribute the same. There are records of exporting gunpowder during the period suggesting high quality production in a large scale. 45

Barbarua46 points out an indigenous procedure of manufacturing saltpetre from cow urine. In this process, cows were tied constantly in the same cowshed for six months. It compelled them to discharge their urine in the same area. After six months the cows were taken out from the shed which was kept closed for another one year which resulted in forming a white particle on the floor of the shed from which saltpetre was made. Certain plants, especially several aquatic species were collected and dried in large scales. The ashes resulted from burning these dried plants were mixed with other explosive materials+++(5)+++.

Similarly, urine of goat is also used for the same purpose. Till recently in the areas like Mangaldai-Darrang and Kamrup, this method of preparing saltpetre was in vogue which was used as medicine. The goats are kept in a house with raised platform and the due to constant dropping of urine of goats makes the soil beneath the house sticky after a period of 5 to 10 year. Thereafter the soil is selected and cleaned and filtered with cloth with water to retain the sticky urine part. In the process of vaporising, tiny particles of potassium nitrate are obtained. 47 Ammonia from the decomposition of urea and other nitrogenous materials would undergo bacterial oxidation to produce various nitrates, primarily calcium nitrate, which would then be converted into potassium nitrate by addition of potash from ashes of various locally available plants.

Gogoi48 mentions use of Gandhak (elementary sulphur), Bahek Tita (Justicia gendarussa) (Pl. 9), Aakon (Calotropis gigantean) (Pl. 10), Posotia (Vitex negundu) (Pl. 11), Mesaki/Jatikoroi (Sarcochlamys pulcherrima) (Pl. 12) and Asugach/Asukath (Morinda angustifolia) (Pl. 13), as the primary constituent material for preparation of the wood ash. Besides, several ponds were dug for growing specific kinds of plants like puni from which khar was produced after burning. A process using only urine, straw and wood ash was also known to have been used. Stale urine placed in a container straw and hay was allowed to stale for many months. After the bacterial oxidation process gets over the resultant chemical residue was filtered through wood ashes and then the resultant saltpetre was collected by drying it out in the sun. This process is still used traditionally in many parts of the state. It may be noted that Jakhar is still used in many parts of Assam as a traditional folklore medicine to treat fevers and various types of stomach ailments. Extraction of saltpetre from manurial soil in European context has been described by Biringuccio. 49 He details the saltpetre as a mixture composed of many substances extracted with fire and water from arid and manurial soils. The saltpetre is extracted from manurial soil which has formed from human or animal manure. In the process, a tub is filled with a mixture of saltpetre, quicklime, and oak ashes, and then water is run through the mixture which will carry the substance and virtue of the saltpetre that was in the earth. The solution is recycled for several times until it tastes very salty. Then, the resultant liquor is partly evaporated on a copper kettle, and then left to cool and crystallize; subsequently, the crystals are separated and left to dry. Further, the mother liquor is recycled to dissolve more saltpetre. 50

Concluding Remarks

No scientific study has yet been carried out regarding the devices and technology used in preparation of saltpetre/ gunpowder. Buranjis are also silent about the technology used. It can however be presumed that the Chutias, who were amongst the first to have trade ties with the imperial dominions i.e. the Indian Mainland, had the know-how[[91]] and the materials required for its manufacture. The Ahoms later on perfected its use and made widespread use of it in their continuous wars with the Mughals. However it is worth noting that the Tai people of Southeast Asia to whom the Ahoms trace their roots were known to use matchlocks since early times. The process of manufacturing heavy canons started under Suhungmung and had reached its zenith under Sukhrungphaa alias Rudra Singha (reign 1696-1714). Much later in 1826 when the British under Captain Welsh invaded Assam, the British army had taken away 4000 canons from Assam. Scientific investigation will be useful for understanding the history and technology of explosives in this part of India.

References

  1. Wisniak, J., The History of Saltpetre Production with a Bit of Pyrotechnics and Lavoisier, Chemistry Educator 5, 2000, p. 205. ↩︎

  2. Buchanan, B. J. (ed.), Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology, Bath University Press, Bath, 1996; Buchanan, B. J. (ed.), Gunpowder, Explosive and the State: A Technological History, Ashgate Publishing Limited, England, 2006; Cocroft, W. D., Dangerous Energy: The Archaeology of Gunpowder and Military Explosives Manufacture, English Heritage, Swindon, 2000; Gommans, J., Warhorse and Gunpowder in India, In J. Black (ed.), War in the Early Modern World 1450-1815, UCL Press, London, 1999: , pp. 105-127; Hoffman, P. T., Why was it Europeans who conquered the World?, Social Science Working Paper 1344R, Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, California, 2012; Kelly, J., Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History, Basic Books, New York ,2004; Khan, I. A., Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004; Landers, J., The Field and the Forge, Oxford University Press, Oxford, [2005] ; Oppert, G.S., On The Weapons, Army Organization and Political Maxims of the Ancient Hindus: With Special Reference to Gunpowder and Firearms, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1880 (rpt. 2005); Ponting, C., Gunpowder: An Explosive History - from the Alchemists of China to the Battlefields of Europe, Pimlico, London, 2005. ↩︎

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  8. Needham, J., op.cit., 1986. ↩︎

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  11. Elliot, H. M., On the early use of gun powder in Ancient India, History of India as told by its own historians, The Muhammadan Period, Vol. VI, Trubner and Co., London, 2001(original 1867-1877 ). ↩︎

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  13. Chase, K., Firearms: A Global History to 1700, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2003. ↩︎

  14. Buchanan, B.J. (ed.), op.cit., 1996. ↩︎

  15. Hall, B. S., Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics, Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, 1997. ↩︎

  16. Lorge, P. A., The Asian Military Revolution: From Gunpowder to the Bomb Cambridge University Press, New York, 2008. ↩︎

  17. Buchanan, B. J. (ed.). , op.cit. , 2006. ↩︎

  18. Howard, R. A., Realities and Perceptions in the Evolution of Black Powder Making, In B. J. Buchanan (ed.), Gunpowder, Explosive and the State: A Technological History, Ashgate Publishing Limited, England, 2006, pp. 21-41. ↩︎

  19. –29; Khan, I. A., The Role of the Mongols in the Introduction of Gunpowder and Firearms in South Asia, In B. J. Buchanan (ed.), Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology, Bath University Press, Bath, 1996, pp. 33–44. ↩︎

  20. History Today, No.17, 2016 Khan, I. A., The Indian response to firearms, response to firearms, 1300-1750, In B. J. Buchanan (ed.), Gunpowder, Explosive and the State: A Technological History, Ashgate Publishing Limited, England, 2006, pp. 51-66; Khan, I. A., The Indian response to firearms, 1300-1750, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 59 th session, Bangalore, 1998. ↩︎

  21. Dutta S. and B. Tripathy (eds.), Martial Traditions of North-East India, Concept Publishers, New Delhi, 2006. ↩︎

  22. Gogoi, P., War Weapons in Medieval Assam, In Dutta and B. Tripathy (eds.), Martial Traditions of North-East India, Concept Publishers, New Delhi, 2006, pp. 97-103. ↩︎

  23. Barua, G. C., Ahom Buranji: from the earliest time to the end of Ahom rule, Spectrum Publications, Guwahati, 1985, p. 66. ↩︎

  24. Ibid, p. 75.Phukan, S. K., Tai Samarkalar Oitijyo aru Chao-lung Sui-ka-phar Myung-dun-sun-kham (in Assamese), Assam Bani (an Assamese Weekly), Tribune Press, Guwahati, 2010, p. 7. ↩︎

  25. Nath, D., History of the Koch Kingdom 1515-1615, Mittal Publications, Delhi, 1989, p. 149. ↩︎

  26. Tavernier, J. B., Travels in India ,Vol. II, V. Ball (tr.), Macmillan & Co, London, 1925, p. 217. ↩︎

  27. Wade, J. P., An account of Assam, in Benudhar Sarma (ed.), Assam Jyoti, Guwahati, 1927, p. 36. ↩︎

  28. Gait, E. A., A History of Assam, EBH Publishers (India), Guwahati, 2008 (original 1906), pp. 151-152. ↩︎

  29. Ibid, p.147. ↩︎

  30. Sharma, B., Maniram Dewan, Guwahati, 1950, p. 278. ↩︎

  31. Handique, B. C., Puroni Asomot Top-Gola-Barud, Benudhar Sharma Commemorative Volume, Assam Research Society, Guwahati , 1987, pp. 285-286.Gogoi, N. In Biswakosh ,vol. vi, Assam Sahitya Sabha, Guwahati, 2002. ↩︎

  32. Handique, B. C., op.cit., p. 286. ↩︎

  33. Bhuyan, S. K., op.cit., p. 8. ↩︎

  34. Bhuyan, S. K., Studies in the History of Assam, Laksheswari Bhuyan, Guwahati, 1965, p. 143. ↩︎

  35. Barbarua, H., Ahomar Din, Assam Publication Board, Guwahati,1997 ↩︎

  36. Sharma, B., op.cit., p. 277. ↩︎

  37. Gogoi, L., Tai-Sanskritik Ruprekha, Kolkata, 1985, p. 264. Bhuyan, S. K., The Military System in Mediaeval Assam, eds. J.N. Phukan and R. Buragohain. Guwahati: Kamarupa Anusandhana Samiti. 2010. ↩︎

  38. Barbarua, H., op.cit., p. 553. ↩︎

  39. Gogoi, L., op.cit., p. 285. ↩︎

  40. Bhuyan, S. K., op.cit., 2010, p. 8. ↩︎

  41. ?? ↩︎

  42. Gogoi, L., op.cit., p. 264. ↩︎

  43. Gurdon, P. R. T., The Khasis, Low Price Publications, Delhi, 2010 (original 1906), pp. 24-25. ↩︎

  44. Nath, D., op.cit., Publications, p. 120. ↩︎

  45. Handique, B. C., op.cit., p. 287. ↩︎

  46. Barbarua, H., op.cit., p. 473. ↩︎

  47. Das, B. K., Ancient gunpowder cum medicine: Only in Assam, 2008. http://www.ryze.com. ↩︎

  48. ??- ↩︎

  49. Biringuccio, V., The Pirotechnica, Dover Publications, New York, 1990. ↩︎

  50. Wisniak, J., op.cit., p. 206. ↩︎