Note: Page numbers followed by the italicized letter n indicate material found in notes.
Abhayākaragupta
on awakening mind, 207n48
on firepit types, 250, 263n11
on homa hearth shapes, 93–94
on inner fire oblation, 167–168
on internal homa rites, 54
on psychosomatic fire oblation, 182, 185, 204n17
on “supreme bliss,” 193
typology offered by, 25, 201n6
on yogic subtle fire, 184
Acri, Andrea, 20
Agni (Vedic fire god)
body image, 63n35
Buddhist assimilation of, 89–92, 96–97, 114–115
diverse roles of, 143
as embodiment of gods, 85
in homa rituals, 130, 149–150
images of fire and, 75
immortality of, 76
in Kālacakra-tantra tradition, 258–261
in Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad, 71
as male element, 50
as mouth of the gods, 78
offerings for, 31, 32n3
opinions/speculations on, 67–68
origins/forms/character of, 68
as priest and sage, 68–69
ritual water and, 52–53
summoning of, 386
three sacrificial fires and, 72
as unifying factor, 2
in Vedic sources, 67–69
agnihotra rituals
abbreviations and meanings in, 384
comparison of, 394
framework/structure of, 22, 49, 388
implements used in, 377, 378
internal fire sacrifice and, 80
layout of, 377
legends associated with, 373–374
mantras in, 382
manuscripts/textual sources, 373, 380–382
Mitrāvaruṇa figure, 387–388
in Nepal, 30–31
performance/purpose of, 371–372
plan of the Patan Agniśālā, 375
priests in, 379–380
ritual forms/structure, 380–383, 385–386
sacrificer, role of, 379
sexualization of, 50
snake worship in, 386–387
social context of, 390–395
time of performance, 380
types of, 374
Vedic fires in, 376–377
yajamānī, role of, 393
yearly cycle of, 389–390
agniṣṭoma, 24, 48
Ahorātra homa, 303
Ahura Mazda, 22, 49, 225
Albanese, Catherine, 14
Allan, Michael, 390
altars
in agnihotra rituals, 377
in Aparimitāyus homa, 232, 235
in Chinese homas, 269, 270, 274, 277, 282n28, 283n31
construction/destruction of, 3
in Fudō hō, 344
in Hindu tantras, 57
in Japanese homa rituals, 15, 57, 134
in Kālacakra-tantra tradition, 251
liver offerings and, 323
shapes of, 2, 324
in śrauta context, 151, 156
Amoghavajra, 266, 273–277
Aparimitāyus
Brahmanical rituals in, 233–235
lineages of, 227–229
offerings/utterances/signs in, 230–233
popularity of, 26
summary of, 229–230
Wylie transcription of text, 235–237
“Archaeology and Protestant Presuppositions in the Study of Indian Buddhism” (Schopen), 19
The Archetypal Actions of Ritual (Humphrey and Laidlaw), 145
Asian religion studies, homa’s importance in, 1–2
Atikūta, homa ritual translation of, 269, 274–275
Avataṃsaka-sūtra, 339–340
Avestan fire rites/symbolism, 22, 49, 50
Bajracharya, Naresh, xiii, 28, 30
Baliharaṇa, 151–152
Baudhāyana-Gṛhyaśeṣasūtra (BGŚS), 153, 156–157
Baudhāyana-Gṛhyasūtra (BGS), 149–150, 152
Bell, Catherine, 5, 8, 14, 17, 35n53
Bentor, Yael, 49, 61n2, 168, 201–202n6, 202n7
Beyer, Stephan, 16
Bhagavadgītā, 16, 21, 131
Bloch, Maurice, 327, 334n77
Bodhiruci, homa ritual translation of, 270–272, 274, 277
body maṇḍala
cakras and, 95–96
concept definition, 206–207n38
in practice of oblation, 193
recipient deities and, 190
in Saṃpuṭodbhava-tantra, 184–186
schema of, 208n54
in Vajramālā-tantra, 178–180
body-mind complex, 105–107
borrowing, typology of, 343–344
boundaries
across religious cultures/traditions, 1, 3, 31, 349
in categories/terminology, 5, 20
as cultural/culturally constructed, 9, 10, 47
between death/immortality, 75
between Hindus/Buddhists, 306
between mundane/transcendent, 97
between pure and impure, 324
in rituals, 261
Boyer, Pascal, 10, 35n54
Brahman
Agni’s identification with, 68
fire identification with, 72–73, 84, 114–115, 181–182
five vital breaths and, 81
as food, 82
knowledge of, 76, 80
in Nepal, 306
in post-mortem process, 74
union with, 70–72, 74, 79
in yogic practice, 76, 85
Brahmanical rituals/traditions
admonitions against, 233
in Aparimitāyus text, 233–235
fire of gnosis and, 169
gṛhya liturgy and, 144–145, 148, 159
in Nepal, 306
sexual psychosomatic fire oblation and, 172
soma sacrifice and, 172
in Vedic period, 292–293
Brahmanism
development of, 167
sexual intercourse and, 171–172
subtle body in, 170
brahmins
clothing/customs of, 379
Internet usage of, 403n91
of Kathmandu Valley, 371, 372, 390
social status of, 393
breath
five fire oblations and, 83
five vital breaths, 80–81
speech and, 83
breathing in and out
maṇḍala perfection and, 95
as one of five breaths, 80–81
as sacrifice, 82, 83–84
term meanings, 117n71
in yogic practice, 381
Brosius, Christiane, 7, 8, 33–34n30
Buc, Philippe, 8, 17
Buddha. See also fire, in mundane and transcendent paths
critique of Vedic sacrifices, 85–86
enlightenment of, 85
on ethical qualities of offerings, 118n98
interaction with Vedic gods, 89–90
on the mind, 111
practice of generosity, 86–87
reinterpretation of three Vedic fires, 87–88
Buddhaguhya, 19
buddha-nature
as luminous/pure, 111
in ten worlds practice, 340
Buddhism. See also esoteric Buddhism; fire, in mundane and transcendent paths; Japanese Buddhist homa; Mahāyāna Buddhism
assimilation of Agni, 89–92, 96–97, 114–115
assimilation of homa rituals, 92–96, 267–271
composition of human beings, 103–105
forms of fire oblation in, 167
ritual eclecticism in, 144
ritual traditions and, 8–9
similes of fire, 88–89
tantric, 20, 27, 307, 339, 346
cakras, 95–96, 170–171, 247, 260
Cakrasaṃvara-tantra, 28, 214–215, 219, 221n12, 296, 303, 308
Caṇḍālī, 95, 171, 184, 188
centrality of experience, 138n9. See also experience
Chan Buddhism, ritual traditions and, 8–9
channels, subtle body and, 170–171
Chaulagain, Nawaraj, 28–29, 30
childbirth rituals, 14, 36n75, 267
Chinese translations/manuals, of homa
Amoghavajra’s manual, 273–275
Atikūta translation, 269, 274–275
Bodhiruci translation, 270–272, 274, 277
Buddhist appropriation, 268–271
canonization, 271–273
evocation of Agni, 277
Faquan’s manual, 275
Huilin’s description/commentary, 266–267
inner-versus-outer homa discourse, 270, 277–278
social practice in, 276–277, 278
subject formation in, 276–277
Yaśogupta translation, 269
“City of Eight,” 59, 64n71
color symbolism, 26, 249–250, 252, 254, 256–257, 260
compulsion, ritual as, 10
“conceptual borrowing,” 343
Confucius, 11
consecration rituals
Agni’s role in, 269
in esoteric Buddhism, 276–277
external structure of, 49
of images, 27
importance of, 54–55
in Newar Buddhist tradition, 296, 305
water in, 50
construction
of burial mounds, 11
homas for, 296
of kālacakra-maṇḍala, 249, 257
in Newar Buddhist tradition, 294, 295, 296, 305
of ritual altars/spaces, 3
cremation
homa ceremonies for, 53, 130, 237n8
internal/external forms, 53–54
Śaiva tantra for, 148
cultural dimension, of homa, 1
Ḍākārṇavahomavidhi, 186–188
Ḍākārṇava-tantra, 186–188
Ḍākinī, 96, 174, 177–178, 181, 184, 185, 227–228
Dalai Lama, 26
Darrow, William, 48, 49
Davidson, Ronald, 20, 215
Davis, Richard, 58, 130, 148
Death (Mṛtyu), 75–76, 77
death/immortality, fire and, 73–77
death/mourning, homas for, 295–296
deities
attendance on, 151
fire oblation rituals and, 169
visualization of, 135–137
deity yoga, 218, 232, 247
delusion, fire of, 88–89
Demiéville, Paul, 16
Devī Mahāmaya (Great Goddess of Illusion), 28
Dharmadatta (Kashmiri teacher), 16
Dhūrtabali rite, 157–158
Diehl, Cal G., 57–58
direct knowledge, 98, 100, 102, 109–110, 115
doctrine of the five fires (pañcāgni-vidyā), 69–72
domestic rites, 24, 49, 149
Duna religious practices, 14, 36n78
Durkheim, Émile, 7
Earhart, H. Byron, 340
Einoo, Shingo, 144, 203n15
Eliade, Mircea, 23, 126
embedding
in Shingon Soku Sai Goma, 350
as structuring device, 148
as syntax pattern, 146
enlightened beings, 52–53
enlightenment
as acquisition of three knowledges, 98–101
attainment of, 113, 133
of Buddha, 85, 90, 97–98, 108, 111–112
of combined two paths, 101–103
in esoteric Buddhism, 276, 278
fire elements and, 115
in Newar Buddhist tradition, 293
as sacred, 127
in ten worlds practice, 340
through nine progressive dwellings, 101
The Enlightenment of Vairocana (Wayman), 38n101
eroticization, of fire sacrifice, 222n30. See also sexual symbolism
esoteric Buddhism. See also psychosomatic fire oblation
borrowings from, 29
homa/homa rituals in, 276, 278
Huilin and, 266–267
internalization of standard ritual form, 168–169
liver offerings and, 322–323
maṇḍala use in, 281n15
Newar tradition of, 294, 303–305
secrecy in, 365–366n41
Shugendō, connections with, 338–339, 341, 343–344, 346, 348
ten worlds practice and, 339–340
esoteric physiology, 23, 25, 27
ethnography, texts and, 17–20
Eucharist, 14, 35n55
experience
centrality of, 138n9
homa rituals and, 261
mystic/yogic, 113–114
of nonconceptual reality, 184
of nondual reality, 193
religious, 276
shared, 394
six bases of, 181, 184, 186
twelve bases of, 103, 111, 179–180, 206n33
visionary, 16
“external fire oblation,” 168–169, 188–189, 192
failure. See ritual failure
family names/clans, 390
Faquan, homa manual of, 274–275
fire
Buddhist similes of, 88–89
in cremation ceremonies, 53
destructive/empowering function of, 51
luminous quality/light imagery of, 52, 64n57
as male element, 50
multivalency of, 23
mystic/yogic property of, 76
fire, in mundane and transcendent paths
acquisition of three knowledges, 98–101
combined paths, 101–103
formulation and scope of, 97–98
in Śrāvakabhūmi, 107–110
fire and water rites
in Buddhist tantras, 51–56
in diverse countries/religious groups, 47
in Hindu tantras, 56–60
ritual rules governing, 48–51
in tantric ritual universe, 48
fire/fire sacrifices, symbolism of
Agni’s function in, 68–69
Brahman and, 72–73
Buddhist similes, 88–89
cosmic configuration of, 84
death/immortality and, 73–77
diverse opinions/speculations on, 67–68
doctrine of the five fires, 69–72
internal fire sacrifice, 79–84
mystical configuration of, 84–85
origin and character of, 68
ritual capacity of, 85
three sacrificial fires, 72
in Vedic sacrifices, 77–79
fireless rites
in domestic sphere, 150
food offerings, 150–151
fire oblation rituals (psychosomatic)
Ḍākārṇava-tantra, 186–188
internal forms of ritual items, 175–177, 182–184
internalization of, 167, 168–169, 192
Jayasena’s Ḍākārṇavahomavidhi, 186–188
Mahāmudrātilaka-tantra, 174–175
nonconceptual meditation, 169
practice of, 193
recipients of, 177–179, 184–186
Saṃpuṭodbhava-tantra, 179, 181, 183–186
sexual symbolism in, 171–172
subtle body in, 168, 170–171
textual sources for, 172–173
Vajraḍāka-tantra, 179–180, 182–184, 185–186
Vajramālā-tantra, 174–175
ways of performance, 190–191
fire of gnosis
internal forms of ritual items and, 184
in Kālacakra-tantra tradition, 247–248, 260–261
Kāṇha on, 216–217, 219
as nonconceptual meditation, 169
in Vajraḍāka-tantra, 182, 185
variant name for, 177
yogic subtle fire and, 193
firepit regulations, in Kālacakra-tantra tradition, 250–252
“The Fire Sermon” (Buddha), 88–89
Firth, Raymond, 4
the five material causes, 179–180, 186, 206n33
five vital breaths, 80–81, 83
five vital functions, 81
Flood, Gavin, 59, 64n70
food/food rituals, 68, 70–73, 75, 80–84, 105, 114
“formal borrowing,” 343
Frazer, James George, 7
Freud, Sigmund, 10, 13
Fudō hō, 30, 342, 345–347, 351
Fudō Myōō, 341, 344, 345–347
Full Moon Sacrifice, 138n8
functionalism, 12–13, 138n2
funeral pyre, two paths from, 71–72
funeral rituals, 130, 148
Gelug tradition, 26
generosity, practice of, 87–88
Geslani, Marko, 144, 159
gnosis, fire of
internal forms of ritual items and, 184
in Kālacakra-tantra tradition, 247–248, 260–261
Kāṇha on, 216–217, 219
as nonconceptual meditation, 169
in Vajraḍāka-tantra, 182, 185
variant name for, 177
yogic subtle fire and, 193
gods, sacrifices to, 69, 78–79, 86, 324
goma fire ritual, 51, 341. See also saitō goma
Gonda, Jan, 57
Gorai, Shigeru, 338–339
Granoff, Phyllis, 144
Gray, David B., xiii–xiv, 25–26, 28, 29
Great Dipper, 3
greed, fire of, 88–89
Grether, Holly, xiv, 22
gṛhya homa
attendance on a deity, 151
basic format of, 148–150
descriptive studies of, 144
Dhūrtabali rite, 157–158
fireless rites in, 150–152
image worship in, 153, 156–157
outline of mantras, 154–155
spit-ox offering, 152–153
Gṛhyasūtra, 143–144, 148–153, 159
Griffiths, Arlo, 20
group/individual religious activity, 126–131
Halkias, Georgios T., xiv, 26, 29
Harrison, Paul, 16
hatred, fire of, 88–89
Hayagrīva, 228, 230, 239–240n23
healing rites, 62n21
Hevajra-tantra, 113, 170–171, 190, 215, 247, 304, 308
Hinduism
group/individual religious activity in, 126–127
homa procedures, 307
ritual eclecticism and, 144
Hintze, Almut, 49
homa. See also Aparimitāyus; Chinese translations/manuals, of homa; gṛhya homa; Japanese Buddhist homa; Kālacakra-tantra tradition; Navarātra homa
adaptation/continuity of, 3–4
appropriation of, 340–341
Buddhist assimilation of, 89–96
descriptive studies of, 27–31
implements used in, 2–3, 377–378
internal, 96
path of liberation and, 96
ritual/ceremonial distinction, 4–5
as sacrificial/votive ritual, 2
secret, 96
Shintō version, 340–341
social practice of, 276–277, 278
structural frame of, 49–50
symbolic and comparative studies of, 21–24, 47
temporal and cultural dimensions of, 1
textual record of, 17–18
textual studies of, 24–27
unifying factors in, 2
homa fire, ten types of, 305
homa hearths, 92–94
Hopkins, Jeffrey, 54
householder’s fire, 72, 88, 93
Huilin, 266–267, 280n1
human beings, composition of, 103–105
Humphrey, Caroline, 145–146
Hüsken, Ute, 7, 8
Ikeguchi, Ekan, 51
image consecration, 27
imagination, role of, 13
immortality/death, fire and, 73–77
implements used in homa rituals, 2–3, 377–378
India. See Kālacakra-tantra tradition
Indian Esoteric Buddhism (Davidson), 20
individual/group religious activity, 126–131
Indo-Iranian rituals
homa history, 2, 3
ritual traditions, 22
sun and fire identification, 372
symbolic associations, 309n14
Ing, Michael D. K., 11
initiation ceremonies, 54–55, 58
Insoll, Timothy, 12
interiorization, of ritual actions, 22, 23, 31
internal fire sacrifice
Kāṇha’s descriptions of, 218
Vedic, 79–84
internalization
of fire sacrifice, 222n30
of homa, 25, 131–132
in Kālacakra-tantra tradition, 247, 260–262
Kāṇha’s descriptions of, 218–219
of ritual fire and water, 50
of sexual intercourse, 171–172
of tantric systems, 50–51
internal purification rites, 49, 326. See also purification rites
invention, ritual change by, 14–15
The Invention of Tradition, 15
Jackendoff, Ray, 349
Jamison, Stephanie W., 48
Jainism, ritual eclecticism in, 144
Japan. See saitō goma; Shintō tradition; Shugendō
Japanese Buddhist homa
individual/group religious activity, 127–131
internalization in, 131–132
main ritual of, 137
preliminary ritual, 133–135
Pūjā and, 132–133
sacred and profane in, 126–127
Tachikawa’s study of, 23–24
visualization of deities, 135–137
Jayasena’s Ḍākārṇavahomavidhi, 186–188
Kālacakra-tantra tradition
color symbolism in, 249–250, 252, 254, 256–257, 260
firepit regulations, 250–252
initiation rites in, 54, 261–262
internally performed rituals, 247
mantras recited, 256–257
pouring of sand, 252–253
prerequisites for, 248–249
proper time for ritual, 255–256
protection/purification of ground, 257
rites of pacification, 258
sacrificial sticks, 253–254
theories and practices of, 246–248
utensils used, 254–255
vajra master’s throne, 253
worship of Agni, 258–261
Kālī, 28, 314, 323–325, 334n78
Kāṇha
on deity yoga, 218
on external/“outer” rites, 218–219
fire sacrifices classification of, 216–217
homa analysis of, 215–216
*homa/*sexual intercourse association, 217–218
works attributed to, 25–26, 214
Kaplan, Martha, 6, 8
karma
in Bhadrapāla-sūtra, 113
Buddha and, 89, 98, 100
consciousness and, 111
cremation and, 226
homa ritual occasions and, 296, 305–306
inner fire sacrifice and, 218
internal/external homa and, 18, 53–54, 234, 273, 278
law of, 106
in Mahāvairocana-sūtra, 278
material phenomena and, 106–107
production of, 105
self-arising fire and, 96
in Vedic rituals, 77
Kashikar, C. G., 376
Kathmandu Valley
agnihotra layouts of, 377
brahmins in, 371–374
homas in, 132, 376
mythic prehistory of, 386
Newar Buddhist tradition in, 291, 294, 306
rituals/festivals in, 296, 403n92
social position of priests in, 391–393
unification/division of, 397n25
Vedic traditions in, 395
Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad, 23, 71, 83
Kelly, John D., 6, 8
knowledge
Buddha’s acquisition of, 98–101
direct, 98, 100, 102, 109–110, 115
efficacy/superiority of, 79–80
Koutrafouri, Vasiliki G., 12
Kriyāsaṃgraha, 53, 308
Laidlaw, James, 145–146
Lang, Bernhard, 15
Last Supper, as invention of ritual, 14–15
Lawson, Thomas, 11
Lévi, Sylvain, 50
Lewis, Todd, xiv, 28, 30
Liénard, Pierre, 10
light imagery, 52
Lincoln, Bruce, 5, 9, 12
literalism, in rituals, 10
liturgy- vs. performance-centered ritual, 145–146
liver, offering of, 254, 319–320, 322–323
longue durée, ritual change across, 1–2, 6, 16–17, 19, 21–22, 144, 352
Lubin, Timothy, xiv, 18
“luminous circuit,” 57, 64n57
magical orientation (in navarātra homa)
liver, in esoteric rites, 322–323
reversal of traditional norms, 324–325
ritual and techniques of, 323–324
Śākta tantric rituals, 325–327
Mahāmudrātilaka-tantra, 173–174, 177–178
Mahāsiddhas, 214, 215
Mahāvairocana-abhisambodhi-tantra, 229, 249
Mahāvairocana-tantra/sutra, 51–52, 167, 169, 202–203n10, 271–276, 278
Mahāyāna Buddhism
bodhicitta concept, 112, 114
“conceptual borrowing” and, 343
homa in, 234, 267–268, 272, 292–293, 307, 309n5
path/texts, 24, 110–111, 226, 238n17, 239n18, 274, 291–292
sacred and profane in, 129
sutras of, 16
on transmigrating beings, 228
Māṃsa āhuti homa, 303–304
man, fire as, 70
maṇḍala (body)
cakras and, 95–96
concept definition, 206–207n38
in practice of oblation, 193
recipient deities and, 190
in Saṃpuṭodbhava-tantra, 184–186
schema of, 208n54
in Vajramālā-tantra, 178–180
Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa, 52, 91, 293, 307
mantras
in agnihotra, 382
in gṛhya homa, 154–155
in Kālacakra-tantra, 256–257
quasi-grammatical adaptation of, 346
in saitō goma, 344–345
McCauley, Robert N., 9, 11
“meaningless acts,” rituals as, 10, 349
Michaels, Axel, 39n111
mind, as luminous, 111
Mitrāvaruṇa, 30, 387–388
mixing, ritual change by, 13–14
Miyake, Hitoshi, 340, 341, 346
Mollier, Christine, 3
moon
as gateway to celestial worlds, 71
sacrifice rites, 138n8
moral formation, role of ritual in, 19
Mṛtyu, 75–76, 77
mudrā
in Agni worship, 258–259, 277
in Chinese homas, 271–272, 274, 275, 277
in eulogy of deities, 135
in hearth design, 94
in homa rituals, 256, 279
in Navarātra homa, 319, 325, 326, 330n20
in Newar Buddhist tradition, 298, 301, 302
in ritual manuals, 18
in Shugendō rituals, 346
vajra-hook, 253
Mukhāgama, 217, 220
mundane and transcendent paths
acquisition of three knowledges, 98–101
combined paths, 101–103
formulation and scope of, 97–98
in Śrāvakabhūmi, 107–110
textual comparisons, 110–114
mysterium tremendum, 138n9
Naciketas fire, 75–76
Nara āhuti homa, 304–305
Nattier, Jan, 16
Navarātra homa
awakening the goddess, 316–319
magical orientation in, 322–327
meaning/types of rituals, 314–315
offering of the liver, 319–320, 322–323
ritual manuals/manuscripts, 315–316
tanric visualization, 318–319
in Vedic context, 320–322
Nepal. See agnihotra rituals; Kathmandu Valley; Navarātra homa; Newar Buddhist tradition
Newar Buddhist tradition
abbreviations in homa ritual, 298
Bajrācārya Saṅgha, 293–294
consecration rituals, 296, 305
construction within, 294, 295, 296, 305
esoteric practice, 303–305
historical background/context, 291–293
names/types of homa, 294–295
occasions requiring homa, 295–297
sacred objects, 305
Sahasra āhuti ritual, 299–303
standard homa ritual description, 297–298
textual sources, 293
New Moon Sacrifice, 138n8
nine progressive dwellings, enlightenment through, 101
nirvāṇa
in Buddhist practice, 115, 127, 348, 400n71
material phenomena and, 99
in mundane/transcendent paths, 98, 110
saṃsāra and, 24, 113–114
three fires and, 89
three knowledges and, 99
nonconceptual meditation, 168–172, 176–179, 185, 190, 193, 202n4
oblational fire. See psychosomatic fire oblation
oblation rituals, internalization of, 168–169
offerings
to Agni, 31, 32n3
ethical qualities of, 118n98
of food, 150–151
to the gods, 78–79
in Kālacakra-tantra tradition, 254
of liver, 319–320, 322–323
made in homas, 2
spit-ox offering, 152–153
in Vedic rituals, 27
order, in rituals, 10
Orzech, Charles D., xv, 27
Otto, Rudolf, 129, 138n9
pañcāgni-vidyā (doctrine of the five fires), 69–72
Papua New Guinea, 14
Parpola, A., 376
Paśupatināth Agnihotra, 30
Patan Agnihotra, 30. See also agnihotra rituals
Patan Agniśālā, plan of, 375
pathology, ritual as, 10
Payne, Richard K., 29–30, 51
perception/non-perception, 107–109, 122n179
performance- vs. liturgy-centered ritual, 145–146
“pervasive influence,” 343
Pollock, Sheldon, 5
post-mortem process, 74–75
practice of generosity, 87–88
prescriptive scriptures/texts, 18
psychosomatic fire oblation
Ḍākārṇava-tantra, 186–188
internal forms of ritual items, 175–177, 182–184
internalization of ritual items, 192
internalization of standard ritual form, 168–169
Jayasena’s Ḍākārṇavahomavidhi, 186–188
Mahāmudrātilaka-tantra, 173–174
nonconceptual meditation, 169
practice of, 193
psychosomatic fire oblation, subtle body in, 168
recipients of, 177–179, 184–186
Saṃpuṭodbhava-tantra, 179, 181, 183–186
sexual symbolism in, 171–172
subtle body in, 170–171
textual sources for, 172–173
Vajaḍāka-tantra, 179–180, 182–184, 185–186
Vajramālā-tantra, 174–175
ways of performance, 190–191
Pūjā
homa and, 132–133
Vedicization of, 144–145
“Pūjā in Sixteen Steps,” 132
pure and impure, 23, 51, 98, 104–105, 111, 128–130, 133, 242n38, 324
Pure Land traditions, 16, 26, 227–228, 238–239n17, 238n16
purification rites, 59, 134. See also internal purification rites
Queen of Siddhas, 26, 228–229
rain-cloud, fire as, 70
Rappaport, Roy, 10, 19
religious culture, translocation of rituals between, 1
religious traditions, study of, 20–21
repetitious, rituals as, 10
restorative ritual (rindi kiniya), 14
“Rite of Cakrasaṃvara Fire Sacrifice,” 215
rites, categories of, 25–26
ritual
anthropological images of, 7–8
“anti-ritual prejudice,” 13
characteristics/characterization of, 5, 10
definition of, 4
historicality of, 6–12
image as meaningless, 6–9, 349
as invariant, 9–11
sexualization of, 50
systematic changes to, 11
textualization in, 17
varieties of, 12–16
ritual change
across the longue durée, 1–2, 6, 16–17, 19, 21–22, 144, 352
dynamics of, 6
examination of, 348–351
by invention, 14–15
by mixing, 13–14
by routinization, 16
syntax in, 145–148, 158, 161n19, 349–350
“ritual eclecticism,” 144
ritual efficacy, 4, 315
ritual failure, 11–12, 15
ritual invariance, 9–11, 14
ritual rules, 48–51, 60–61
ritual spaces, as temporary constructions, 3
ritual studies, homa’s importance in, 1–2
routinization, ritual change by, 16
royal patronage, 392
sacred and profane, 23, 126–127
sacrifices
categories of, 79
of food articles, 82
purpose of, 78–79
sacrificial sticks, in homa ritual, 253–254
sādhaka, 325–327
sādhanas, 16, 226, 247
Sahasra āhuti ritual, 294, 297, 299–303
saitō goma
appropriating deities, 345–348
development/practice of, 340–342
diagram of, 351
influence and borrowing in, 343–344, 352
mantras used, 344–345
ritual text for, 342–343
Shugendō vs. Shingon traditions, 351–352
syntax in, 350
Śaiva Siddhānta/cosmology, 58–59
Śākta tantric rituals, 324–327
Śakyamuni, 52, 112
Saṃpuṭodbhava-tantra, 179, 181, 183–186
Samuel, Geoffrey, 16
sand, pouring of, 252–253
Sanders, Jeff, 12
Sarvadurgatipariśodhana-tantra, 53–54, 55
Saussure, Ferdinand de, 15, 367n65
Sax, William, 5
Scheffler, Israel, 148
Schleiermacher, Friedrich D., 138n9
Schopen, Gregory, 19, 238n17
Seaquist, Carl, 146
secrecy, in esoteric Buddhism, 365–366n41
secret exposition, 96
sect/sectarian, term usage, 39n111
secularization, 7–8
self
food as, 82
identification with functions/elements, 81
self-deification, in tantric ritual practice, 50–51
self-purification, in tantric ritual practice, 50–51, 54, 58, 59
self-transformation, 50–51, 54, 56–57, 60–61
sensual pleasures, 86–87, 105–108, 258
Sered, Susan, 13
sexual intercourse, internalization of, 171–172, 175–176
sexual symbolism
in Grether’s study, 22
in psychosomatic fire oblation, 171–172, 175–176
Sugiki’s study of, 25
in tantric sex, 50
sexual yoga, 25, 171–172, 175–177, 184, 187, 191–192
Sharf, Robert, 219
Sharrock, P. D., 20
Shingon tradition, 3, 29–30, 219, 268, 338–342, 344–352
Shinohara, Koichi, 270
Shintō tradition, 3, 47, 339, 366n54
Shugendō. See also saitō goma
appropriation of homa, 340
connection with esoteric Buddhism, 338–339
Fudō hō structure, 347
Payne’s study of, 29–30
as religious tradition, 337
Siddhas, Queen of, 26, 228–229
Śira āhuti homa, 303–304
“Siva-fire,” 57–58
Skorupski, Tadeusz, xv, 23, 25, 26
Smith, William Robertson, 7
snake worship, 386–387
Snellgrove, David, 215
social context, of agnihotra rituals, 390–395
social practice, of homa rituals, 276–278
social status, of brahmins, 393
Solomon, David, 19
soma, 39n116
southern fire, 72, 93
speech, explanations of, 81–82
spit-ox offering, 152–153
śrauta rituals
altars in, 151, 156
animals in, 153
in basic format of homa, 148–150
basis of, 321
“meaningless” in, 158, 163n49
non-fire offerings, 156
oblational fire in, 72
officiating brahmins, 376
spit-ox offering, 152–153
tantric, 146
three sacrificial fires in, 78
Śrautasūtras, 144, 374, 377, 380, 386
Śrāvakabhūmi, mundane path in, 107–110
Staal, Frits, 48–49, 146–147, 158, 161n19, 367n65
Stausberg, Michael, 2, 9
Stewart, Pamela J., 6, 14
Strathern, Andrew, 6, 14
Strickmann, Michel, 22, 47, 268
structural functionalism, 12–13
Śubhākarasiṃha, 19, 272, 273, 278
subtle body, 170–171
subtle body yoga, 25, 168, 171, 185, 190–191, 193
Sugiki, Tsunehiko, xv–xvi, 25, 216
sun
as final destination of immortality, 77
in Indo-Iranian rituals, 372
Sundberg, Jeffrey, 20
supreme, indestructible gnosis, 26, 247
Susiddhikāra-sūtra, 271–273, 277
symbolism. See also color symbolism; fire/fire sacrifices, symbolism of
of liver offering, 327–328
of mountains, 363n2
in ten worlds practice, 339–340
symbolism, of fire
Agni’s function in, 68–69
Brahman and, 72–73
cosmic configuration, 84
death/immortality and, 73–77
diverse opinions/speculations on, 67–68
doctrine of the five fires, 69–72
internal fire sacrifice, 79–84
mystical configuration, 84–85
origin and character of, 68
ritual capacity, 85
scope of, 77–79
three sacrificial fires, 72
syntax, in ritual change, 145–148, 158, 161n19, 349–350
Tachikawa, Musashi, xvi, 23–24
tantra. See also specific tantras
as category, 56–57
described/characterized, 325
tantric Buddhism, 20, 27, 307, 339, 346
tantric ritual universe
Buddhist tantras, 51–56
Hindu tantras, 56–60
interplay of fire and water in, 47–51
Śākta tantric rituals, 325–327
temporal dimension, of homa, 1
the ten furious kings, 178–180
ten worlds, 339–340
textualization, ritualization and, 17
three sacrificial fires (tetrāgni), 72
throne, of vajra master, 253
Tibetan Tanjur, 214, 215
Tibet/Tibetan Buddhists, 130, 132, 220. See also Aparimitāyus
Tikopia, 4
totalities, practice of the ten, 109–110
transcendent path, 110–114
transcendent path, mundane and
acquisition of three knowledges, 98–101
combined paths, 101–103
formulation and scope of, 97–98
in Śrāvakabhūmi, 107–110
textual comparisons, 110–114
transformation, of the self, 50–51, 54, 56–57, 60–61
transmission
of deity, 227
of homa texts, 226
of teachings, 214, 228
Tuoluoni ji jing, 269–271
the twelve bases of experience, 103, 111, 179–180, 206n33. See also experience
typology of borrowing, 343–344
“Ultimate Śakti,” 28
Upaniṣads
Brahman identification in, 72–73
on breathing in and out, 83
doctrine of the five fires in, 69–72
food, opinions on, 82
superiority of knowledge in, 80
upasthāna, 151
Urban, Hugh, 324
Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi-sūtra, 18, 19, 53, 232, 234, 250
Vajaḍāka-tantra, 179–180, 182–184, 185–186
Vajrabhairava tantras, 52, 55
vajrācāryas, 242n44, 292, 299, 309n4, 309n13
Vajraḍāka-tantra, 182–184
Vajramālā-tantra, 174–175, 178–179
vajra master’s throne, 253
Vedic fire and sacrifices
in agnihotra rituals, 376–377
Agni’s function in, 68–69
Brahman and, 72–73
Buddhist reinterpretation of, 85–88, 267
character and scope of, 77–79
cosmic configuration, 84
death/immortality and, 73–77
diverse opinions/speculations on, 67–68
doctrine of the five fires, 69–72
internal fire sacrifice, 79–84
layout of, 377
meaning/meaninglessness in, 146–147, 158
mystical configuration, 84–85
origin and character of, 68
ritual capacity, 85
rules for, 143
scope of, 77–79
“syntax” patterns in, 146, 158, 161n19
three sacrificial fires, 72
Vedic rituals
agnihotra, 30–31, 57, 374
vs. Buddhist rites, 51, 57
characteristics of, 3
death and immortality, 73–75, 77
domestic rites, 49
fire and water rites, 48–51
healing rites, 62n21
homa history, 2–3
ritual offerings in, 27
shifts to Brahmanic ritual, 18
śrauta in, 61n4
sun’s nature in, 77
symbolic associations, 23
tantric ritual structure and, 22
textual sources in, 24, 27
three Vedas, 75
Vīṇāśikha-tantra, 59
Verardi, Giovanni, 51
Vimalaprabhā, 26, 246, 248, 308n9
visionary experiences, 16. See also experience
Wallace, Vesna A., xvi, 26–27, 28, 55
Wasson, Gordon, 39n116
water. See also fire and water rites
as female element, 50
in internal and external rites, 52–53
Water-of-Life, 59
Wayman, Alex, 38n101
White, David, 57
Wilson, Monica, 6, 13
Witzel, Michael, xvi, 30–31, 48, 49, 57, 138n10, 321
Wolfe, Eric, 7
woman, fire as, 70
Wrathful Deities, 52, 55, 228
yajamānī, role of, 393
yantra, 29, 314, 316–319, 325–327, 373
yasna, 2–3, 22, 48, 49, 372
Yaśogupta, homa ritual translation of, 269
Yi Xing, 19, 271, 278
yoga. See deity yoga; sexual yoga; subtle body yoga
Yogācārabhūmi (Buddhist text), 16
yonder world, fire as, 70
Zen Buddhism, ritual traditions and, 8–9
Zoroastrianism, 2, 22, 47–49, 62n14, 225, 372. See also yasna
Zürcher, Erik, 30, 343–344, 352