SECTION IX

CHAPTER XXXIV

COSMOLOGY

All writers on Dharmaśāstra are agreed on the existence of God. They rarely enter upon the task of adducing arguments for the existence of God. Christian theologians for hundreds of years put forward various arguments pointing to the existence of God. They are briefly summarised in William James ‘Varieties of religious experience’ p. 437 (ed. of 1920). The cosmological argument reasons from the ordered univers to a First Cause which must be conceived as God who must at least possess whatever perfection the universe itself contains. The argument from purpose or design (teleological argument) based itself on the evidence of purpose or design in Nature and concludes that the First Cause (God) must be a creative intellect or mind. Then there are other arguments also such as the ‘moral argument’(viz. the moral law presupposes a law-giver), the argument ex consensu gentium (vir, there is widespread belief in God all over the world and it should carry weight).¹

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History of Dharmatāstra (Soo, Ix, an. XXXIV

The Upaniṣads speak of the Absolute brahman as the creator, preserver and destroyer of the bhulas ( beings or elements or both). For example, the Tai. Up. III. 1(Bhrgu 2430 is instruoted ty his father Varupa) desire to know that from which all bhutas spring, by which, after being created, they live (are sustained) and to which they return and are absorbed therein ; that is brahma’. This is the basic text on which V. S. I. 1.2 (jappādyasya yataḥ) is based. This means ‘from which the creation (sustenance and dissolution) of this (world ) proceed’ (that is brahma). Another passage of the Tai. Up. (II. 1) states that ‘from this Ātman Akāśa sprang. from ākāśa Vayu, from Vāyu Agni, from Agoi waters, from waters the earth, from earth plants, from plants food, from food man’. A passage of the Chān. Up. states 2431 all this, indeed, is brahma; a man, cultivating restraint of the mind, should meditate on that (world) As springing from, ending in and breathing on account of that (brahma)’. This is the basis of V. S. I. 2. 1 ( sarvatra prasiddho padeśāt). Here the three attributes of brahma are creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe.

The Vedāntasūtra of Bādarāyana further says that sastras ( sacred canon or texts) are the source of the correct knowledge

(Continued from last page) abandoned, since, according to bim, these are preposterous absolutes. O the other band Dr, F, W. Jones in bis work Desiga and purpose’ (London, 1942) pots forward the view that many people are in danger of losing sight of the truth that the Cosmos is an ordered entity and that many have lost belief in the purpose of human life (p. 13). The teleological argumeot may strengthen the faith of a person wbo already believes in God, but it appears that it caddot create faith in God in the case of ope who does not subscribe to that view. Abel Jones in ‘In search of truth’ (1945) bolds that the three main argoments for the existence of God are cosmological, teleological and ontological,

2430. यतो वा इमानि भूतानि जायन्ते येन जातानि जीवन्ति यस्मयम्स्यभिसंविशन्ति DE REIHEIT alat d. 54. III, 1.

2431. ā miste T eretana Siap 34 ta I . 04. III. 14. 1. The word awon applied to brabma is peculiar; it is explained by TFT as followe: जलानिति। तस्माद् ब्रह्मणो जातं जोषादिक्रमेण सर्वम् । अतस्तमम् । तथा देनेव जननक्रमेण प्रतिलोमतया तस्मिमेव ब्रह्मणि लीयते तदारमतया लिप्यते इति तलम् ।

u arra Funda fara s a at mai. Vide also 01. 34. I. 9. I सर्वाणिहा इमानि भूतान्याकाशादेव समुपपन्त आकाशं प्रत्यस बस्याकाशो मेम्पो ज्यावाद । आकाशः परायणम् ।

Agreement of sūstras as to brahma

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of brahma, 3432 To the objection that the Veda la concerned with rites, that some partions of it are meant for the praise of rites, that the Vedic mantras only remind the performer about the various ingredients of sacrifice, that, therefore, the Vedanta texte either serye no purpose at all or at the most give information about the soul of the sacrificer or the deity to be worshipped in sacrificos, the reply is given by the Vedāntasūtra 1. 1. 4 (tat-tu samantayāt), which means that all Vedānta texts are agreed that their parport is to establish that brahma, whioh has been postulated (in V.S.I.1.2)as the creator, preserver and absorber of the world has that charaoter and is omniscient and omnipotente

That the argument from design also was present to the minds of the propounders of Vedānta follows from the fact that the Vedantasutra (IL 2. 1, racanānupapattesca nanumānam) denies that the Pradhana of the Saṅkhya (that is postulated as acetana) can be inferred as the cause of the universe.283

It may be noted here that, according to Saṅkarācarya, the detailed -334 statements on the dootrine about creation contained in the Upanisads are not to be taken literally, that no special purpose dependent thereon can be found nor is such a purpose laid down by Sruti (Veda), but all those statements are intended to lead on to the knowledge of brahma and to expound the non difference of the world from brahma. 2435 From early times most

2432. शाबयोनित्वात्। .. I 1.3; शाकरभाष्य । यथोक्तमग्वेदाविशार्स योनि कारणं प्रमाणमस्य ब्रह्मणो पथावस्वरूपाधिगमे । तत्तु समन्वयात् । के.ए.L1.4; भाप ‘सद् प्रा सर्वशं सर्वशति जगत्पत्तिस्थितिलयकारणं वेदान्वशाबादेवावगम्यते । कम

समन्वयात्। सर्वेषुहि वेदान्तेषु वाक्यानि तात्पर्येणेतस्यार्थस्य प्रतिपादकलेन समनुमानि।’

2433. अतो रचनासुपपत्तेश्च देतो चेतनं जगत्कारणमडमासन्ये भवति । शाहरभाग्य on. II. 2.1.

2434. नायं सुश्वादिनपत्रा प्रतिपिपादपिषितः । न हितमतिबद्धः कश्चित्पुरुषायों पश्यते भूपवे वा । न च कल्पयितुं शक्यते, उपक्रमोपसंहाराम्यां वत्र तत्र ब्रह्मविवक्रि साफ मेकवाक्यताया गम्यमानत्वात् । पर्शपति च सुवादिप्रपशस्य ब्रह्मपतिपस्यर्थताम्-‘असेना साम्य अनापो मूलमन्विच्छ …सम्मलमन्विच्छ। (छा. VI. 8.4) इति । सुवाविधान कार्यस्य कारणेनामेदं पदित सुख्खादिमपः भाग्यत इति गम्यते । शाहरभाग्य ॥ . 1.4.14. For सुवादिष्टान्त, vide छा. उप. VI. 3. 4-6 यथा सोम्यकेन सुपिण्डेना सर्व अन्मयं विज्ञातं स्यात् । पाचारम्भण विकारो नामधेयं सुचिकेत्येव सत्यम् ॥ Again on v.s. IV. 3. 14 Saikaricirya remarks: सवाविवाहि सतो बहाण एकस्य सत्यत्वं विकारस्य चारतले प्रतिपादयच्छा मोत्पत्यादिपरं भवितुमाईदि। … एपइत्यस्याविहतीनाम कालयावगमपरत्वासानेकशमियागो बाणः.

2435. The following works may be read for cosmology of Vedic texts: H. W, Wallis on Conology of the Rgveda’ (1887): ‘Vedic mytbology

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1486 History of Dharmatastra [ Sea IX, an. XXXIV

philosophers osoillate between the dootrine of the First Pelnoiple ag immanent in the universe and the dootrine that God is the creator and is transcendent. The Rgveda and Upaniṣads appear to postulate the first doctrine according to which the Absolute enters into it when it creates the Universe (Tai. Up. II. 6 ’tat srstvā tad-evānuprāvisat’), Cbān. Up. VI. 2.1, VI. 3. %, BF, Up. I. 4. 10. They also speak of God as ruling the Universe (antaryāmin) as in Br. Up. III. 7. Kausitaki Up. III. 8. At that time there was no atomic theory. Early Greek thought also wavered between the two doctrinos. Later on came the rival theory of cosmology in which atoms played a great part, that was adumbrated by Democritus (died about 370 B. C. 200. to William James in ‘Some Problems’, and explained by Lucretius. In India also the Vaiśesikas put forward the theory that the world is paramāṇus (atoms). Kapāda or Kanabhuk (lit, one who assumes or subsists on kaṇas, very subtle partioles) is the reputed founder of the Vaiśeṣika system. He does not expressly say anything about God. But later medieval writers on Nyaya Vaiśesika combined the two doctrines of God and atoms. As the Tarkadipikā246 puts the theory it is as follows: when God desires to create, activity is produced among the atoms, two atoms join, dvyaṇuka (dyad) is produced, tryaṇuka is produoed from three dvyapukas and in the end the great earth is prodaced; of things created when God desires to bring about dissolution an aotivity is produced in the atoms. The atoms are eternal and infinite in number.

Though there was almost universal agreement about the existence of God among the Dharmaśāstra writers, there was (as in the 2437 West) divergence about the names, nature and

(Continued from last page) by A, A. Macdonell pp. 8-15, Denssen’s ‘Philosophy of the Upaniabads’ translated into English by A. S. Geden (1906) pp. 180–253 : ‘Religion and Pbilosophy of the Veda aod the Upanishads’ by A. B, Keith, pp. 570-584. A receat work ‘Theories of the Universe’ by Milton K. Manitz (pab. by Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois, 1957) deals with the cosmologies of several countries from Babylonian myth to modern science ( but omits the Indian material).

2436. Facet Fantaratie au fost mai mari parhaat afat इचशुकमुत्पयते त्रिभिवर्थणुकेरवणुकम् । एवं चतरणुकाधिक्रमेण महती प्रथिवी… वायुरुत्पते । … TERGITT A F Freitagma Magy fasuri ITP . 9 (Athalya’s zod ed, of 1918).

2437. In the West, Jeans IA ‘Mysterious Univerie’ (Cambridge 1931 gous so far as to say ( on p. 134) ’the great Architect of the Universo …

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Nature and attributes of God

attributes of God. Most wors agreed that God is one without a 8600nd, is spiritual (and not physical, though several people worshipped Him in the form of Siya or Visgu a Davi), it mutable, omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent, creator, holy, good and just &c. Difficult anestions arise about belief in God. One or two may be mentioned: Is God omniscient in the coma pleted and strictest sense viz. whether he could do anything what over as he likes or whether there are certain things which he cannot do. Another question is whether all existing things other than himself have been created by him or whether there are some things whose existence is as ultimate as God’s. All religions are faoed with difficulties and therefore religion is a matter of faith

Though the Rgveda is full of the deeds of and prayers to individual Gods (such as Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Soma), the Roveda containg several hymns and verses to the effect that the original Principle is only one, that it creates the world out of itself, enters into it and inspires it. In Rg. 1. 164.46 the sage says “the wise speak of the One existing (principle) under various names, they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan ( wind god). This is not a solitary verse. There are similar verses in the Rgyeda For example, Rgveda VIII, 58. % (& verse from the Valakhilya hymns) says “The one fire is kindled in many places, the one Sun appears in the whole world, the one Dawn shines over all this world and the One (Principle, Spirit) became all this’, In Rs. X. 90.2, it is declared all this universe is (in reality) the Puruṣa alone, (both ) what has been and what will come into existence in future’. In Rg. II. 1. 3–7 Agni is identified with Indra, Viṣṇu, Brahma, Varuṇa, Mitra, Aryaman, Tvasts, Rudra, Draviṇodas, Savitr and Bhaga. All these versos establish that ultimately all plurality is only a play of words, a mere name (Vācārambhanam vikaro dāmadheyam’ as the Obān. Up. VI. 1. 4 states) and that unity is the only Reality and that the fundamental teaching of the Upaniṣads appears in germ in the Rgyeda.

(Continued from last page) begias to appear as a pure mathematician.’ Einstein, the greatest scientist of modern times, is reported to bave cabled back to Rabbi H. S. Goldstein of New York (who asked by wire . Do you believe in God) that I believe in Spinoza’s God wbo reveals himself in the barmony of all beings, pot in a God who concerns bimself with the fate and actions of man.’ In Out of my later years’ he holds that the main conflict between scieace and religion lieg to the concept of 4 personal God. Vida Viscount Samoel’s address in the symposium “la search of faith’ edited by E. W. Martha p. 78, bere four views on the relation of God and the world art mentioned. •

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History of Dharmadastra (Soo. IX, on XXXIV

In the Rgveda there are several hymns about the creation of the world in the 10th Mapdala (X. 72, X. 81 and 82, X, 90. X. 121, X. 129). For reasons of space all these cannot be set out at length, but some important texts will be mentioned. The main purpose of the bymn (X. 72) is to desoribe the birth of eight Adityag. Rg. X. 72. 2 states 2438 that Brahmanaspati brought about the ( births of) gods like & smith (that works with bellows) and that in the primeval ages of the Gods’ sat was produced from asat. In Rg. X. 72. 4-5 and 8 it is said that Daksa was born from Aditi and Aditi from Dakṣa, that the gods were born after her (Aditi) and that from Aditi eight sons were born. The two bymos X. 81 and 82 refer to Viśvakarman who fashioned the worlds. X. 81.2 and 4 ask questions ‘what was the base 2439 (from where he created the world), what was the

2438. ब्रह्मणस्पतिरेता संकार इवाधमत् । देवानां पूरयें युगेऽसतः सदजायत । ऋ. X, 72. 2. Here * Asat’ must be taken to mean ‘undeveloped’ (Avyakta) and pot as meaning .con-existent’. The Br. Up. (I. 4. 7) states all this was then (before creation began) ondeveloped and it was developed by Dame and form’. Similarly, in the Tai. Up. II. 7 it is said H ET TEPAT M ia and Raatua. But the Cbān, Up. (VI. 3, 1-3) emphatically asserts “in the beginning there was that only which was ‘sat’, one only without a second; some say ‘in the beginning there was tbat only wbich is esat, from which arose sat’; but how could it be tbus, how would sat (that which is) spring from asat (that wbich is not)? It is sat only that was at the beginning, ode without a second. It reflected ‘may I be many, may I produce’; it created fire &c.” Saṅkarācārya on V. S. I. 4. 15 refers to Tai. Up. II, 7 ‘asad vā idam-agra āsit’ and Chāo. Up. III. 19. 1 ‘asad-evodem agra asit’ and explains w bat is meant by asat in such passages viz. ‘FTREET ज्याकृतवस्तुविषयः प्रायेण ससुब्दः प्रसिद्ध इति तद्व्याकरणाभाषापेक्षया मागुत्पतेः सदेव ब्रह्मासदिवासीदित्युपचर्यते’ and points out that in such passages Sruti itself adds words which give the go-by and resote the words ‘asad-evedam’ &c. In æg. X, 72.4 (aditer dakso ajāyata ) Prof. Velankar (Pro. of All I. O. Coo ference, 17th Session in 1953 ) bolds ‘aditeh’ to be in the genitive caso (p. 62) and not in the ablative case, to avoid the riddle bow Dakna and Aditi were boro of each other, but that breaks the symmetry of the words, such as ‘agataḥ’. ‘attānapadah’, ‘bbuvaḥ’ tbat precede and are taken as ablatives The present author demurs to this explanation offered by Prof. Velankar.

2439. Pek wraar FNAFUria i paqaraf Ratatoilmataram:n fesgasaga forcatingan dan antrena Formatura

सं पाहुया धमति संपतवेवाभूमी जनयन्देव एकः किं विनेक उस पक्ष आस पतोपाचाy थिवी निरताः। मनीषिणो मनसा पृच्छतेदु तथदण्यतिष्ठवनानि धारपन् R.X. 81.2-4. The ball versc fire occurs in Rg. X. 31. 7 also. Hrqo explains are in the first verse as ‘FUATE

T H AT wafaceri cara la (Continued on next page)Rg. X. 81.

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material (out of which he fashioned the earth ), what was the forest and the tree from which heaven and earth were obisolled out’ and the third verse describes the one God as follows ‘The one God who sees all round, whose face is turned in all directions, who has hands and feet everywhere, who when creating heaven and earth sends them forth with his (two) hands as with bellows and with wings’ (as a bird is propelled). Rgveda X, 90 (001 taining 16 versus) is the famous hymn called Purusasūkta and postulates a supreme creator as a Puruṣa (called Adipurusa by Sāyaṇa) with a thousand heads, eyes and feet, asports that all this that has come into being and that is yet to come is Purasa, that from Puruṣa arose Virāj, from whom arose ( what we may call the second) Puruṣa (Hiranyagarbha) whom the gods offered as havis (oblation or paśu) in a symbolical sacrifice in which the three seasons, Vasanta, Grisma and Sarad were respectively the ghee, the fuel and the haris. This hymn was probably composed at a time when, it appears, there was a firm belief (as in Śat. Br. V.2.4.7, VI. 1. 1. 3 and Tai. 8. VIL 4.2.1) that nothing great can be accomplished without yajña or tapas. The hymn then proceeds to say that from that primoval yajña all animals (borses, cows &c.), the four varṇas, the Sun, the Moon, Agni, Indra, the Veda, heaven and earth were produced. In the Atharvaveda XIX. 6 also there are 16 verses of which the first fifteen correspond with the first 15 verses of the Paruṣasūkta, but the order of verses is different and some of the words also are slightly changed. The Vāj. S. 31 has all the 16 verses of the Prusan sakta but it contains five more verses and a prode passage at the end. Rg. X. 121. 1 declares 2440 that in the beginning Hiranya

(Continued from last page) चढतभङ्गमसः। असचेत् सदात्मकयोर्यावापृथिव्योरुपादानानईत्वात्। नाम्याकिंचन मिषत gha ya saratani 19. The 8. 9. (II. 8. 9. 3 ff) repeats all the verses of Rg. X. 129 except the 3rd verge and in II, 8, 9 6 states that the answer to the question FREE ( Rg. X. 81, 4) is

\# Seiterat omrudit fang: 1 Heileront HAFT Paartta Et Ears

Teen ‘Brahma was the forest and the tree from which they chiselled heaven and earth (and worlds)’.

2440. fergoni papiero ru ora: P r iat . X. 121. 1. The #. #. V. 5. 1. 2 provides ‘fronto Frida FEIRETTATOTT a la parroquia गर्भ प्रजापतेरनुरूपत्वाय, यात्मदा बलदा यस्य विश्व उपासते शिवं यस्य देवाः। यत्व OTP TR 979 for FHA O . X. 121. 2. ‘He gives life and strength, hls commandments are honoured by all the Gods, whore shadow is immortality and also donth; who is this God whom we worship with other offerings (or to what God wo may offer worship with havis ?).

2441. D. 187

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History of Dharmasāstra (Soo. IX, Oh. XXXIV

garbha (the Golden Egg) was born; and verse 10 identifies him with Prajapati and verses 8 and 10 declare that waters were produced by him from which issues forth Hiranyagarbha (the Golden egg), which was Prajāpati Himself. The second verse is quoted in n. 1410. Rg. X. 125 is a hymn placed in the mouth of Vāk ( speech), wherein speech is portrayed as a power even beyond the gods and as creative. Three (1,6,8) out of the eight verges may be rendered here ‘I move along with the Rudras and Vasus, with the Adityas and Viśyedevas; I support both Mitra and Varupa, Indra and Agni and the two Asvins, I stretch the bow of Rudra in order to kill the enemy, the hater of brahma (sacred prayer); I cause war for mon; I entered heaven and earth, I blow like the wind, producing all the worlds; I am beyond hearen and beyond this earth; by my greatness (power) I have become such a one’. Here one must told that the sage is not referring to ordinary speech or language but to the conception that word has creative power and that it is one with God or was the thought uttered by brahman.

Rg. X. 129 (called Nāsadiya-sūkta from the opening words ) is a unique hymn241 Several passages of bis hymn are yet very obscure in spite of the labour bestowed upon it by eminent sobo lars. In this hymn the First Principle of Creator is not given any name but is simply spokon of as’tad-ekam’, as done in the Upaniṣads in ‘Tat-team-asi’ or ’ekam-avādvitiyam’ (Ohān. Up VI 2.1-2.). The important and tolerably clear passages are translated here : " There was then neither asat’ ( what is not,

2441, नासदासीलो सदासीत्तदानीं नासीदजो नो व्योमा परो यत् । किमावरीबा कुह कस्य शर्मशम्भः किमासीदहनं गभीरम् ॥ न मृत्युरासीवमृतं न सहि न राश्या अ आसीत् मकेतः। आनीदवात स्वधया तदेक तस्माखान्यज पर: किं च नास तम आसीचमसागष्टमी अकेत सलिलं सर्वमा इदम्। …कामस्तदने समवर्तताधि मनसो रेतः प्रथमं यदासीत् । …को अद्धा वेद क इह प्रवोचत् कुत आजाता कुत इयं विसष्टिः । … इयं विसष्टिर्यत आबभूव यदिया दधे यदि पान । यो अस्याध्यक्षः परमे व्योमन सो अङ्ग वेद यदि वा न वेद .x. 129. 1-1. The stay (X. 5, 3, 1-2) makes an interesting refereace to this hymo: ‘मेव वा इदमोऽसदासीव सदासीत् । आसीदिव था इदमये नेवासीचद्ध तन्मन पचास। परमादेतहषिणाम्यनूक्तम् । नासदासीको सदासीत्तदानीमिति। नेव हि सन्मनो नेवासद तदिद Har gen t .’ This Br, makes it clear that this (Universe) was as it were acither aon-existent nor existent and it further says in the beginning this (Universe) as it were existed and did aot exist: there was then only the mind and that mind as it were was neither existent nor pop•existent.’ It may be noted that the Bhagavatapurāṇa speaks of the Lord as importag the esoteric (gubya) Truth in verses 32-36 of II. 9; verse 32 which reme miods us of Rg. X. 129. 1 is: TAROT wage9870 I fear wear

पोवाशिम्येत सोस्यहम् ।।

Bg. %.

10i

non-being) nor ‘sat’ (what is); thone was no aky nor the heaven whisk is beyond; what was it that covered all! Where was it and under whose shelter? Was there deep unfathomable abyss of waters?; (2) There was no death, bonne nothing immortal; there was no congoiousness (distinction) of night and day; that one breathed by its own nature (power) without there being any air, really nothing other than that existed ; ( 4 ) destre oame into being, that was the first flow (seed, offspring) of the mind; (6) who knows directly, who can proclaim it here whence this creation came into being; (7) He from whom arose this area tion, whether he made it or did not make it, the Higheat soor in the highest heaven, he indeed knows or even he does not know?

It would be noticed that the sage, who was a poot and philosopher, proclaimed that there was that one Being, raised high above all gods, conditions and limitations; he, the sage, gives expression to what he conceived to be the state before the creation of the universe. Night and day, death and immorta lity are opposites. These exist only when there is manifest ness or creation and therefore he says there was no death, nor anything immortal. The hymn does not say that there was non-being out of which being grow. What he means is that That One alone breathed, the opposites, being and non-being, did not exist. For translations and remarks on this hymn, vide Max-Mūller’s ‘History of ancient Sanskrit Literature (1859 ) pp. 539-566, and ‘Six systems of Indian Philosophy’ (1919 ed.) pp. 49-52, Dr. Radhakrishnan’s ‘Indian Philosophy’ (1923), vol. 1. pp. 100-104. Prof. Whitney (Proceedings of American Oriental Society Vol. XI p. OXI.), in his characteristio supercilious manner referred to above on p. 51%, remarked that the praises bestowed on this hymn were nauseating. Deusben, loog after Whitney’s diatribe, said “in its noble simplicity, in the loftiness of its

philosophic vision, it is possibly the most admirable bit of the

· philosophy of olden times’ and that no translation can ever do

justice to the beauty of the original’ (vide Bloomfield’s ‘The religion of the Veda,’ p. 234, ed. of 1908 ). Vide Keith’s ‘Reli gion and philosophy of the Veda and Upanigads.’ VOL II. pp. 435-436. In many other passages of the Rgveda, different gods are referred to as creators. God Prajāpati is said to have created heaven and earth, the wide, deep, well formed and to have pushed them by his power without support (IV. 56. 3 ). Indra is said to have created the Sun and Uṣas (Rg. II. 12.) and to have established heaven without any beam to support, supported and spread the earth ( Rg. II. 15.% ).

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History of Dharmalāstra (Soo. IX, Oh XXXIV

The creation hymns refer to a stage when there was no generally acoepted theory about the origin of the world.- But this much is clear that in the most ancient times, at least some of the Vedic sagos had arrived at the theory that there was only one Principle or Spirit, though called by various names and that it willed to create the world and created it from itself.

Apart from the above-mentioned hymns that may be called creation bymns, the Rgveda contains many references to the creation or the support 3443 of heaven and earth by several gods and also creation of other things. In Rg. X. 89. 4 Indra is said to have made from heaven and earth on all sides as the axle does the wheels. Rg. I. 154. 4 refers to Viṣou who single-handed supports the three, viz. the earth, the heaven (and antariksa) and all the worlds. Mitra is said to support beaven and earth (Rg. LIL, 59. 1) and to bear all gods (Rg. III. 59.8 ) 2413. Brahmanas pati (Lord of Prayer, Bphaspati) is said to have sent forth (blazed ) the births of gods like a blacksmith and that in the primeval times of the gods sat was born from asat. Soma is said (Rg. VI. 47. 4) to have made the width of the earth and the loftiness of the heaven and supported the wide anta. riksa (mid regions) and in Rg. II. 40 (which is addressed jointly to Soma-Pasan) it is said that one of them (Sona) produced all worlds and the other (Pūṣan, the Sun) goos over seeing or marking, the doings of the whole world ( verse 5).

In Rg. VII, 78, 3 dawns (plural) are said to have created the Sun, Yajña and Agai. This is metaphorical, since after each dawn the Sun rises, sacrificial fire is kindled into flames and sacrifice is offered. Ip Rg. I 96.2 Agni is said to be the progenitor of men. In Rg. II. 35.2 (apām napāt, grandson of waters i. e. Agni ) is said to have created all worlds.

Heaven and earth ( as dual divinities) have six hymno addressed to them in the Rg..viz. I, 159-160, 185, IV, 56, VI. 70, VII. 53 ) and they are called ‘rodasi’ and sisters (Rg. I. 185.5). They are also called parents of the gods ( Rg. VIII. 97.8, X. 2.7).

2442. y Feng gruaiga TH ATOR foi *. 1.154, 4. The word forum occurs at least two dozen times in the Rgvada, but the meaning is not certain. Io Rg. VIII 40 12 we have ’tridbātuak sarmaṇa pātam. a mān’ (protect us with a three-fold protection) and it is difficult to say wbat ’tidbātu ‘protection is.

2443. peruttar… 91 . X. 72. 2. ga refers to app (amat) In the first verse (देवानां तु वयं जाना प्रबोचाम विपन्यया). For the meaning of सत् and at vide note 2438 above,

Meaning of ’ tiarah pythvite

149$

The word ’ antariksa’ (atmosphorio region) cours at least a hundred times in the Rgveda. Sometimes we have phrases like (tisrah pṣthvih ) meaning the three worlds including the earth (Rg. I. 84, 8), while in other passages reference is made to lower, middle and highest prithivi as in Rg. I. 108. 9 (yad indrā. gni avamasyām prthivyām madhyamasyān paramasyām uta sthaḥ) meaning thereby the earth, antariksa and heaven. Antariksa is often called ‘rajas’ as the region of dust, mists and clouds

in Rg. I 35.% and 9).

In Rg. I. 35. 6 it is said ’there are three dyaus (i. e. heaven, antariksa and earth), two are on the lap of Savitr (i. o. heaven and earth) and one (antarikṣa) is in the world of Yama. The sage explains in Rg. & 88. 15 “I bave heard of two paths viz. of the pitṛs and of the gods and also of mon; the whole world that moves reaches that (region) which is between the father (heaven) and the mother (the earth).

Varuṇa is said to have spread antariksa on forests, spread the Sun in heaven and Soma on mountains (Rg. V.85.2). Even in the times of the Rgveda speculation had begun about the distance between heaven and earth. In Rg. I. 155.5 the post pays that no one dare soar up to the third step of Viṣṇu (i. e. heaven), not even the birds flying on their winga. In the Altareya Brāhmaṇa the distance between the earth and heaven is put at one thousand days’ journey for a horse, 2414

In the Taittiriya Samhita Prajapati is frequently mentioned as creating the gods and asuras (IIL 3. 7. 1), as creating yajfias (1 6.9.1), da creating people (II. 1. 2. 1) and animals (1. 5.9.7) and desiring to create prajā and performing tapas for that (III. 1.1.1). Tai. 8. (V. 6. 4.2) states that all this is the beginning was water, a sea and that Prajāpati becoming wind floated rapidly on & lotus leaf.

The Atharvaveda has some hymns on creation. But they are verbose, repetitive and do not possess the depth, philosophy and torse style of the hymns of the Reveda cited above. In hymns 7 and 8 of the 10th kanda it puts forward Skambha as the base and as identified with Prajāpati, as the creator and supporter of all worlds and as having all the thirty-three gods in himself; it asks by how muoh did Skambha enter the manifold

2444, RUH

oy or 2nd are

PENTAFT HENTAIH Telemat 17).

14. #. (7th ,

7th

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History of Dharmadāstra (Sec. IX, Oh. XXXIV

forms of the bighest, lowest and middling type that Prajapati created; how much is that in which he (Skambha) did not enter’s In Rg. IX. 86. 46 Soma made for sacrifice is spoken of as Skambha. Hymn 8 of kāṇda X (of Atharvavada) in styled * description of Jyestha-brahma’ (the highest or oldest brahma). Two Verses from it may be cited ‘Obeisance to that Jyestha Brahma that governs all, whether produced or to be produced, and to whom alone heaven pertains. These two, heaven and earth, stand supported by Skambha; all this that has Atman, that breathes and blinks is Skambha. Skambha literally means *support’ or ‘pillar’. The verbal form Skabbnāti’ occurs in Rg X. 6. 3 and the word ‘Skambha’ occurs several times in the Rg, but not in the sense of ‘creator’. In Atharva X. 8. 2 Skambha is mentioned twice, while in X. 72445 (of 44 verses) it occurs many times. Atharva X. 2 is called Brahmaprakāśana hymn (of 33 verses). Numerous questions are asked in verses one to 19. In verses 20, 22, 24 questions are asked and verses 21, 23, 25 giro replies to them. One question and answer may be set out ‘By whom was this earth made (or arranged), by whom was the high beaven placed, by whom was the sky placed above and crosswise and in various directions’? ‘Brahma made the earth, brahma is the heaven placed high, it is brahma Shat is the sky placed above, Cross-wise and in various directions.’ Verse 27 of Atharva X. 8 ia the same as Sv.Up. IV. 3 and Identifies the creator with young and old, men and women and boy and girl In Atharva X. 8 several other deities also are mentioned but they are deemed to be comprehended in the Supreme Entity. In Atharva IX. 2 ( 25 Verses) there is apotheosis of Kāma, in the first eighteen verses of which there are prayers to Kama for vanquishing and driving away enemies, the last quarter of each of the perses 19 to 24 ends tasmai te Kama nama it krpomi (I offer obeisance to you, O Kāma’). These air versos deolare that Kāma appeared first, tbat neither the gods, nor pitss por men reached Kama who is greater than heaven and earth, wators, Agni, the directions, all beings that blink their eyes, the 808; Vāta, Agni, the Sun and the Moon do not reach Kāma.

2445. यस्मिन् स्तबधा प्रजापतिल कान्सर्वा अधारयत् । स्कम्भत अहि कसमः स्विदेवसः। यत्परममवमं पञ्च मध्यम प्रजापतिः ससृजे विश्वरूपम्। कियता स्कमा प्रविवेश वापस प्राविशत्कियत्तद् बभूव ॥ यस्य अपशिदेवा अड़े सर्वे समाहिताः। कम्भ हि कायमः Pada #: a x. 7. 7. 8. 13; inti giardino e gli fan art तिर्यक चान्तरिक्ष ज्यचो हितम् । माणा भूमिबिदिता बछ चौतरा हिता। होपर्व

Patuparin metai X. 2. 24-25.

Atharvaveda hymns on creation

1495

Atharva XIX. 52 is a hymn 2446 of five verses addressed to Kams, who is said to have appeared in the beginning and was the first flow of the mind.

Atharvaveda XI. 4 (26 verses) is addressed to Prāna, the first verse being ‘obeisance to Prāpa under whose domination is all this (world); he is the Lord of all and in him everything is centred (or established)’ and verse 12 Is ‘Prāpa ie Virāj, Prāṇa is the directing power, all offer worship to Prāṇa, Prāga is indeed the Sun, the Moon and they (the sages) call him Prajāpati’.

In hymns 53 ( 10 verses) and 54 (5 verses) of Kaṇda 19 the Atharvaveda appears to put forward Kāla (time) as the first principle. Three of these are here translated. Tapas is placed in Kāla, also the Jyestha Brahma, Kāla is the Lord of all, he was the father of Prajāpati; Kāla created people, in the begin. ning Kāla created Prajāpati, Svayambhū (Brahmā), Kasyapa and tapas sprang from Kāla; from Kāla were born waters, brahma, tapas and directions, sun-rise is due to Kāla and it is merged in Kāla (at night).’

The Sat. Br. in many places speaks of creation. A few passages only can be referred to here. The Sat. Br. (in VI. 1. 1) starts by saying that in the beginning there was here the non-existent’ and assorts that the non-existent was the sages, the vital airs and then it postulates Prajapati (made from seven vital airs) who desired “May I be more, may I have progeny’. *He toiled and practised tapas, and being tired, he created first of all the Brahman, the triple lore (the three Vedas), that Prajā pati then created waters from Vāk that is the world; that he (Prajāpati) entered the waters with the triple love and that thende an egg arose; he touched it, then earth was produced and so on.

In XI. 1. 6. 1 ff. the Sat. Br. states “In the beginning this was water, only a 808. The waters desired ‘How shall we have

2446, कामरतदये समवर्तत मनसो रेतः प्रथम यवासीत् । स काम कामेन वृहता सुयोनी trafūr TGATITT EFEN sud. XIX. 52 1. For ham tai, compare Rg. X. 129.4 quoted above io 8. 2441; a topy rhai a Horn यस्मिन्सर्व प्रतिष्ठितम् ॥ माणो विरार माणो वेडी प्राण सर्व उपासतें, भाणोहर्षश्चन्द्रमाः माणमाहुः । forefatra il sut XI. 4. 1 and 12 ; gre at:

FATICAE i et सर्वस्येश्वरोपः पितासीरमजापतेः कालः प्रजा असुजत कालो अग्रे मजापतिम् । स्वयंभूर कश्यपः

MT44 Forasta u XIX, 53. 8 and 10; 1 997 na morewe

fet: I atentata e

a a: # sudXIX, 54, 1.

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History of Dharmatūstra i seo. IX, OL. XXXIV

progeny?’ They toiled and practised austerities; while they were doing this a golden egg was produced, which floated for about a year, in about a year’s time a Puruṣa, Prajāpati, was born; he broke open the egg; he created the Gods by (the breath of) his mouth; he created Agai, Indra, Soma " &o.

In XI. 2. 3. 1-2 the Sat. Br, says-In the beginning this (universe) was brahma, it created the gods, Agni, Vāyu, Sūrya ; then & reference is made to name and form (nāma rūpe) by which he descends into the worlds and it is said these two (nāmarūpe ) are the great manifestations of brahma’.

This myth about a golden egg of the universe is developed from Rg. X. 129. 3 and X. 121.1 (Hiranyagarbhaḥ sama vartatāgre) in the Ch. Up. III. 19. 1-2 ‘In the beginning this universe was asat (not unfolded), it became sat (began to unfold), it was born (i, e. it took form); then an egg was evolved; it lay (in waters) for the period of a year; then it broke up, the two halves were one of silver and the other of gold; the silver half is this earth and the golden half is heaven’. This is followed in Manusmrti as will be ghown later on.

It is stated in the Sat. Br. X. 4. 2. 22–23 that Prajapati arranged the Rgveda in such a way that the number of syllables in the Rgveda come to 12000 Bṛhati metres (each Bphati has 36 syllables ).

The Tai, Br. states “Prajapati created Gods and aduras (II. 2. 3) but he did not create Indra; the Gods said to him * create Indra for us’; just as I created you by means of fupag in the same way you create Indra; they practised tapas and they saw Indra ( abiding) in themselves (i.e. in their hearts) they said to him be born’”. In II. %. 9. 1 the Tai.2447 Br. statas “this universe was nothing at all in the beginning; there was no heaven por earth nor mid region; that non-existent created Mind with the thought ’let me be’”. In II. 6. 2. 3 the same Brāhmaṇa says “Prajapati created by the help of Veda the two forms ‘sat’ and ‘asat”. The Tai. Br. in II. 8. 8. 9-10 oites as Puronuyākyā and Yājyā of purodāsa and puronuvākyā of ‘havis’ 88 follows: Brahma produced the Gods and all this world;

2447. इदं पा भने नैव सिंचनासीत्। म चौरासीत्। पथिती। भातरिक्ष सदेव सन् मनोऽकुरुत स्यामिति। .भा. II. 2.9.1, महादेवानजनपद मऊ विश्वमिई जगता बहाणा क्षत्रं निमितम् । प्रमाण आरममा अन्तरस्मिभिने लोकाः। महोष तामा ज्वेशम् । तेन कोहति स्पधिनम्॥ ममदेवासायनिता मानिन्नवापती। महान दिया

Junferiorarea: Fatra I 3. . 11. 8. 8. 9-10.

Creation from braku

107

the kṣatriyas were produced from brahman and brahma tant formed its form into brahmanas; (Yaya) ’these worlds abida inside brahman, similarly all this world is inside it; brabma is the best among all bhūtas; who vie or compate with it, brahman is thirty-three Gods, and all bhūtas, all placed inside it as in a boat’.

In the Kausitaki Brāhmana there are brief allusions to Prajāpati. In VI, 1 it is stated Prajāpati, desirons of progeny, practised tapas; while he was thus practising tapas five were born, viz. Agoi, Vāyu, Aditya, the Moon and Uṣas as fifth;’ in VI, 10 it is said ‘Prajapati practised tapas; after haviog practised tapas, he produced this world (the earth) from prāna, the mid regions from a pān and the yonder world i beaven) from vyāna; he then created Agni, Vayu and Aditya respectively from the eartb, mid regions and heaven, and he produced ik Verses from Agni, yajus texts from Vāyu and sāman taxts from Aditya; in XIII. 1 it is assarted ‘Prajāpati is indeed yajian in which al desires, all immortality are centered’; in XXVII. 1 it is said ‘Prajapati created yajña, the gods worshipped by means of yajāa, when it was created and thereby obtained all desired objects.‘2148

The chief aim and purpose of the Brāhmaṇas of the Veda are to prescribe the acts and parts of the ritual of various sacrifices, to set out some myths and legends for their origin and to postulate various towards on the performance of nume Tous sacrifices.

Prajāpati, who is mentioned very rarely in the Rgveda (IV. 53, 2 where Savity is called Prajāpati, IX. 5.9 where Soma is called Prajāpati, X. 85. 4 where in the marriage hymn Praja pati is prayed to bestow offspring, X. 169. 4 where Prajāpati is invoked to bestow good cows, X. 184. 1 whers Prajāpati along with other gods and goddesses is invoked for the blessing of cod ception in a married woman, X. 121. 10 (already referred to above on p. 1490), becomes the most prominent god in the Brahmanag. The Ait, Br, narrates the story that after Indra killad Vitra he wanted to be great and honoured in place of Prajapati, that then Prajāpati said (if you are to be great) ‘who am I going

The mat. m. XW, 1 est darrera a tt

2448. For the l ast FTAT: (Līodoer’s ed. Jena, 1887); L i

PERTADOS: t ibid XXVIII. 1,

H, D. 188

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History of Dharmatostra | Soo. IX. Ch. XXXIV to be’ (koham-iti) and thereby Prajāpati came to be called

• Ka: 3449

The Ait Br. states that Prajapati desiring to propagate and to be many and having practised tapas created the three worlda, earth, mid region and heaven from which arose three lights (jyotis), Agni, Vāyu and Aditya, from which arose the three Vedas &c.

The Vedic Sambitās and Brahmaṇas show that the popular belief about the individual self was that by good deeds the soul reaches heaven, becomes immortal and enjoys various joys and pleasures. Vide Rg, IX. 113, 7-11, I. 125. 4-6, Atharva IV. 34. 2 and 5, VI. 120. 3. There was also the idea of retribution and recompense for evil or harmful acts done by one person to another. For example, the Sat Br. says (XII. 9. 1. 1) ‘for what ever food a man eats in this world,. by the very same is he eaten again in the other world. Vide also Sat. Br. XI. 6.1. But when we come to the Upanisada, the whole intellectual atmosphere is changed. The Upaniṣads frequently assert that Atman is the only reality, that there is nothing else and that the Alman can only be described as ’not this-not this’ i. e. the Atman is un knowable. This is the first and foremost aspect of Vedānta. But this lofty inetaphysical conception clashed with the ideas of common people who thought that a real universa existed apart from the Creator. The higher philosophic minds had to concede the reality of the universe for common people. They were prepared to say that the universe exists; in truth, however, it is nothing but the Atman entered into the universe. They said that the world was phenomenal, not false or nothing, but the world bad the Atman behind it. This was the good aspect of the Vedānta viz. that the universe evolved from the first principle, brahma. They distinguished between saguna (quali fied) brahman that was for prayer and worship (upāsana ), and for practical purposes (vyavahārāvastha) and nirgura (un qualified) brahma. But the higher thought also insisted that the highest truth (pāramārtbikasatya ) is that brahman is one, that everything in the world ( mon, animals, inorganic matter)

2449. In Rg. X. 121 the last quarter of the first 9 verses is “Kasmai devāya baviṣā vidhema” (to what god sball We offer bavis 1). Then the 10th and last versc addresses Prajāpati with the words ’there is no God other than you who encompassed all these creations,’. It is probably due to this that from ‘kasmai’ (in the first alae veracs ) Prajāpati came to be Gwired.Ka’,All world is brahman

1499

is brahman (sarvam khalvidam brahma’ Chān. Up. III. 14.1, ‘aham brahmasmiti tasmat tatsarvam abhavat’ Br. Up. I. 4. 10). The Alt. Up. quoted below is most emphatic about the identity 2450 of the first principle with men, beasts, motionless beings and other passages do the same. As regards the elements the Bṛ. Up. has a long passage 2491 (III. 7. 2-23) in which Yājñavalkya propounds to Uddalaka Arupi the sublime doctrine viz. that the Ātman residing in the earth and other elements is inside them, whom they (the elements) do not know, whose body is the earth and other elements, who rules from within the earth and others, that that Atman is the soul of thee (and of mine and others), is the inner rulor and is immortal. The last part of this passage is the ruler within is unseen but seeing, unheard but hearing, unperceived but perceiving, unknown but knowins, there is no other seer but he, there is no other hearer but he, that is no other perceiver but he, there is no other knower but he. This is the Self, the ruler within, the immortal. Everything else is distress * This whole section called

2450. आत्मा वा इदमेक एवाय आसीमान्यर्किचन मिषद। स ईक्षत लोकान सुजा इति। समालोकानसुजताम्भो मरीचीमरमापः।…स ईक्षत इमे तु लोकाः। लोकपालाल सुजा इति। सो अच एव पुरुषं समुदत्यामूर्छयत् । …सईक्षत कथं विदं महते स्याविति।स ईक्षत कतरेण अपचा इति ।…स एतमेव सीमान विदार्यतया द्वारा प्रापद्यत । पे. उप. I. 1-3, I. 3. 11-12. This passage is dealt with in v. S. III. 3.16 which establishes that here the word Atman stands for Paramatman, अम्मा , मरीची, मरं, आप: stand for heaven, mid-region, earth and waters below the earth.

2451. यः पृथिव्यां तिष्ठर पृथिव्या अन्तरो यं पृथिवी न घेद यस्य पृथिवी शरीर या पृथिवीमन्तरी यमयत्येषत आत्माऽन्तर्याम्यमतः।… अष्टो द्रष्टाऽश्रुतःभोवाऽमको मन्ताऽविज्ञातो विज्ञासा । … एप आत्माऽन्सर्याग्यमुतः। अतोऽन्यदातम् । मुह. उप. III. 7.3 and 238 compare with this last, वृह. उप. III. 4.2 कतमो याज्ञवल्क्य सर्वान्तः । न होवारं पश्ये: … पषत आत्मा सर्वान्तरः। अतोन्यदातम् and III. 5.2. शंकराचार्य in his भाग्य on the last passage explains अतोन्यदाते as ‘एतदेवैकमनावमविनाशि कूटस्थम्। and so

आ means Hable to sorrow, infatuation, old age and death, as appears from the question and answer in पह. उप. III. 5.1 कतमो याज्ञवल्क्य सर्वान्तरः। योऽश नायापिपासे शोक मोहं जरा मुत्युमत्यति।. Alter quoting this passage Rene Grousset to ‘Sum of History’ tr. into English by A. and H, Temple Patterson (1951) pays a handsome compliment to It (on p.95) ‘what better introduction to Christianity is there than the conception of the sanctity of the human indi vidual and of the universe as temples of God.’ IP.उप. III.2weare given 17 words that are said to be names of Prajfilina (i… brahman) and then ऐ. उप. III. 3 runs ‘एष ब्रह्मा, एष इन्द्रा, एष प्रजापतिः, पते सर्व देवाः, इमानि च पञ्च महाभूतानि प्रथिवी बायुराकाश आपो ज्योतींषि, एतानीमानिसहदमिभागीय बीजानीसराणि चेतराणिं चाण्डजानि च जारजानि स्वेदजानि चोजिखानि चाया गाव: पुरुषा हस्तिनो गलिचे पाणि जर्मचपतधिच यश्च स्थावर सर्व सत्यज्ञानेनं प्रज्ञाने प्रतिधितम् । महानेत्रो लोका। प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठा। प्रज्ञानं पा. This carries to its logical conclusion the idea in the Parasasuktax,90.6,8,10,

AL

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History of Dharmadāstra (Soo. IX, On. XXXIV

antaryāmi-brāhmaṇa has a parallel in Bṛ. Up. II. 5 (Madhu vidyā). The ordinary man’s conception of brahman as the creator was not, however, entirely given up by the thinkers in the Upaniṣads, though it was said that that concept was due to avidyā (ignorance about Reality). Brahman conceived as creator was called Iśvara (a personal God), though the worshipper might know that brahman in essence is above all conditions and limitations of personality. This is theism, which acknowledges three entities viz. a real world, the Paramātman (creative Ātman) and the individual self dependent on Paramātman. But the real thought of the Upaniṣads is centred round the non-difference of brahman and atman and the plıysical world. This thought that brahman entered into what are called individual souls and also the material universe is the third aspect of Vedānta. On V. S II, 3. 43 Saṅkarācārya quotes passages from the Brahma sūkta belonging to the Atharvaveda 2452 and from the Sv. Up. expressive of the identity with brahmin of fishermen, slaveg, gamblers, of men and women, of boys and girls and old men tottering on a staff. The faith that the same Spirit animates the universe, from the stone, worms and beasts to man, is an elevating one, may make one feel that all creatures are brethren seeking the Creator and may, in a world dominated by egoism and urged to activities for individual prosperity and benefit, introduce some sweetness and consolation. Deussen in The philosophy of the Upanishada’ (translated by A. S. Geden, Edinburgh, 1906) pays a glowing tribute to the sages of the Upanishads in the following eloquent passage ‘It was horo that for the first time the original thinkers of the Upanishads, to their immortal honour, found it (key) when they recognized our atman, our inmost individual being, as the Brahman, the inmost being of universal nature and of all her phenomena (p. 40). Vide also J. Royce in ‘The world and the individual’, First series of Lectures, particularly pp. 156-175 for the exposition of Chān. Up. III, 14 and VI. 2-15 and the Bṭ, Up. dialogue between Yāj. and Maitreyi

The Upaniṣads are full of theories of creation and of the nature of the First Principle A few passages may first be cited

2452. एके शाखिनो दाशकितवादिभावं ब्रह्मण आमनन्त्यावणिका बामरते-म दाशा ब्रह्म दासा नोवेमे कितवाः इत्यादिना। … इति हीनजन्दताहरणेन सर्वेषामेक नामरूप कृतकार्यकरणसातमषिष्टानां जीवानां बहात्वमाह । तथान्यत्रापि ब्रह्मप्रक्रियायामेवासमय: प्रपआयते। त्वं बीत्वं पुमानसिब कुमार उत वा कुमारी। वं जीर्णो दोन बसि जातो

To faxalasa: I Mai, The last is spytato X. 8 27 and star. 99. 4.3.

Upani ṣad passages on creation

1501

about creation. The Bṛ. Up. I. 4 (in 3-4,7) has an original and significant passage on creation. Some part of it is set out here *In the beginning this was Atman alone in the form of Puruṣa ; He ( being alone ) found no pleasure; he desired to have a second (a companion); he became of the extent of a male and a female in close embrace; he made this very Atman fall aside in two parts that became husband and wife; from them were born men and he produced lower animals up to ants; this (universe) was then undeveloped (or not unfolded), it was then developed in names and forms; that (Ātman) entered into this up to the finger tips, just as a razor remains hidden in a sheath or just as the all supporting (fire) is not soon in wood’. In this passage the popular idea of the creation of the world is taken up and related to the one reality, Ātman, and the emphasis appears to be placed on the theory that the sole reality is Ātman, under the phantas. magoria of world phenomena. In Ch. Up. VII, 10.1 it is said

this earth, mid regions, heaven, gods and mon, boasts and birds. grass and herbs, animals including insects, butterflies, ants, These are all nothing but waters in solid form.’ The Chan. Up. (VI. 2. 3–4 and VI. 3. 2-3) states " in the beginning Sat alone was existent, one without a second; it thought ‘I shall become many, I shall have progeny”; it created boat (tojas); from tejas waters were produced, from water food; that divinity proposed ‘I shall enter into these three divinities (heat, water and food) with this living self and unfold name and form. Here reference is made to three elements only viz. teias, water, and earth (anna is produced from plants which spring from the earth). It is not, however, proper to hold that only three were then recognized, these three were the most obvious and the other two Vāyu and Akasa mentioned in Ait. and Tai. Up. are elusive. The Ait, Up. (quoted in note 2451) begins “In the beginning there was here this Ātman alone, there was nothing else that was active (lit. that opened and closed eyes); He reflected’ I shall create worlds’. He created these worlds, the ambhas (water above heaven), marloi ‘rays’ (i. e.) atmospheric region, death, waters”. Then the Up. proceeds: He created guardians of worlds and proposed to produce food for them. Then he reflected ‘how can this frame subsist apart from me? Then he reflected by what way shall I enter into it ?’ Then it is stated that he split open the crown of the head and entered by that door. The Tai. Up. II. 6 says “Ho (the Atman) desired “May I become many, I shall bave progony’; having practised tapas, he created all this (universe) whatever it is; after having created it he

1502

History of Dharmadāstra (Soo. IX, Ch. XXXIV

entered into it” and again in II. 7 ‘in the beginning this was asat (not unfolded), then it became sat (developed), it unfolded itself’. This is the basis of V.S. I. 4.26 (atmakrteh pariṇāmāt) which establishes that brahman is both karls (agent) and karma (object) of creation. The same Up. in II. 1 speaks of the creation of akāśa from the Ātman, of Vāyu from ākāśa, of Agni from Vāyu, of waters from Agni and of the earth from waters. Here we have five elements instead of three (as in the Chan. Up.). The Ait. Up. III. 3 names the five elements and calls them Mahābhūtāni (though the usual order is not followed ); so do Praśna VI. 4, Sv. Up. II. 12, Katha III, 15 (where the five gupas, sabda, sparsa, rūpa, rasa and gandha, each paouliar to the five elements frota ākāśa to prthvi, are mentioned ). 2453

2453. Prof. George Sarton in A History of Science’ (Harvard Uairersity Press, 1952) states (p. 247) that Empedocles born about 490 B, C. (in Greece) postulated only four elements ; fire, air, water and earth and that a fifth, ether, was added by Plato and Aristotle. Vide also latrod. uction (p. 11) to Plato’s Timaeus (in Loeb’s classical library, Vol. VII, ed. of 1952 ) translated by Rev. R. G. Bury. Plato’s exuberant imagination constructed the physical world on the pattern of geometrical figures most familiar to bid and assigned the cabe to earth and different kiods of triangles to Gre, air and water (vide Jowett’s translation of Timaeus, Vol. III pp. 638-639). The Greek philosophers relied on reason and aot on ancient texts (as Indian sages did ) and Plato’s philosophy and cosmology ware looked upon as the acme of wisdom even up to the 19th century, but Sarton (on p. 420 of the above work) remarks that modern men of science can regard it only as a monument of powisdom and recklessn058 (rathor a harsh judgment). Dr. W.M. Smart in ’ Origin of the Earth remarks tbat in probing into the mystery of creation science has not been more succes. sful than tbe poetic Hebrew expounders of cosmology (pp. 8–9). For com parison of ancient Indian ideas on cosmology with those of ancient Egyptiane, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Greeks one may read a small book in the

• Corridors of Time’ Series’ Vol. I on ‘Apes and men’ by H. Peak and H. J.H. Fleure pp. 6–8 (Oxford, 1927); Os p. 7 there is a figure of a Babylonian tablet recording part of the creation story. On p. 56 it states that the probable place of the origin of mao and the period at which human story began are matters of great speculation, The principal qaestions that arise in cosmology are: (1) when were the earth and planets produced, (2) what is the process that accounts for the present state of the earth and the solar and other systems. Sanskrit works from the Rgveda down to the Purana tried to answer these questions in their own ways. Duriag the last one hundred years or so the theories of Lemaitre and Darwin and the develop ments in the sciences of Geology, Biology. Physics and Astronomy have revolutionized the whole conception of cosmology. Even the work of Sir A, Eddington “The expanding UDIYork’ (Cambridge, 1933) bna become

(Continued on natt Dago )

dein the Revelde earth and her dat is

Dissolution of blitas

1503

It has already been shown that in the Tai. Up. and the Chān. Up. (vide note 2430) it is stated that the bhūtas spring from and are absorbed in brahman. The order of dissolution is the reverse of that of creation. This is stated by the Vedāntasūtra II, 3.14 (‘viparyayena tu Icramosta upapadyate ca’). Saṅkarācārya in his bbāsya quotes a verse of the Sāntiparva in support of this. 2454

The theory of yugas, mahāyugas, manyantaras and kalpas has already been dealt with in vol. III. pp. 885-896 and above pp. 686-692. The dissolution of the world was called pralaya which was said to be of four kinds (vide above pp. 693–95), two of which are naimittika pralayz (which occurs at the end of a day of Brahma, that is equal to 1000 mahāyugas) and Praktika (when everything including Praksti ia dissolved in Paramātman). The Gita (VIII. 17-18) and Manu I. 73 state that the day of Brahma is equal to one thousand yugas and the night is also of the same duration, that all manifested things spring from the unmanifested (First Principle) at the beginning of the day (of Brahma) and at the coming of the night ( of Brahma) they merge in the same unmanifested (Principle). The present author does not like the disagreeable task of comparing Sanskrit cosmology with the theories in other religious soriptures such as the Bible, but will only refer to some Western writers on that subject. About these ideas of creation and dissolution of the universe René Grousset in the work mentioned above observes (p. 96) “the same power of synthesis appears in the ancient Indian cosmogonies which tradscend in their breadth all that the Ionian philosophers or Lucretius have left us. In them the

(Continued from last page) somewhat outmoded by recent discoveries. The present author does not koow much of science. But from what little he has read in a few scientific works he may say that tbe history of science makes it clear that the actual state of man’s scientific knowledge is provisional, that scientific theories are always subject to corrections and modifications. For instance, Newton’s laws of motion were regarded for over two hundred years 26 absola tely correct enunciations of fundamental and universal laws of physics, but in recent times they have been foond to bo mere approximations.

2454. rerecycTATALOyurarcare a perman: ‘Thefast and giorate breet gerat: quad sulfaaret Ar i Freyret. This verse is suaq 340. 29 ( 326, 28 of cr, ed.), The three following verses (which occur in both editions) may be clted here: खेपायु: प्रलयं याति मनस्याकाशमेव च। मनो हि परम भूत सवयके प्रलीयते । अन्य पुरुष ब्रह्मान निष्क्रिये संमलीयते। नास्ति तस्मात्परतरं पुरुषाद सनातमात्॥ नित्यं हि नास्ति जगति भूतं स्थापरजङ्गमम् । भरते समेक पुरुष बामदेवं समावना

W

1504

History of Dharmaśāstra (Dec. IX, Ch. XXXIV

world alternates between periods of creation ( wbich correspond to the activity of the Demiurge) and of dissolution (which correspond to the slumber of the God). Similarly, Gerald Heard remarks (in • Is God evident’ Faber and Faber, London, 1950) *Final and most helpful fact is that Sanskrit Cosmology not only gets rid of intellectual difficulties such as the crude Hebrew Geology and Astronomy fossilized in the Christian dogmas, but it gets rid likewise of those more serious moral difficulties such as eternal damnation, pre-destination and that this life is man’s only chance’ (p. 51).

The bigh metaphysical conception that in reality there is no universo outside truhman (i. e. brahman is one and is unqualified, nirguna) and the popular empirical conception that there is a personal God who creates (saguna brahma) and real universe, often run together in the Upanisads. The Praśna Op. V. 2 asserts that Om is both para (highest) brahma and apara (other, lower) brahma. Saṅkarācārya on V. S. l. 1. 12 (abandamayosbhyasat) states that in the Upaniṣads brahman is described in two ways, (firstly) as qualified by various adjuncts such as name and form and created objects and meant to be worshipped and (secondly) as devoid of all adjuncts (as meant to be niystically realized). As instances of the 2nd way (niru pūdhiku or nirgunui brahman) he instances several passages viz. Br. Up. IV.5. 15 (“where there is ag it were duality, there one sees the otber … … One touches the other or knows the other, but where one has come to realize that all is only Atman, whom will one see, with what will one understand the knower himself’), Br. Up. III. 9. 26 = IV, 4. 22 and IV. 5. 15 (this self is to be spoken of as ’not tbis, ’not this’), Br. Up. III, 8. 8 (it is that imperishable one that the brāhmaṇas speak about as neither coarse nor small, neither short nor long, neither red nor fluid, neither wind nor ether… neither as having an inside nor outside &c.); Chān. Up. (VII, 24.1 ‘where one sees nothing else, hears nothing else, understands nothing else that is the Infnite; where one sees something else, hears something else, understands gomething else, that is small (finito); the Infinite is immortal, the finite is mortal; the Infinite rests in its own greatness, or does not rest in greatness ); Sv. Up. VI, 19 (who is without parts, without activities, tranquil, faultless, without taint, the highest bridge to immortality, like a fire that has consumed its fuel). There are also other passages of the same import e. &. Bļ, Up IV. 4. 19 (neha nānāsti kiīcana, there is no diversity in it), Katha Up. IV. 10–11 (mṛtyoh se martyum-āpnobi ya tha naneva

Upaniṣad passages on brahman

1505

paśyati). The 4th aspect of Upaniṣadio thought is concerned with the desting of the self after the death of the body and the matters that govern it (i, e. Ethics and Eschatology).

These passages emphasize that it is impossible to desoribe what brahman is and that we can only say what it is not. Saṅkarācārya 2455 on V. S. III, 2. 17 refers to the dialogue of Bāṣkali and Badhya where Badhva declared the characteristic of brahman by his silence. Baṣkali said ‘Sir, tell me about brahma’; then Badhva remained silent; when Baṣkali asked a second and a third time Bādhya replied we have been telling you indeed; but you don’t understand; this self is still (without any activity ). J. Royce in the world and the individual’ vol I. p. 148 is just like this episode of Baṣkali and Badhya “Believe not those prattlers’ says one often quoted mystical work ‘who boast that they know God.’ ,Who knows Him is silent”. Saṅkarācārya puts the distinction between para-brahma and apara-brahma (personal God) as follows: Where texts reject the connection of brahma with names and forms that are the product of avidya (nescience) and speak of brahma in negative expressions such as asthūla’ (not gross or big ), there it is parabrahma (that is meant), but where in such passages as ‘He is mind, has prāṇa or body, the form of light, whose thoughts are true, whose nature is like akasa (present everywhere), who creates everything’ &c. brahma is mentioned for worship and it is apara. 3456

2455. बाकलिना चपाध्वः पृधा समषचनेनेष ब्रह्म प्रोवाचेति भूपते। ‘सहोवाचाधीहि भो इति स तूष्णीं पभूध तंह द्वितीये वा तृतीये वा वचन उवाच भूमा खल वं तु न विजानासि । BYPHITSTATRATY for morrer on . . III. 2. 17. This is a Vedic Text acc. to Śhaṅkara, bat it has not yet been identified,

2456. fi gazdi Ter PAYETAR I rahi du TASargestrella पेधादरपूलादिशब्दझोपदिश्यते तत्परम् । तदेव पत्र नामरूपादिविशेषेण केनचिििशक . E r resud’ aq: RIOT 7764:’ (01. III. 14. 2) rullare temas -

when on . & IV. 3. 14 ; Jaana NAIAMINHAO fartrite

TEAC en haargura ya ai furon. & I. 1. 12. It should be noted that the words ’neti neti’ occur four times in the great exposition of Yajñāvalkya on brahman in Br. Up. IV. 2. 4. IV. 4. 22, IV. 3. 15, IU. 9. 26. The highest brabman is conceived as boyond space, time and iodoped. dent of the law of causality. We may compare the conceptions of para brahma and apara.brahma with what Plato postulates (in Timaops, Iotroduction p. 6 to Bary’s translation) as the distinction between Belag and Becoming vix, Belog is changelcas, eternal, self-existent and apprabeasible by thought only : Becoming is the opposite, aver changing, never traly cxlatent and the object of sensations, and the perceptible universe belonga to the latter.

H. D. 189

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History of Dharmasāstra (Sec. IX, Oh. XXXIV

The description of the creation of the universe and its disso lution are valid only on the practical plane. In Advaita Vedānta, Satta (roality ) is said to be of three kinds, viz. Pāramārthiki (the highest, the absolute), vyāvahāriki (of practical life) and pratibhāsiki (apparent or illusory). The first is the province of parā-vidyā which teaches that only the Ātman exists, that the cosmos exists within the Ātman and nothing else has intrinsic reality apart from it. From this high metaphysical standpoint there is in reality no creation nor dissolution, the individual self is not really in bondage, therefore none is liberated. The 2nd kind of reality is empirical and practical and the dogmas of the creation and dissolution of the world, of the individual self, its bondage, transmigaration and final liberation are valid only for the aparā-vidyā. Most religions postulate three fundamental entities viz God, individual self and the external world. These three are true but only up to a certain limit (only so long as a man holds his own ego as & separate reality) but these three are not the ultimate Truth. Even in this lower kind of reality, a man who is in deep sleep becomes (for a time) united with (or absorbed in the True, as stated by the Chān, Up. VI. 8. 1 (yatraitat puruṣaḥ svapiti nāma satā somya tada gampanno bhavati). The third kind of reality pertains to dream state, One may have experience of pleasure and pain and misery from what one sees in a dream, which are real as long as the dream lasts, but all this that is seen in a dream vanishes the moment the man is awake. As stated above (p. 1485 and note 2434) the descriptions of the creation of the world have only this in view that there is non-difference between cause and effect and that they all lead to a correct understanding about brahman. Saṅkarācārya on V. s. II. 3. 30 extends the same reasoning to individual selves (to be quoted later on under “Karma and transmigration’).

In the Upaniṣads there is apparent discrepancy as regards what was created and the order of the things 2457 created. The

2457. It may be aoted that the creation of tbe universe is put in the Upanisads in the distant and dim past, oot at a definite date as fixed by Biblical chronology ( 4004 B. C.). Vide Pringle-Pattison in Idea of God (ed, of 1917) p. 299: H, D. Anthony in Science and its background” (MacMillan, 1948, p. 2) states that James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh, in the 17th century introduced into the Anglican Church the year 4004 B.C. as the date of creation. On the medieval Christian doctrine, creation is only an incident in God’s existence and man is made in the image of God and it is by the breath of God that man became a living soul (Genesis I. 27 and II. 7). There is another point that distinguisbes Christian doctrine about man from the Vedānta doctrine; ‘According to the former man is concelved and born in sin, according to the latter the human soul in divino. :

Upanigad passages on brahman

1507

Bṭ. Up. (V. 5.1) states in the beginning there were only wator’s; the waters oreated satya, which is brahma, brahman created Prajāpati, who created the gods’. In Chān. Up. VI. 2. 3 the thing expressly mentioned as the first creation is teias (heat), akāśa not being mentioned at all, while in the Tai. Up. II. 1 ākāga is said to have been first created and then Vāyu (was created from akāśa), then Agni from Vāyu. Similarly, in the Ohān. Up. IV.% where the creation of tejas, waters and food (i. e, the earth ) is expressly mentioned, nothing is said about the creation of Vāyu, which is set out in Tai. Up. II. I. This matter about the creation of the elements and their order is discussed in V. 8. II. 3. 1-11. The reply of Saṅkarācārya is that a śruti passage like the one in Ch. Up. is concerned only with the creation of some elements like tejas and cannot be also interpreted as having a second purpose, viz. showing that the creation of akāśa in Tai, Up. is wrong and should be discarded. 2458

On the subject of creation, the question arises whether the individual Self is also a creation like that of the earth, trees and shrubs. The Upaniṣads have a good deal to say on this. Here also two kinds of texts have to be considered. In the first place, some texts seem to state that the individual selves spring from the Supreme Spirit. A few passages that are sometimes relied upon for this last matter may be cited here. 2459 The Br. Up. states just as tiny sparks spring forth from fire, in the same way from this Atman spring up all prānas, all worlds, all gods and all creatures’. The Mundaka Up. expands this game idea as follows: As from a well-kindled fro sparks of the same nature spring forth in thousands, so from the Imperishable various living beings issue and return into it. The Smrti of Yāj. oites the same illustration of fire and sparks. Another and perhaps apter illustration is in the Katha Up..just as pure water poured in (other) pure water becomes like it (i. e. not distingui

2458. न हीयं अतिस्तेजोजनिप्रधाना सती अत्यन्तरमसिद्धामाकाशस्योत्पर्सि पारपित Tata, et 674FT GOTTEUTETTU TO I Toe on . II. 3. 6.

2459. urt: a P raga

IQICHA: FT sont pas en: Har: Fraifor gathe city! TE. 94. II. 1. 20; y udlateg

सहनशः प्रभवन्ते सरूपाः । तथाक्षराद्विविधाः सोम्य भाषा: मजायन्ते सत्र चैवापिपति। Fugleargo II. 1. 1. Compare to usema: Frei fugit fas t विप्रतिष्ठेरोवमेवेतस्मादात्मनः प्राणा पथायतने विप्रतिष्ठन्ते । प्राणेभ्यो देवा देवेभ्यो लोका। IV. 18 and also t VI26 and 31 for a similar verso. 17. III. 67 is निःसरन्ति पथा लोहपिडासत्ताकलिङ्गकाः । सकाशादात्मनरसवात्मानः प्रभवन्ति हि ययोदबुद्ध शुद्धमासिक ताहगेव भवति। एवं समेषिजामत आत्मा भवति गौतम कठोप IV. 15.

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History of Dharmadaxira [ SocIX, Ch. XXXV

sbable), so the self of the wise sage becomes (indistinguishable from the Supreme Essence). On the other hand, there are aumerous Upanisad 2460 passages which categorically state that the individual self is unborn, uniying, is not a product, that the Supreme Spirit enters as individual self, that there is non difference between the one Supreme Spirit and the individual self. Some of these passages are set out in the note below. All those passages are cited by Śhaṅkaracarya on v. S. II. 3. 17, which states two propositions viz. the individual self is upproduced and that it is eternal according to Sruti passages (natmasruter-nityatvacca tābhyah). How the one Supreme Spirit expands into and pervades the manifold universe of plurality is a great mystery and can only be explained by illustrations. The few passages in which the texts seem to mention the creation or dissolution of individual selves are to be understood as referring to the Upādhis (such as body and mind) by which the self is affected. Yājñavalkya gives this answer in finally winding up his exposition to Maitreyi2462 ’this self is imperishable and indestructible; but (when one speaks of death what is meant is) that the self has no longer any contact with material elements’. The śāntiparva 2462 and the Gitā (II. 20,21,24,25) say the same thing.

The highest metaphysical standpoint can be realized by only a few. For millions of men, the empirical standpoint alone remains and it is for them that texts speak of a personal God, ritual and sacrifices; they are only on the first rung of the ladder

2460. जीवापेतं वाव किलेदं नियते न जीवो म्रियत इति ।छा, उप. I. 11.3; सवा एष महानज आत्माऽजरोऽमरोऽमृतोऽभयो बह्म । (बृह.IV.425); न जायते म्रियते वा विपश्चित्… अबो नित्यः शाश्वतोऽयं पुराणो न हन्यते इन्यमाने शरीरे। कठ2. 18; तत्सष्ट्वा तदेवाः प्राविशत् । ते. उप. II.6; अनेन जीवेनात्मनानुभविश्य नामरूपे व्याकरपाणि । छा. उप. VI.3.2; स एष इह प्रविष्ट आ नखाग्रेभ्य: । वृह. I. 4.7; तस्वमसि (छा. उप. VI. 8.7): अहं ब्रह्मास्मि (बृ. उप. I. 4. 10); अयमात्मा ब्रह्म सर्वातुः । वृह. उप. II. 5-19.

2461. अविनाशी वा अरे आत्मानुचित्तिधर्मा मात्रासंसर्गस्त्वस्य भवति। वृह उप. IV.S.14. This is quoted by शङ्कराचार्य on . II. 3. 17.

2462. न जीवनाशोऽस्ति हि देहभेदे मिथ्यैतवाहर्मत इत्यबुद्धाः। जीवस्तु देवान्तरितः प्रवाति दशावास्प शरीरभेदः। एवं सर्वेषु भूतेषु गतवरति संवृतः। दृश्यते वयचया इदा सक्षमया तत्वदशिमिः पूर्वापररात्रेषु युधानः सततं सुधः। लम्बाहारो विशुद्धारमा पश्यस्या समानमात्मनि । शान्ति 180. 26-2813187. 27-29 Ch. ed.). दशा means live and यशाता means पञ्चत्व. With न जीवनाशोस्ति compare छा. उप. VII. 11.3 जीवापेवं वाव किलेदं नियते न जीवो नियत इति and the verse एवं सर्वेषु भूतेषु iaalmost the same as कठ. III. 12 एष सर्वेषु भूतेषु दोस्मा न प्रकाशते। श्यते स्वयया सुद्धा

समवा पल्मवशिमिः ।, The verse एवं सर्वेषु … पशिभिः occars again inानित ghap. 246.5(agr. ed.238.5),

दृश्यते त्वा

जापाना means. 26-281-18 सततं इधः । लUpanigad passages on brahman

1509

to enlightenment and are only dimly aware of God; there is a much smaller class of people other than the preceding, who pray, seek God and come to realize that God is both immanent and transcendent; there is a third class of a very few people, the great sages and masters, the spiritual elite such as Saṅkarā cārya. who reach the peak of pure monism, who lose tine sense of the ego and who are ripe for entering into union with the One and they cannot and should not say that the individual soul and the physical world are all unreal (or Māyā). Both Bādarāyaṇa (V. S. II. 2. 29. Vaidharmyāo-ca na syapnādivat’) and Saṅkarācārya are agreed that the ordinary physical world is entirely different from dreams and that the impressions in the waking state are not independent of existing objects. Apart from the question whether the word ‘Māya’ used in V, 8, IT, 2. 3(Māyāmātram tu &c.) is used by Bādarāyana in the sense in which Saṅkarācārya understands it, it cannot be denied that Upaniṣad passages like Katha Up. II. 4.2, Praśna 1,16, Chān. Up. VIII, 3. 1-2, the prayer in Bṛ. Up. I. 3. 28 ( asato mā sadgamaya &c) could easily suggest the dootrine of Māyā and load to it as an intelligible development. Hence the proper language for almost all man is not to speak about the world 20 Māyā (illusion ). If the individual soul and the world are unreal, then it may be argued by one who does not subscribe to the doctrine of Māyā as against those who hold it that you are teaching that an unreal soul has to escape from an unreal Samsāra and secure what you call moksa by means which are themselves unreal (such as Upaniṣad study) and that therefore moksa itself is unreal. How the one Reality becomes many and expresses itself in the ever-changing physical world is really an inexplicable mystery, but that does not entitle all of us to say that the world is unreal or a dream. The few highly philosophioal men may say that what is roal is the one Absolute, that all else is only an appearance of that Absolute, Common men may, however, complain that explanations offered by thege philosophers do not satisfy them or are beyond them.

When one has to emphasize what the Reality behind the world is in itself, one speaks of the Absolute brahman, but when one has to speak about the relation of the one Reality to the individual selves and the physical world one speaks of a personal God. When the Vedantasūtra (II, 1. 14) states 2463 that the

2463. On A TARCHUTTaquara: (. II. 1. 14) Trurere days प्राकू चाल्नैकत्वावगरण्याइतः सर्वः सत्यातव्यवहारो लोकिको विकल्यपोचाम।। सर्वज्ञा

(Continued or not at page)

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18eo, IX, Ch. XXXIV

world is non-different (ananya) from brahman, what is meant to not that the two are identical, but only this that the golves and the world are not entirely different from brahman. When it is said that Moksa results if one realizes brahman, there is no question of the destruction of the world but all that it comes to is that the false idea of outlook in that case is displaced or sublated by a true one. How the finite world arises from the Infinite is a mystery, for which Saṅkarācārya employs the word * Māsā’. But he is positive that till a person realizes the one Ātman all religious and worldly courses of life, real-upreal, go on unobstructed. The concept of Maya as postulated by Saṅkarācārya (on V. S. IL 1. 14 and other places) is one of the most misunderstood elements of Vedānta. Further, it should not be forgotten that a very large number of philosophically minded Hindus do not advocate the doctrine that the world is an illusion; all that is said by advaiting is that the world is not as real as the Absolute is. The passages quoted below from Saṅkarādārya’s Bhāsya clarify his position, which is this. There is the physioal world with its manifold distinctions, but it must rest on some thing else; that something is called the absolute brahman. The relation between the two is inexplicable and therefore it is spoken of as Mayā. In that way Sapkarācārya is agnostia, while other religious philosophers are not willing to admit the futility of theories or their helplessness to put forward a generally acceptable and reasonable theory of the relation of the universe and the Eternal Spirit behind it.

It should pot be forgotten that, according to our sāstras the goals of human life are four, Dharma (an ethical life of doing what is right), Artha (a life of acquisition of wealth i. 8. economic life based on justice), Kāma (a life of the enjoyment of innocent pleasures and right desires) and Mokṣa (liberation), this last being the highest goal to be attained only by a few people ( it is called Paramapuruṣārtha). Even in the Rgveda (I. 89. 8) the sage prays for physical health, 2464 happiness and

(Continued from last page) स्येश्वरस्यात्मभूते इवाविद्याकल्पिते नामरूपे तखान्यत्वान्यामनिर्वचनीये संसारपीजभूते सर्वज्ञस्येश्वरस्य माया शक्तिः प्रकृतिरिति च श्रुतिस्मृत्योरभिलप्यते। वेवमविद्यात्मकोपाधि परिच्छेदापेक्षमेवेश्वरस्येश्वरत्वं सर्वज्ञत्वं सर्वशक्तित्वं च न परमार्थतो विद्ययापास्तसर्वोपाधि स्वरूपे आत्मनीशित्रीशितव्यसर्पज्ञाविध्यपहार उपपद्यते।। वाचस्पतिमिश्र in the भामती on 2. 17. 1. 14 makes the laconic remark EARTHO TA there UTTA: !,

2464. ubi sifat: ERA de pe 97 arter Rute etergenti

na auta : ! *. I. 89. 8 70.. 25. 21.

Rgveda has verses praying for material things

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a life of hundred years in the words “O Goda, may we be able to hear words of welfare (i. e. we may not suffer deafness till our death), may we see with our eyes pleasing sights, may we, engaged in praising you and possessing strong limbs and bodies, enjoy (long ) life as fixed by God (i. e. 100, 116 or 120 years). Vide also Rg. VII. 66. 16. The Manusmrti, after referring to several views about the number of the goals of human life, states its own final conclusion (in II, 224) that there are three goals4655 (Dharma, Artha and Kāma) for all men and condemns premature resort to sannyada in the following words (VI. 36-37) “Having studied the Vedas as laid down in śāstras, having produced sons and having porformed sacrifices according to one’s ability, one should fix his mind on Mokṣu (liberation); if a man desires Mokṣa without having performed these duties he falls into hell. Manu emphasizes that a man must discharge his duties (i. e. pay off the three debts) as laid down in Tai. S. VI, 3. 10.5 (quoted in H. of Dh, vol. II. p. 270 n. 621 ) before he can renounce the world. The experience of sexual life and other pleasures not opposed to righteousness was not condemned by Manu and other Sāstras and in the Bhagavadgita (VII. 11) Lord Krona identifies himself with Kāma that is not in opposition to righteousness, In the three goals 2466 of ordinary human life there is bardly anything that should cause surprise. The Gita demands a life dedicated to active work and regards doing one’s duty as worship (III. 8, 19, 20, 25, IV. 18, XVIII. 65-66). The 4th goal (mokṣa) is in a way opposed to the first three. But the first three goals enable a man to attain liberation, after he has discharged his duties. It was not meant for everybody but only for a selected fow.

in tamil his dutito hanno

02.627

The 4th goal can be attained only by & faw men. The theory in the Upaniṣads is that in order to secure correct know ledge of the Self, Reality behind everything, the study of the Veda, sacrifices, charity, austerities and fasts are neobdary

2463. For the three viows about the four ādramas, vide H, of Dh. voi, II, pp. 424-425,

2464. समेत बेवाहवचनेन मारणा विषिविषन्ति पझेन धामेन तपसामान . 34. IV. 4. 22; antanut my vuitton Farftat quaranta पश्यति। सर्वमात्मानं पश्यति… विपापो घिरजो विविकिस्सो मामणी भवति। एक मामलोका att i got m arrin

ni T . IV4.23. Those two phasages of Bṛ. Up. are the basis of III. 4. 26–27.

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History of Dharmaśāstra (sec. IX, Oh. XXXIV

as preparation (Bṭ. Up. IV. 4. 22). Because the Upaniṣads often employ the words “ Brahma veda brahmaiva bhayati” (as in Mundaka III 2.9) one should not run away with the idea that mere knowledge of brahma (from books or a teacher) is enough. Though the verb “vid” (to know) is employed, the Upaniṣads are emphatic that before one attains realization of brahma one must have lived a life of delachment, peace, self restraint etc. For example, in Bṛ, Up. IV. 4. 23 Yājñavalkya saya to Janaka “Therefore, one who knows this (under tarka quoted above p. 1478) evil does not overcome him, he overcomes all evil and hence he becomes free from evil, free from rajas (desires), free from doubts, he becomes a (true) Brābmana. This is the Brahma-world. O king! you have been made to reach the world. So said Yājñavalkya.” This passage clearly emphasizes three stages, firstly, verbal knowledge about brahma (evam-vid), secondly he becomes śānta, dānta &c., thirdly, he realizes the non-difference of himself and the world from the Supreme Self. In this text the indeclinable past participle 1467 (bhūtyā ) in “tvā’, acc. to. Pāṇini III. 4. 21, is used and so clearly conveys that (as Sanskrit grammar and usage require), in order that a person may realize the Self in his own self, he must have been already endowed with all that precedes the word " bhūtyā”.

Similarly, in the Mundakopaniṣad it is provided 24675 After carefully examining all the worlds that are collected (gained or brought about) by actions, a brābmana should reach & sense of disgust or disregard with the thought that by actions (which are all impermanent) nothing that is imperishable (lit, unmade) can be attained, he should, for the special understanding of that, approach with fuel in hand a teacher who is learned in the Veda and who solely dwells in brahman, that wise (guru) declared brahma-vidyā to the one who thus properly (respectfully) app roaches and whose mind is quiescent (not perturbed by vanity &c.) and whose mind has ceased to hanker after objeots of sense, whereby the disciple would realize the immutable Reality, the Puruṣa (Self ).’ Here also the word “pariksya” shows that

2467. Vide Sabara on Jaimini X, 3. 48 . ktvā tāyat pūrvakāla eva smaryate.’

2467a. परीक्ष्य लोकारकर्मचितान बाह्मणो निवेदमायामास्यकता कतेन। सरिज्ञानार्थ स मेवामिगच्छेत् समित्याणिः मोत्रिय महानिष्ठम् । तस्मै स विद्यापसनाव सम्पक मशाल बिचाय शमान्विताय । येमाक्षरं पुरुष व सत्य प्रोषाचा अश्वती माविया मुण्डकोप 1. 2. 12–13; marant guftorumanit FTATREAT: I ATSIT… it that maturito UT #FC 2. 24.

Moral preparation for brahmavid

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brahmavidyā can be attained only by him who already has become tired of the world of senges. It is further provided that 2468 when a man becomes freed from all hankerings that cling to the heart of man, he becomes immortal and attaing brahma in this very life. The Br. Up.(iv. 4. 6) states that of him who does not desire, who, not desiring, is freed from desires, who feels that he has obtained all desires in that he desires only the Self, the life breaths do not depart towards higher worlds (heaven eto.) as he, being (in reality ) brahma only, becomes absorbed in brahma.

The Katha Up. (2. 24) remarks ‘He, who had not ceased from evil conduot, whose mind is not serene, who does not pra ctise concentration, would not be able by mere knowledge to find the Ātman.’

The unalloyed Upanisad doctrine appears to be that, even when a man does good actions, they produce good results, to enjoy which the soul would have to undergo the bondage of fresh good births and thus liberation will be put off. Therefore, complete renunciation of all actions and their rewards was in culcated for the sannyāsin, who was to give up all desires for wealth, progeny and higher worlds and beg for alms as long as the body lasts. As no other course of conduot for the sannyāsin is specified here, it would have to be deemed that the Upaniṣad teaches only this mode of life for the sannyasin. This view is further strengthened by other passages of the Upaniṣads, where it is said that the liberated are beyond sukrta ( good deeds and their consequences) and duskrta (evil deeds and their consequences). The Chandgoya says 2469 " the self is a bank (a dike or ridge ) 80 that these worlds are kept asunder and are not confounded, day and night do not pass beyond (over) bank, nor old age, death and misery, neither good deeds nor ovil deeds; all evil deeds turn away from him, for the world of brahma is free from all evil’. Similarly, the Kauṣitaki Up. says “being freed from good actions and from evil ones, this knower of brahma moves towards brahma (i. e. becomes one with or is absorbed in brahma).

2468. यदा सर्वे प्रमुच्यन्ते कामा येऽस्य हदि भिताः। अथ मस्योऽस्तो भवत्यनमा FARQ u hola. VI, 14 and 34. IV. 4, 7 ( wbich latter quotes it as a dloka).

2469. UT RH F engranaat hari * H aarent नजरान मुत्युनं शोको मसकन कृतम् । सर्वे पाप्मामोतो निवर्तन्ते । अपहतपाप्मा मेष

pretti 01.24. VIII, 4. 1; F s n agugut went fremgartner pier. 94. I. 4.

I, D. 190

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Hixtury of Dharmadastru (Sec. IX, Ch. XXXIV

In this way the Upaniṣads appear to inculcate that the sannyasin should completely give up all actions except living till the body lasts. The Jābalopaniṣad 2470 (4) provides that the very day on which a person becomes disgusted (with worldly life) he should become a wandering ascetio (a sapnyasin). This emphasizes that not mere knowledge but disgust with worldly life is necessary before one becomes a gannyāsin. Vide Katha paniṣad (II. 24) quoted above in note 2467a. The Praśnopaniṣad emphasizes ’to them alone comes the pure world of brahman, in whom there is no crookedness, no untruth and no duplicity’ (I 16). The Upaniṣads sometimes do say that one who knows brahma becomes brahma itself’( Mundaka II. 3, 9), but the same Upaniṣads (c. g. Mundaka I. 2. 12.13 quoted in n. 2467a) require great moral and spiritual attainments besides mere knowlegde of brahma.

It is not necessary to set out more Upadiṣad passages to exhibit the proper relation between more knowledge of brahma and Realization of brahma. 2471

In classical Sanskrit several words are employed to describe the state of liberation. The Amarakośa regards mukti, kaivalya, nirvāṇa, śreyas, niṇśreyasa, amsta, mokṣa and apavarga as synonyms. Mukti, mokṣa, and annsta (or amptatva) are frequently employed in the Upaniṣads and the Gitā. They refer to the state of Salvation or Liberation from different points of view. Man is liable to have hankerings and to birth and death; therefore when the soul becomes free from that cycle and realizes brahma it is said that he becomes immortal or secures immor tality. Vide Bs. Up. VI. 4. 7 and 14, V. 15–17 (Vidyayāmstam aśnute), Chān. Up. II. 23. 2 (he who is firmly grounded in brahma attains immortality), Katha Up. VI. 2 and 9, Svet. Up.

w

2470. Seria areata asia. Foto 4. at yung भासमाहितः। नाशान्तमानसो वापि प्रज्ञानेननमाप्नुयात् । कठोप. II. 24; सेवामसी विरजो

a

TACā at Are ai qety. I. 16. 2471. So much bad to be said because frof, Edgerton in his paper * Domidant ideas io the formation of Indian culture. in J. A. O, S. Vol. 62 (for 1942) pp. 151-156 appears to suggest that the Upanigads carry forward the idea of the Atharvaveda that knowledge of a matter was supposed to havo magic power. It is oot possible for limitations of space to examine hia arguments at length. With great respect for such a veteran scholar, it bas to be said that, so far as the Upanigads are concerned, mere koowlodge of brahma is only a first step, and that one who desires liberation has to live life on a high moral and spiritual’ level. Vide Gitā XIII, 7-11 for defiaition of joann.

Sanskrit words for Liberation

1515

IV. 17 and 20, III, 1, 10, 13, Gita 13. 12, 14, 20. Mukti and mokṣa are both derived from the root muc’ (to be free) and the verbal forms of muc’ are frequently used along with * immortality’ as in Katha Up. VI. 8 (yam jñātvā mucyate jantur-amrtatvam ca gacohati) and 14, Bś. Up. IV. 4.7, Sv. Up. I. 8 and IV. 16 (jñātvā devam muoyate sarvapāśaih). The word mokṣa oocura in Sv. Up. IV. 16 and Gita 5. 28, 7.29, 18. 30. Niḥśroyaga (moksa, than which there is nothing better) occurs in Kauṣ. Up. III. %, Gitā V.2. Vide p. 1037 671 for niṇśrayasa’. The word ‘śreyas’ often means ‘botter’ in the Upaniṣads (Tai. Up. I. 11 and Ohān, Up. IV.6.5) and Gita II. 7, 31, III, 35, XVIII. 47 &o., but in Katha Up. II. 1 and 2 sroyas (as opposed to preyas i. e. pleasure) really means ’niḥdreyasa’ (salvation ). 2472 Kaivalya does not occur in the principal Upaniṣads, but kevalah (not affected by guṇas or isolated as pure consciousness ) occurs in śv. Up. IV. 18 and VI. 11 (sākṣi seta kevalo nirgunaśca ) Nirvāṇa ocours in Gita VI. 15 (the yogin, that has subdued his mind and always practises yoga, securOB peace, centred on me that is highest nirvana); in Gitā II. 72 and V. 24-25 we find

• brahmanirvāṇam’ which means ‘bliss in brahma. Apavarga occurs only in the Maltri Upaniṣad VI, 30 and was the goal laid down by the very first sūtra of the Nyāyadarsana.

It should be noted that cosmology whether in the Upanigads or later works is based on the geocentric theory and is concerned mostly with the earth, the elements, the Sun, Moon, planets and stars in general (without details ).

The Mapusmrti has several theories on creation. In I 5-19 we have the first theory: this (universe) existed in the form of darkness, was unperceived, destitute of distinctive signa, not subject to reasoning, unknowable, immersed in deep sloop 88 it were. Then the divine Self-existent appeared with irrosistible power, dispelling darkness and making all this including the great elements discernible; he shone forth of his own (will); he, desirous of producing beings of various types from his body, first produced water only after reflecting (over the idea of creating) and planted therein his soed; the seed became a golden egg, equal in brilliance to the sun and in that egg he himself was born as Brahma, the progenitor of the whole

2472. : is one of twenty-five words mentioned by Panini in V, 4. 77 as irregular and the Mababbānya explains it as far rys.

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History of Dharmaśāstra Sec. IX, Ch. XXXIV

world. He is called Narayana,173 since waters, designated as naras (offspring of Nara), were his firet place of residence. Prom that first cause, not yet unfolded, which can neither be oallod sat nor asat, was produced a purusa (a male) who is called by people Brahmā. In that egg the divine one resided for one year; he divided the egg into two parts after reflecting on that matter; out of those two halves (of the egg ) he created heaven and earth, between these two middle region, the eight directions and the abode of waters (the sea). From himself he drew forth mind which is neither sat nor asat, from mind Ahankara (self-con. sciousness), and the mahat-atman, all products produced by the combinations of three guṇas, the five organs of sonde which perceive the objects of sange; He created all beings by joining the subtle particles of the six (ahankāra and tapmātrās ) with portions of himself, the five great elements enter the framer of all beings. This theory combines the ideas contained in Rg. X.129 (particularly verses 1-3) with those in the Sat. Br.XI. 1.6.1 and Chan. Up. III. 19. 1-2 (about the golden egs) and with the Sāṅkhya theory of tattvas and guṇas, though Manu differs from the standard Sāṅkhya of the Kārikā 88 regards the order in which Mahat, Ahankāra and the five subtle elements arise. In I 21 Manu states 2474 that Hiranyagarbha in the

2473. आपो नारा इति मोक्ता आपो वै नरखूनवः। ता यदस्यायन पूर्व तेन नारायण: स्सत मनु I. 10. शान्तिपर्व 342.40 (2cr. ed. 328.35 ) has first half and the 2nd half is अपनं मम तत्पूर्वमतो नारायणो घयम् : विष्णुपु. I, 4.5-6, नाण्यI. 5.5-6, कर्म I. 6. 4-5 इमं चोदाहरनपत्र श्लोक नारायणं प्रति। …आपो नारा…सुनवः । अयनं वस्य ताः पूर्व … स्मृतः. It is obvious that the two Purāṇas borrow from some work probably from मनु. मार्कण्डेयपु. 44.4-5 (Venk. ed.) bas the same verses as विष्णुपु. viz. इमं चोदा. and आपो … सूनवः । तासु शेते स यस्माच तेन नारायणः स्मृतः। बराहपु. 2. 25-26 are the same as विष्णुपु. I 4.5-6. ब्रह्मपु. (I.38-39) has

आपो नारा… सुनवः । अयनं तस्य ता… स्मृतः ॥

2474. सर्वेषां तु स नामानि कर्माणि च पृथक पृथक् । वेवशब्देश्य एवादी पृथक्संस्थान निर्ममे मनु. I.21. The घे..I.3.28 is’शब्द इति जातः प्रभवात्मत्यक्षाजमानाम्यान. On this the bhasya is “कथं पुनरवगम्यचे शब्दावभवति जगदिति । प्रत्यक्षाहमानाम्याम्। प्रत्यक्ष श्रुतिः प्रामाण्यं प्रत्यनपेक्षवात् । अनुमान स्मृतिः प्रामाण्यं प्रति सापेक्षस्वात्। वे हि शब्द पूर्वी सर्टि दर्शयतः। एते इति दे प्रजापतिर्देवानसूजत, असममिति मनुष्यान, इन्दव इति पिन, तिरः पवित्रमिति महान् , आशव इति स्तोत्रं विश्वानीति शत्रम्, अमिसौभगेस्यन्याः प्रजाः’ इति श्रुतिः, … स्सुतिरपि। अनादिनिधना नित्या पामुत्सृष्टा स्वयम्मुवा। आदौ वेदमयी दिग्या यतः सर्वाः प्रवृत्तयः। … तथा। नामरूपं च भूतानां कर्मणां च प्रवर्तनम्। वेवशब्देश्य एवादी निर्ममे समाहेश्वरः इदि. The truti text cited is Tandya-mahabrabmana VI. 9.15,explains the words of Rs. IX. 62. 1, the mantra being ‘एते असम मिन्दवस्तिरः पवित्रमाशषः। विश्वान्यभि सौभगाar. The verse अनादिनिधना. शान्तिपर्व 233.24 (=cr.ed. 224.55 which bas only the first ball) and the verse भामरूपं च occurs in विष्णुपुराण I. 3.62, वायुपु. 9.63 (reads प्रपश्चन) and कूर्म 1.1.67-68 (reads प्राकताना प्रपशन).

Manusmrti on creation

1517

beginning of creation assigned names, peculiar activities and conditions to all created beings by means of the words of Veda. In this it follows a fruti text (explaining Rg. IX. 62. 1) quoted by Saṅkarācārya (on V. 8. I. 3. 28 ) who quotes & verge in support from the Mahabhārsta and another VOTNO also the source of which is not mentioned but which is found in some purāṇas).

Another theory of creation is stated in Manusmrti I, 32-41. Brahmā divided his own body into two halves, one half a male and the other a female and from that female he created Viraj, who practised tapas and created a male who was no other than Manu (promulgator of Manuamṛti). Manu desirous of produ

oing created beings, first created ten great sages as Prajāpatis, who created seven Manus, Gods, classes of gods, great sages, yaksas rākṣasas, gandharvas, apsarases, snakes, birds classes of pitrs, lightning, clouds, large and small stars, monkeys, fishes, cattle, deor, men, lions, worms, insects, flies, immovable things (trees etc.). This account appears to be inspired by the Puruṣasūkta (Rg. X. 90), particularly verses 5, 8-10.

A third theory of creation by Brahma after he awakes from his sleep is briefly noticed in Manusmrti 1. 74-78, viz, he creates (or appoints ) his mind which impelled by Brahma’s desire to create, produces ākāśa (ether), of which sound is the (peculiar) quality; that other modifying itself creates Vayu possessing the quality of touch; from Vāyu arises refulgent light, from which arises water and from water arises the earth of which the special quality is smell. This theory is # modification of the Saṅkhya doctrine, according to which (kārikā 25) all five ela. ments proceed from ahankara and God Brahma is thrown in ( who has no place in standard Saṅkhya). The Manusmrti is in the habit of stating opposing views on the same topic one after another; 0. g. note on the use of flesh in Manu V. 27-46 de compared with V. 48.56, Manu III, 13 as compared with III. 14-19 (on brābmaṇa having a sūdra wife), Manu IX, 59-6% as opposed to IX. 64-68 on the practice of Niyoga.

Accounts of creation occur frequently in the Mahabharata, mostly in the Santiparva. All cannot be set out here, but a few would be described. Chap. 175. 11-21 (=Oh. ed. 18211-21) states that from God known as Avyakta all beings were born, he first oroated mahān also called akāśa, from akasa water was produced, from water were produced fire and yāyu, from the oombination of these two the earth wao produced. Then the

1518

History of Dharmatastra [seo. IX, Oh. XXXIV

self-existent created a lotus, from whioh arose Brahma, known as Ahankara and he produced the whole world. In chap. 176 (183 of Ch. ed.) it is stated that Brahmā first created water, from water arose Vāyu, from the combination of water and Vāyu arose Agni and earth was produced from the combination of Agni, Vāyu and ākāśa. Chap. 177 ( 184, Ch. ed.) explains that the Mahābhūtas (great elements) are five viz. vāyu, ākāśa, agni, water and earth, that all bodies are made of these five, that there are five indriyas, five objects of sense and five qualities, sabda, sparsa ( touch), rūpa (colour), rasa (taste) and gandha (smell); eubdivisions of each of these five are mentioned. Chap. 178 (=189 of Ch. ed.) speaks of the five prāṇas and the spheres of their activities. Chap. 179-180 ( =186-187 of Ch. ed.) deal with jiva (individual self) and states at the end that the body is perishable, that the self passes from one body to another and that by yoga one can see the self in the Highest Self. Chap. 200 ( = 207 Ch. ed.) states that Purusottama created the five elemente, that he reclined on waters, that from his navel sprang a lotus brilliant like the sun, from which arose Brahma, who created from his mind seven sons, Dakṣa, Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha and Kratu. Dakṣa had many daughters (the eldest being Diti), from these daughters Daityaa, Adityas, the other gods, Kāla and its parts, the earth, the four varpas, all kinds of men, Andbras, Pulindas, Sabaras and others in Dakṣiṇāpatha and in the Uttarāpatha, Yauna (Yavanas), Kambojas, Gand hāras, Kirātas, Barbaras and others were produced. Chap. 224 ( =231 Ch. ed.) starts by saying that in the beginning there was brahma, beginningless and endless, unknowable and proceeds to divisions of time from nimeṣa to the yugas and their charac teristics. Herein ocour verses that are the same as in Manusmrti I. 65–67, 69–70,75–77, 81-83, 85-86. It is difficult to say who borrow as even the Manusmrti (in X. 44) mentiong Paundrakas, Odras, Dravidas, Kambojas and Yavanas, Sakas, Pāradas, Pahlavas, Cīnas, Kirātas, Daradas and Khaśas, as having been originally sub-divisions or sub-caster of Ksatriyas (Ksatriya jātayaḥ ) but reduced to the position of sūdras, because of losing all contact with brāhmaṇas (X, 43) and because of the cessation of religious rites (like Upanayana &c.). In śānti 311 (=or. ed. 299) creation is described in Saṅkhya terms with Brahma thrown in. Brahmā (identified with mahān) was born in the golden egg, he remained inside the egg for a year, then be created within the two parts of the egg (heaven and earth), antariksa, from ahankara five elements were produced and theirMahābhārata on Creation

1519

five qualities are mentioned. Lévamedhika (Chap. 40–42 is similar to Santi 311 ) states the order of creation ag ayyakta mahat-abankira-five elements, the only peculiarity being that in Verse 2 mahan is identified with Viṣṇu, Sambha, buddhi and several other words are given as synonyms thereof.

The Smrti of Yājñavalkya (III. 67–70) states that from the one Self, many individual selves arise just as from a red-bot iron ball sparks go out, that the unborn and imperishable Atman is said to be born when connected with body, tbat in the beginning of creation, Paramātman creates the five elements, ether, vāyu, tejas, water and earth, each succeeding one posses sing a rising series of qualities and when appearing as indivi dual self, it receives (for body) the same elements. Then after pointing out how a human being is conceived, how the foetus grows in the womb and describing the anatomy (with number of bones, veins, arteries, muscles &c.) of the human body, the Smrti avers that the whole world proceeds from the Paramātman and the individual self appears from the elements ( which form the body). The individual self is beginningless 2475 and is not born, but it comes in intimate contact with a body that is due to acts influenced by false ideas, hankerings and aversions (III. 125). From the several parts (mouth, arms, thighs, feet &c ) of the First Prinoiple that assumes numerous forms arise the four varṇas in order, the earth, heaven, prānas, directions, Vāyu, Agni, Moon (from mind), the Sun (from His eye), sky and the whole movable and immovable world (III, 126-128). Hare the Purugagūkta (Re X. 90.1 and 12-14) is closely followed.

The Purāṇas devote thousands of verses to the theories of cosmology and cosmography. Only a very brief summary is all that can be attempted from the contents of a few among the extant Purāṇag that have been shown above to be the earliest, viz, Matsya, Vayu, Brahmānda, Viśṇu and Mārkandeya. It has been stated above (pp. 838-840) that the topics with which Furāṇas were deemed to be concerned were according to the Amarkośa five and that some of the Puraṇas themselves set out the five topics as creation ( sarga), resreation after dissolution (pratisarga), dynasties (vamsa), the vast periods of time (called Manvantaras), and history and deeds of the descendants of the

2475, अनादिरामा कथितस्तस्पादित शरीरकम् । आत्मनस्तु जगत्सर्व जगतमाम

\# T. III. 117.

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History of Dhurmatāstra (sec. IX, Ch. XXXIV

solar, lunar and other dynastiea ( Varsanuoarita). Thus, many of the Purāpas deal with creation at some length. A few striking theories and passages alone can be set out or cited.

The Matsyapurāpa begins the topic of creation in the same way as the Manusmrti does and some of the verses of the former are identical (or alınost identical) with the yorges of the Manusmṛti, 7476 The Matsya (2. 27) states; Nārāyapa alone appeared first and being desirous of creating the manifold world, produced from his body waters, cast the seed therein and a golden egg emerged; inside that egg the Sun appeared, he is called Aditya as well as Brahmā, he made the two halves of the egg into heaven and earth and produced all directions and the aky between the two ( beaven and earth). Then the Meru and other mountains and the seven seas (of salt, sugarcane juice &c.) were produced. Nārāyaṇa became Prajāpati who created all this world including gods and asuras. The 3rd chap. of the Matsya speaks of the Vedas, Purāṇas and Vidyās as proceeding from his lips and states that he created from his mind ten sages, Marici, Atri and others (3.5-8). Then the Matsya launches on the Sāṅkhya scheme of creation (in 3. 14-29), stating that the three gunas are sattva, rajas, tamas, and the state of their equili brium is called Praksti, that some call it Pradhāna, otiliers call it Avyakta, that this Pradhāna produces creation, that from the three guṇas rose Brahmā, Viṣpu and Maheśyara; that from Pradhana arose Mahān, from the latter ahankara, then five Jñanendriyas and five Karmendriyas and the mind as the 11th songe and the five tanmātrās (subtle elements); that ākāśa was produced from the sabda-tanmātrā, vāyu from akasa, tejas from Vayu and water from tejas, that the Purusa is the 25th tattva. Then the Matsya (3. 30–44) tells a fantastic story that Brahma produced a woman (called Satarūpā, Savitri, Sarasvati, Gayatri or Brabmāpi) from himself, felt passion for her and had after a long time a son named Manu (called Syāyambhuva) and also Virāj from her; then Brahmā called upon his sons to create people. The Mataya in chapter four states that Brahmi had from Satarūpā seven song, Marici and others (verses 25-26, contradicting chap. 3. 5–8), mentions two sons of Syāyambhuva Manu and also the descendants of those two sons. Some

2476. For example, Matsya 2. 25-27 and 32 echo the phrascology of Mapa I, 5-6, 13, Matsya 2. 28 is the same as Manu I. 8, Matsya 3.23 is same as Maan I, 75, Mataya 4,55 (one half) is same as Mano IX, 129, The Byakmaparāṇa 1. 37–39 are almost the same 48 Mana I. 6 and 8.

11

.

1

.

1

" Matsya and Vāyu on creation 1521

chapters from five onwards describe the descendants of Daksa, of Kabyapa, of Diti, the coronation of Pythu, the solar and lunar dynastie and various classes of pitys.

The Vayapurāṇa devotes five chapters (4-9) to creations of differents kinda (in over 600 verges). In Chap. 4 verges 22-61 the Saṅkhya sobema of Pradhina, Mahat, Abankāra, Tapmatras in set out and is combined with the egg theory (verses 66ff). Chap, 6 appears to refer (vorses 2-3) to the Purugasūkta (Rg. X. 90. 1-2), explains that Nārāyaṇa is so called because he reclines on waters, refers to the Boar incarnation, to nine kinds of crea tion, states a ( different theory) that Brahmā Created in the beginning the mind-born sons and Sanandana and Sabaka (6.65). Chapter 7 refers to re-oreation, Chap. 8 ( containing 198 Verses) refers to the Yugas, their durations, the creation of eight Deva yonis, of animala, metres &c., and different sons of Brahmā.

The Brahmāṇdapurāṇa I (chapters 3-5) deal with the appearance of Hiraṇyagarbha and various kinds of creations and chapter 4 refers to Pradhāna, the gunas and states that creation is due to the uneven mixture of guṇas that constitute Pradhana but these work under Viṣṇu. Chap. 5 speaks of various kinds of creations, and tho mānasa sons of Brahmi. Chapters 8, 11 of the Anuṣangapada (2nd section of the Purana ) deal with the creation of gods, pitrs, men and of the great sagos, Bhrgu &o.

The first three chapters ( containing about 240 verses) of the Brahmapurāpa deal with creation. Chap. 1 (vergos 34 f) puts forward Brahmā as the creator of all bhutas (beings) and 88 devotee of Nārāyana and then states that ahankāra arose from mahat and from ahankāra the elements were produced. The Brahma like the Matsya closely follows (in I. 37-41) Manu I. 5-13. It refers to the creation of the soven sages Marloi, Atzi and others who were seven Brahmānah, the creation of Sadhyas, gods, the Rgveda and other Vedas, birds and all sorts of beings; it also states (I 53) that Viṣṇu created Virāj, who created Puruga (this is based on the Puruṣasūkta (Rg. X. 90. 5) and that Puruṣa created people. Chapter % states that Puruga married Satarūpa, that Purusa is oalled Svāyambhuva Manu, that a son Vira was born to Puruṣa and Satarūpa and Vira’s two sons were Priyavrata and Uttanapada; then their descendante are described, that Daksa had 50 daughters 10 of whom were married to Dharma, 13 to Kadyapa and 37 (the gakgatras ) were

8. D. 191

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History of Dharmatostra [sec. IX, Ch. XXXIV

married to king some Chapter 3 deals with the creation of gods and asuras. 2477 & The Vigpupurāng in Chapters 2, 4, 5,7 of the first añīa deals with several kinds of creation Chapter 2 starts with Viṣṇu and asserts that Pradhāna and Puruṣa are his forms and in verses 34-50 proclaims the details of the Saṅkhya system and verse 54 refers to the production of the egg by Mabat and other tattvas. Chap. 3 deals with the question how brahman, which is free from guṇas, inconceivable, pure and untainted, is the author of creation, the reply being that there are natural powers (Saktis ) in all things that are inconceivable and so brahman has the power of creating the universe. Chap. 5 deals with nino kinds of creations viz. of Mabat, Tanmātrās, bhūtas, (elements), Vaikārika (i.6. Aindriyaka), Mukhya (i.e, of immovable objects), of lower animals, of urdhvarstas (i. e, divine beings), of human beings, of Kumāras ( i. e. Sanatkumāra and others).

The Mārkandeya-purāṇa in Chap. 42 speaks of the creation of Pradhāna, Mahat, Abankāra, Tanmātrās under the aegis of Brahmā. Chap. 44 speaks of the nine kinds of creation as in Viṣṇu. Chapters 45, 46, 47 deal with the creations of Gods, pitss, human beings, the four varpas, beasts, birds, trees and plants &c. Passages from other Purāṇas need not and cannot be quoted as they are in the same strain as above and as limita tions of space preclude further elaboration

In the Upanisads the geographical details are very fow and are limited to the territory between the Himalayas and Vindhya (the Kauṣitaki Up. II. 13 speaks of two parvatas, the porth and south, the Bṛ. Up.1.1, 1-2 alludes to the eastern and western seas). Noble steeds were brought from Sindhu country (Bṛ. Up. VI. 1. 13), the country of Gandhāra (Chān. Up. VI. 14. %) appears to

2477. As a sample of how several Purāgas repeat the same verses, the following is set oat: 354 Fro n

: 1 gjet seta: i fare ChareAl… Eu matracanianuary !… daar laat referent a पाविनः । पठन्ति चैतमेवा प्रधानमतिपादकम् । नाहो न राधिर्न नभो.न भूमि सीतमोज्योतिर भूरच नान्यत्। श्रोत्रादिबुद्धश्चानुपलम्यमे प्राधानिकंबध पुस्तिवासीत्। विष्णोः खलपात्परतो faa 4 Per gym Pani farug. I. 2. 19, 21-24; TOETUT I. 3, 1-9 ‘spy treat … That na wala a TRIERTARE : a; the g!. 4. 17 has w ith FITCUT Pata CHETCHI … RIT: #. The municior 1,33 has more to … CAT a T or foarta H. Mārkandeya, Cbap. 42. 36-52 and 59-63 are identical almost word for word with Viper 1. 2. 34-49, 51-55.

Countries in Upanigads

1593

have been known and was at some distance from the place where the Upaniṣad was composed ; the country Madra is mentioned in Bṭ. Up. III. 3.1 and III 7. 1. Janaka was a king of Videha at whose court brāhmaṇas from Kurus, Pancālya, gather together for argument with Yajžavalkya (Bp. Up. III 1, 1), king Ajātasatru of Kaśi (Banaras) humbled the vain Bālāki Gārgya (Bṛ. Up. II. 1. 1), and Kausitaki IV, 1. 1, which latter mentions also the countries of Vasa, Usinara, Kuru. Pangāla and Videha); Kuru country occurs in Chān. Up. I. 10.1. IV, 17.10. Pañcāla country by itself in Chān. Up. V. 3. 1, Bṛ. Up. VI. 2.1; Asyapat king of Kekaya (in the extreme North-west) impar tod knowledge of Vaisvānara-vidyā to brāhmaṇas.

The Purāṇas devote thousands of verses to cosmography 2478 i. e, desoription of the divisions of the earth called dvipas, Varṣas, the mountains, the oceans, the rivers and the countries therein and their extent, the motions of the sun, moon, planets, the yugas, manyantaras, and kalpas 2419 and Dharmaśāstra works frequently rely on them. Jambudvipa was known at least before 300 B. O. 88 Asoka mentions it in his Rūpanātha Rook Inscription, quoted above on p. 1016 n 1649. The word ‘dvipa’ occurs in the Rgveda I. 169. 3 and VII. 20. 4 (vi dvipāni pāpatan). Pāṇini derives the word from dvi and āpah. (VI. 3.97). A bare out line of these from some Purāṇas may be indicated here. The Mat ayapurāṇa starts by saying (in chap. 113. 4-5) that there are thou sanda of dvipas, but as it is not possible to describe the whole of the world in order it would expound only the seven 2400 dvipas.

2478. The most systematic and complete work on the cosmography of Ancient Iodia as described in Paranas Is W. Kirfel’s Die Kosmographie der Inder” (Boan, 1920, pp. 401) witb plates. He deals with Purina material in. pp. 1-177, with Buddhist material in pp. 178-207 and with Jaipa material in pp. 208–339 4od there is an index of proper games lo pp. 340-401.

2479. Many of the Parāṇas contain the same questions pat by the bagas to the Sīta about the dvipa.. #44 : digT: PEGT Tratata कति प्रभो। कियन्ति चैव वर्षाणि तेषु नयन का स्वा: ॥ महाभूमिप्रमाणंच लोकालोकस्वयेष च। पर्योति परिमाणं च गतिश्चन्द्रार्कयोस्तथा । एतद प्रवीहिना सर्व विस्तरेण पपार्थविद । त्वयुक मेतत्सकलं भोतुमिच्छामहे अयम् रत उवाचाहीपभेदसहयाणि सम चान्तर्गतानि च । न शक्यन्त कमेणेह पक्तं वैसकलं जगत् । सव तु प्रवक्ष्यामि चन्द्रादित्ययह सह मत्स्य. 113.1-5 पाई

2480. 1-3, 6-7, 0102 II. 13. 2-3, 5-6, Aleea 51. 1-3.

2481. Tba dvipas are generally said to be soven, but sometimes they are said to be 18 as in Vāya 2. 15 (astādasa samudrasya dvipās aspan Pori tavab) and by Kalidasa in Raghuvani VI, 38 (astādaka-dvipa-pi khata

(Continued on natt page)

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History of Dharmafāstra (Soc. IX, Oh. XXXIV

Chapters 121-123 of the same Purana mention by name seven dvipas viz. Jambudvipa, Sakadvipa, Kuśa, Krauñoa, Salmala, Gomedaka and Puskara, each succeeding one being double of each preceding one and each surrounded by a sea and each having doved var sas, seven principal mountains, seven main rivers. The seven oceans surrounding the seven dvipas are stated to be respectively of salt 3181 water, milk, liquid ghee, curds, liquor, sugar-cane juice, fresh water. The names and order of the dvipas differ to some extent in different Purāṇas e. g. the Viṣṇu II. 1.12-14, II, 2.5, the Brahmapurāṇa (18.11) mention them 29. Plakṣa, Sālmala, Kuśa, Kraunca, Saka and Puṣkara. The Vayu (33. 11-14), Kūrma I. 45. 3, Mārk, 50, 18-20 mention the game soven in the same order.

The descriptions of Kalpa, Manvantara, Yug& in the Purāṇas have already been dealt with in H. of Dh. Vol. III. p. 890–91 and above pp. 686-693 and pralaya has been treated of in Vol. II pp. 893-895 and pp. 693-695 above. The Purāṇas contain thousands of verses on these topios.

The Viṣṇu (II. 2. 13-24) mentions the var ṣas as Bharata (the first among them ), Kimpuruṣa, Hari, Ramyaka, Hirapmaya, Uttara-Kuru, Ilāvṛta, Bhadrāśva and Ketumala. The Vamana (13. 2-5) mentions the same except that it substitutes Campaka for Ramyaka. Viṣṇu IL (1. 16-17) states, however, that Nabhi, Kimpurasa, Hariyarsa, Ilavṣta, Ramya, Hiranvat, Kurt, Bhadrasva, Ketumāla were the names of pine kings, sons of Agnidhra, son of Priyavrata, a son of Svayambhuva Manu and that the varṣas given to the nine sons of Agnidhra were rospeotively Himāhya (i. e. Bhārata), Hemakūta, Naiṣadha, Ilavsta, Nllkoala, Sveta, Sppgavat, a varsa to east of Mera, Gan. dhamadana. Thus there is a confusion of names of kings and names of var ṣas. Vāyu (30. 38-40) states the same names of

(Continued from last page ) pipah). It is possible to take the word dvipa in the sense of Islands and not in the senge of continents in these cases. From Pag. IV.3. 10 (dvipade anusamudram yan) it appears that the word ‘dvipa’ was also used abont Islands near the sea coast. Vide Nino dvipas of Bharatavarra’ by Sashi bhushad Chandari la I. A. Vol. 59 pp. 204–208 and 224-226.

2481. एवे द्वीपा: सहदेख सस ससमिराता। लवणेचारासपिपिदुधजल: समम्। Hog II. 2. 6. 7. 18. 12, Apote 51, 7 ( … aparculatt:) 018

muito a fantar ).

Vayupurūna on vargas

1545

Bons and in 33, 41-45 mentions the game Varsag except Mālya. yat, which was given to Bhadrāsva. 2482

The Vāyu ( 45, 75-81) states that Bbāratavarga is to tht north of the ocean and to the south of Himayat (Himālaya) and Manu was called Bharata because he supported his subjects and therefore this varsa is called Bharata. The Brahmanda (II. 16.7, says the same thing. The same ( Vāyu) Purāṇa contradicts itself by stating (in 33. 50-52) that Nābhi’s son was Rṣabha, whose Bon was Bharata after whom Bharata-Varga is so called, Br ahmānda (II. 14.60-62 ) says the same thing; Vāyu also stated (in 99. 134) that from Dusyanta and Sakuntala was born Bharata and Bhārata is so called 2483 after him. The geven

4:112) out of these mat Papiai

be kaew other mountains

2482. उत्तरं यससमस्य हिमाद्रेश्चैव दक्षिणम् । वर्षे तद्धारत नाम भारती यत्र सन्ततिः । भषयोजनसाम्रो विस्तारश्च द्विजोत्तमाः । कर्मभूमिरियं स्वर्गमपवर्गच गच्छताम् । महेन्द्रो मलयः सहाः शुक्तिमाचक्षपर्वतः। विनयश्च पारियानश्च ससान्त्र कुलपर्वताः॥ विष्णुपु. II. 3. 1-3,

g. 19, 1-3, vide at 118. 1-3 (which reads tagaa: for m a:). Arevety (54, 10–11), TITUE II, 16. 5 and 18-19. It is worthy of note that Pagini expressly Dames only Himayat (in IV, 4, 112) out of these mountains, though he knew other mountains like Kimsulukagiri and others (VI. 3. 117). अत्रापि भारत श्रेष्ठं जम्बद्वीप महासुने । यतो हि कर्मभूरेषा यतोऽन्या भोगभूमयः। ब्रह्म. 19, 23. faru. II. 3, 22. In both several verses after this are the same. भीमपर्ण (chap. 9. 11 has the verse महेन्द्रो० (but reads ऋक्षवान् ), while in chap. 6 (verses 4-5) only six are mentioned.

2483. The Vipaparāṇa II, 1.32 agrees with Vāya 33, 50-52. In the Sākuntala (Act. VII.) Kalidasa makes a character state that Sakuntala’s son called Sarvadamana in the hermitage of Kapve would become known as Bharata (इहार्य सत्यानां प्रसभदमनात्सर्वदमनः पुनर्यास्यत्याख्यां भरत इति लोकस्य

COTTE). It is likely that in Kalidāsa’s days Sakuntala’s BOD bad not been probably connected with the name Bhāratavarsa, otherwise there would have been nothing to prevent the poet from adding another prophecy about him that A vark would be named after him, Panini speaks of pracya.. and Bharata. (II. 4.66, IV, 2. 113). The Bharatas were an ancient people mentioned several times even in the Rgvoda; vide III. 33, 11-12. The Bharatas are spoken of as grāma i. e, a group or sangha, to have crossed the confluence of the rivers Vipas and Sutudri (modera Beas and Satlai), III: 23.2 (Bharatas are said to have produced Agni by attrition), III, 33. i’a (where the prayer of Viśvamitra is said to have protected Bharata-jana) Agni is styled Bharata in several yersea (aa in Rg. II. 7. 1 and 5, IV. 25. 4. VI. 16. 19 and 45). It is stated in the Ait. Brahmana (39.9) that Dirghatama Māmateya crowned Bharata Daugpanti (Daugyant) by the Aindra Mahabbiseka, that Bharata thereon conquered the earth all round. performed many Afvamedha sacrifices and then five slokas are quoted statin thar Bharata made gifts of innumerable elephants ia Masnāra country, that ho performed sacrifices On the banks of the Yamanā tiver and on the

(Continued on noxt page)

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History of Dharmalāstra i seo, I, 06. XXXIV

principal mountains of Bhāratvarṣa are Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Suktimat, Rkṣaparvata, Vindhya and Pariyatra. The Purāṇas affirm that Bhārata is the best in the varsas of Jambu dvipa (Brahma 19, 23-24, Viṣṇu III. 3. 22, Brahmanda II. 16. 17 ). Some of them contain fine eulogies of Bhārata (e. g. Brahma 87. 2.9 and 69-79, Viṣṇu II. 3. 23-26.).

In several Purāpa, nine divisong of Bhāratavarṣa are named viz. Indradvipa, Kaseru, Tamraparna, Gabhastimat, Nāgadvipa, Sahya, Gandharva, Vāruṇa and a ninth which is 1000 yojanas long from north to south, on the east of which are Kirātas and on the west Yavanas and the four varṇas in the middle of it.2484. It may be noted that though Bharatavarṣa is only one the divisions of Jambudvipa, some of the nine divisions are themselves called Indradvipa and Nāgadvipa. Another impor tant matter is that Matsya 114. 10, Vayu 45. 81, Vāmana 13. 11, and Brahmānda appear to call the 9th dvipa Kumāra or as extending from Kumāriki to the sources of the Gangā, Thero

is said that Kind that (Atharvatha

The Hero other

(Continued from last page ) Ganges; the last verse (the 5th) says “AETER POFT ngang at fast ART Emrat aang: *1979:. , Vido Satapatha Br. XIII. 3. 4. 11-13 (for Bharata Dauspanti born of Sakuntala, where four gātās are quoted aboat bim, three of which are almost the same as ia Ait. Br. and it is added that he attained the same sway or emigence that belongs to the Bharatas in Its times. The Atharvaveda frequently refers to Himavat (as io V, %.8, XIX. 39. 1) and it is said that Kaștha plant is found in the north and is taken to the east from Himavat and that (Atharva VI. 24. 1 and 3) all rivers flow from Himavat and joio the ocean (Sindhu). The heTHE OD Pān. 11. 4. 66 remarks that Bharatas ars not found in any countries othor than those in the east.

2484, RTUTET

aina Paqui fait na alergoni na मान। नागहीपस्तथा सौम्यो गन्धर्वस्वथ वारुणः । अयं तु नवमस्तेषां धपः सागरसंभवः। योजनाना सहर्ष तुद्वीपोऽयं दक्षिणोत्तरात् । पूर्व किराता यस्यान्ते पश्चिमे पवमाः स्मृताः। mgon: P T 24 H arm TTT: # Tag. II. 3. 6-9, ATH. 54, 5-8 and Brabwāṇda II. 16. 8 add one half verse ranca Tratat qe (after FUTET … À ), AA 13,8-11 (reada ametaFerra fem fore , and adds gar: vitearat darsi gratar: after a … ya:), 95 45. 78-83 (adds आयतो छाकुमारिक्यादा गलाममवाचबै and one veree more after this), S. (27. 14-17 and 19-20 ) has also the veraes a … pats

a bat tbe first vorse is uge mariaa fan: I graftar harga ATRE 96645€ (v. le guitat: OTETA). The fa (14,7–12) bas some of the Above verses but adds 1988 sariteit 14T: gram (garant:?)1 faraghi

Arfiol: FEMIO asta al. Agai 118 also has similar verses. The sume II. 16. 11 adds murah meri mare o f eireiro: aume

"

Bharatavarga in Purāṇas

1527

fore, it appear that the 9th division of Bharatvarṣa was held to be a country like modern India and the other eight divisions seem to be countries and Islands lying to the south-east of prosent India. It is probable that early works identified Bharatvaras with what is now modern India, but when Indian culture spread to South-East Asia, Bhāratavarṣa was used to denote India as well as Greater India.

Sabara (bhāsya on Jai, X. 1, 35) shows that the language of cultured people from the Himayat to cape Comorin was the same (prasiddhasca sthalyām caruśabdaḥ & Himayataḥ ā oa Ku maribhayaḥ prajujyamāno drstah). Vide also his bhāsya on

Jai. X. 1. 42 for the same words. The snow-capped mountains were known to the sages of the Rgveda (vide X. 121, 4 ‘yag. yeme Himayanto mahitvā yasya samudram Tagayā sahāhuḥ). *Yasya’ in the yerse quoted refers to Hiranyagarbha. The Atharyayeda (V, 4, 2 and 8) mentions Himavat in the singular. Parvatas (plural) occur several times in Rg. III. 33. 1, IV.54.5 and also parvata in the singular (Rg. I. 37.7, V, 56. 4). The Mahabharata, Sabara, Puranas and the Bphat-samhita show that anoient Indian people identified their culture with Bhāratan Varga i, o, they identified country and culture, not race with culture.

The Brahmapurāṇa and the Mārkandeya appear to confine Bharatvarsa substantially to what has been known for centuries as India when they describe it as ’to its south, west and east there is the great ocean, to its north is Himavat resembling the string of a bow.‘2485 Vide H, of Dh. Vol. II, pp. 11-16 for discussion as to the limits of Āryāyarta and pp. 17-18 for Bbārata-varga.

The Vayu devotes about 1000 verses (chap. 36-49) to what is oalled Bhuvanavinyasa ( arrangement of the universe ), the Brahma devotas chap. 18-21 to the same viz. Bhuvanakosa, the Matsya chap. 114 deals with Bhuvanakosa, Karma I 40 is callad Bhuvanavinyasa and deals with dripap and vargas.

The countries 248 of ancient and medieval India ara enume rated in Viṣṇu II. 3. 15-18, Vāyu 45. 109–136, Brahmanda II. 16.

2485. gira per i metara i fenal, aturan PT YUT: 1 era areat and an entir TITAT: 1 T. 27. 65–66, Arek 54.59

2486. For the Janapadas gad other geographical data in Panini, vido J. of U. P. H. S. Vol. 16 pp. 10-51 by Dr. V. S. Agravala and IHg Vol. 21 pp. 297–314 for countries in the Parāṇas and Dr. D, C, Sirkar’s. Text of the Parāṇic list of peoples’ in THQ vol. 19 pp. 297-314. It appears fram

(Confinued on next page)

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History of Dharmasastra - 1 Boo. IX, Ch. XXXIV

40-68, Matsya 114, 34-56, Mārkandeya 54, Padma (Adi 6. 34-59), Vamana 13.36 ff. The Bhiṣmaparva (chap. 9) mentions countries and peoples. In the Nakṣatrakūrmadhyaya of the Bpbatsamhita of Varāhm ihira (chap. 14, 1-33) numerous names and countries in the centre of Bhāratavarṣa and in the eight direotions of it are set out. Many rivers are named in the Rgveda. In Rgveda X. 75. 5-6 eighteen or nineteen rivers are mentioned in order from the Ganges towards the west up to Kubhā (Kabul river), Gomati, Krumu (modern Kurram). Twenty-one rivers, geven in three groups, are referred to in Rgveda) X. 64.8 and X 75.1 and 99, in Rgveda I. 32.1% and X. 104.8 seven Sindhus are mentioned and in (Rgveda II 12. 1%, IV, 28. 1, X. 43,3), Rivers are enumerated as flowing from the principal mountains in Matsya 114, 20-33, Kūrma I. 47. 28–39, Brahmānda II. 16. 24-39, Vāmana 13, 20-35 and 34, 6-8, Brahma 19. 10-14 and 27. 25-40, ‘Padma (Adikhanda 6. 10-32). The Anuśāganaparva (chap. 165. 19-29) mentions many rivers.

Pātālas (nether regions) are generaly mentioned 88 geven, but the names slightly vary in the several Purāṇas. Vide Vāyu 50. 11-12, Brahma 21.2-3 and 54. 20-11, Brabmanda II. 20. 10 ff, Kūrma I. 44. 15-25, Viṣṇu II. 5. 2-3,

The Bhasya of Vyāsa on Y. S. III, 25 (26 in some editions) ‘bhuvanajõānam sūrye samyamat’ contains & concise but remarkably detailed summary of the description of the Beyon lokas (bbūr, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ, mahab, jana, tapas and satya, 2100

(Continued from last page) Panini that he was well acquainted with the whole of India from the extreme aorthwest to Kalinga ( modern Orissa) and Asmaka (region about Ajanta and Paitban) and modern Kutch as he expressly Dames Gandhāra (IV. 1. 169 ), Savāstu (in IV. 2. 77, madera Swat), Kamboja (IV. 1. 175 ) Add Takrasija (IV. 3. 93 ). Sindbo (IV. 3. 93). Salātara (IV. 3. 94, the birth place of Pāṇini who is bence called salātoriya by later writers like Bbāmaba). Saavira (Iy. 1. 148), Kaccha (IV. 2. 133 ), Magadban, Kallage, Sūrangasa (Surma valley ?) in IV. 1. 170, Aśmaka (IV. 1. 173). Cuonia gham’s ‘Ancient Geography of India (1872), Nondolal Dey’s The Googta phical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Lydia’ (1927), ‘Bibliography of Ancient Geography of India’ by Surendranath Majamdar’in I. A. Vol. 48 (for 1919) pp. 15–23 and the list of Tirthas, io the author’a H. of Dh. vol. IV. pp. 723-825 may be consulted for ancient Indian Geography,

2487. The words for the three or seven Vyābṣtis ware supposed to denote lokas, Vide Tal. Br. II. 2. 4,3 FAT FÅ FÅTT:’ and Tal. Up. I. 5 Ara at Sri 1:1 s unt gata i trene: 1 siia T i n Audi, tbe fogcrot (I. 44, 1-4) mentions the lokas from me: to 4.Yogasutra-bhāṣya on lokas, narakas

1529

the seven narakas from Avloi upwards, the goven pātalas, the earth with soyen dvipas, the geven parvatas with Meru in the middle of the earth, Varṣas, the aeyon dyipas, jambu, saka, kusa, kragioa, śālmala, gomedha ( not gomedaka as in the printed Purāṇas) and Puṣkara, the seven seas, the parks of the gods, their assembly hall called Sudharma and city called Sudarsana and palace called Vaijayanta, the groups of gods in Mahendra loka, Prājāpatya-loka, in Jana, Tapas and Satya lokas. Many of these details closely agree with the enumerations and des oriptions in the Purāṇas. This shows that the Paurāpika cos mography had been established long before the 4th century A. D.

1, D. 192