09_Introduction

Source: TW

ŚRĀDDHA

This subject is of great practical importance from several points of view.

Definition of śrāddha

The Brahmapurāṇa defines śrāddha as follows:

‘whatever is given with faith to brāhmaṇas intending it to be for the (benefit of) pitṛs at a proper time, in a proper place, to deserving persons and in accordance with the prescribed procedure is called śrāddha¹’.

The Mit. on Yaj. I. 217 defines śrāddha as

‘abandonment with faith of an article of food or some substitute thereof, intending it for (the benefit of) the departed’.

The Kalpataru on śrāddha defined it as

’the giving up of sacrificial material intending it for pitṛs and its acceptance by brāhmaṇas'.

The Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara and the Śrāddhaprakāśa define śrāddha in the same way as the Mit, but in a more involved manner.

Yaj. I. 268 (= Agnipurāṇa 163. 40-41) states that the pitṛs viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas that are the deities of śrāddha, being gratified by śrāddha, give gratification to the ancestors of human beings(4). This verse and Manu III. 284 make it clear that the three ancestors of a man, viz, the father, paternal grand-father and the paternal great grand-father are respectively to be identified with the three orders of superintending pitṛ deities, viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas, when performing śrāddha.

According to some², śrāddha denotes three things, viz. homa, the offering of piṇḍa (ball of cooked food) and gratification of brāhmaṇas invited to a dinner; the application of this word to any one of these three can only be in a secondary sense.

Does śrāddha serve no purpose

A firm believer in the doctrine of karma, punarjanma (reincarnation) and karma-vipāka (explained above) may find it difficult to reconcile that doctrine with the belief that by offering balls of rice to his three deceased paternal ancestors a man brings gratification to the souls of the latter. According to the doctrine of punarjanma (as very clearly and succinctly put in Br. Up. IV. 4.4 and Bhagavad-gitā 2.22)³ the spirit leaving one body enters into another and a new one.

But the doctrine of offering balls of rice to three ancestors requires that the spirits of the three ancestors even after the lapse of 50 or 100 years are still capable of enjoying in an ethereal body the flavour or essence of the rice balls wafted by the wind. Further, Yāj. I. 269 (which is the same as Mārk. 29. 38, Matsya-purāṇa 19. 11-12, Agnipurāṇa 163. 41-42) provides that the grand fathers (i.e. pitṛs) being themselves gratified (by the offerings of food in śrāddha) bestow on men (their descendants ) long life, progeny, wealth, learning, heaven, mokṣa (final beatitude), all happiness and kingdom.

Answers

In the Matsya-purāṇa (chap. 19, verse 2) a question is asked by the sages how food which a brāhmaṇa (invited at a śrāddha) eats or which is offered into fire is enjoyed by departed spirits that might have assumed (after death) good or evil forms of bodies. The answer given ( verses 3-9) is that fathers, grand-fathers and great-grand fathers are identified with Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas respectively according to Vedic passages, that the name and gotra (mentioned at the time of śrāddha), the mantras uttered and faith carry to the pitṛs the offerings made, that if one’s father has become a god (by his good deeds) the food offered in śrāddha becomes nectar and follows him in his state of godhood, if he has become a daitya (an asura) then (the food) reaches him in the form of various enjoyments, if he has become a beast then it becomes grass for him and if he has become a snake the śrāddha food waits on him as wind (serpents are supposed to subsist on wind) and so on.

Verses 5-9 of the Matsya, chap. 19 are quoted as from Mārkandeyapurāṇa by the Srāddhakalpalata p. 5. Visvarūpa⁴ on Yaj. I. 265 (p. 171 of Tri, ed.) also raises the same objection and gives several replies. One is that this is a matter entirely based on śāstra and so when sāstra says that pitṛs are gratified and the performer gets desired objects no objection should be raised. Another reply is that the gods Vasus and others that have access everywhere have the power to gratify pitṛs wherever they may be situated. He does not call the questioners (nāstika) as some other and later writers do.

The Śrāddhakalpalata of Nandapaṇḍita⁵ (about 1600 A. D.) enters upon an elaborate reply to these persons (whom he dubs atheists) that aver that the performance of śrāddhas for departed fathers and the rest, who according to the particular actions of each go to heaven or hell or to other forms of existence serves no purpose. He asks:

why is śrāddha useless? Is it because there is no prescriptive text laying down an obligation to perform it or is it because śrāddha produces no consequences or is it that it is not proved that pitṛs and the rest are gratified by śrāddha?

To the first he replies that there are such passages as ’therefore a wise man must perform śrāddha with all his efforts’ that lay down the obligation;
nor is the 2nd objection proper, since Yāj. I. 269 does declare the rewards (of śrāddha ) viz, long life &c.
Nor is the third alternative acceptable. In the śrāddha rites it is not that the mere ancestors named Devadatta and the like are the recipients and that they are denoted by the words pitṛ, pitāmaha and prapitāmaha, but that those words denote them as accompanied by the superintending deities viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas.

Just as by the words Devadatta and the like what is denoted is not merely the bodies ( so named), nor merely the souls, but what is denoted by the words is individual souls as particularised by the bodies; in the same way the words pitṛ and the like denote Devadatta and others together with the superintending deities (viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas). Therefore, the superintending deities viz, the Vasus and the rest, being gratified by the food and drink offered by the sons and the rest, gratify those also viz. Devadatta and the rest and endow the performers (of śrāddha ) with such rewards as male progeny and the rest. Just as a woman expecting to be a mother becomes gratified by partaking of the food and drink for which she has a longing in pregnancy and which is given to her by another person for the sustenance of the child in the womb, she satiates also the child in her womb and endows those that offer her the food and drink for which she has longings by bestowing on them some reward in return. Thus the pitṛs denoted by the words father, grandfather and great-grand-father are the deities Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas, and not merely (human beings called ) Devadatta and the rest. Hence these deities of śrāddha become the recipients (of gifts) in the śrāddha rite, are gratified by the śrāddha and gratify in their turn the ancestors of human beings.

The Śrāddha-kalpalatā then quotes 18 verses⁶ from the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa many of which are found in chap. 28 ( verses 3 ff) of the printed text. It is said⁷ that just as a calf finds its own mother from among many cows that are scattered about, so the mantras repeated in śrāddha carry the food to the pitṛs.

Dissatisfaction

The explanation offered by the Śrāddha-kalpalatā relying on passages of the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa is not satisfactory and is rather far-fetched. The Mārkaṇḍeya and the Matsya appear to agree with the doctrine of Vedānta that immediately on leaving one body the soul has recourse to another body, either as a god or a man or a beast or a snake &c. The hypothesis propounded is that the food and drink offered in śrāddhas becomes transformed into various substances for the use of the ancestors (Matsya 141. 74–75).

But the great difficulty in accepting this explanation is that the ancestors might die at different places, while śrāddha may very often be performed at one place far away from those places. It is difficult to believe that the grass growing in one place where the ancestor has been transformed into a beast as a result of his evil actions is the same that might have been produced from the substances offered in śrāddha at a place hundreds of miles away.

Further, if one or all the three ancestors have been transformed into beasts or the like how can they recognize their offspring and bestow on them long life, wealth &c? If the Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas bestow these, it is better to say so directly and affirm that pitṛs cannot bestow any thing on their progeny.

Utility

Theory of Śrāddha examined

It appears very probable that the worship of ancestors by means of śrāddhas was a very ancient institution and that the doctrines of punarjanma and karmavipāka were comparatively later ones and that Hinduism being all-embracing retained the institution of śrāddhas while adopting also the doctrine of metempsychosis. The institution of śrāddha is from one point of view an excellent one. It provides an occasion for remembrance of one’s ancestors and relatives that were dear and near when living.

The Āryasamāja objects to the institution of śrāddha and interprets pitṛs in the Ṛgveda as meaning living men in the Vānaprastha stage. It may be noted that the texts support both views. The Śat. Br. expressly says that food is offered to the father of the sacrificer in the words ’this is for thee.’ Viṣṇu Dh. S. 75. 4 “He whose father is dead may put down a piṇḍa for his father &c”. On the other hand Manu III, 284 states that fathers are spoken of as Vasus, grandfathers as Rudras &c. and Yāj. I. 269 provides that Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas are the pitṛs and the devatās of śrāddha. These latter are to be explained as containing an injunction to contemplate upon the pitṛs as Vasus, Rudras &c.

As stated below (p. 347) with regard to the Ṛgvedic passages, it was on account of the supposed power of pitṛs to benefit or harm the living that the cult of the dead became a prominent feature in primitive societies. Offerings and ceremonies which may have in most ancient times been prompted in part at least by the desire to placate the ancestors are continued as tokens of pure affection and remembrance. Various beliefs about pitṛs are mentioned⁸ in post-Vedic Literature. The Baud. Dh, S. II. 8. 14 summarizes a brāhmaṇa text stating that pitṛs move about in the form of birds. The Auśanasa-smṛti and Devala quoted by the Kalpataru say the same thing.

Procedureal

Feeding brāhmaṇas

In the Vāyupurāṇa⁹ it is stated that at the time of śrāddha the ancestors enter the brāhmaṇas (invited) after assuming an aerial form and that when the best of brāhmaṇas are honoured with clothes, foods, gifts, eatables, liquids, cows, horses and villages, pitṛs become pleased.

Manu III. 189 and the Auśanasa-smṛti also support this notion that pitṛs enter the invited brāhmaṇas.

Departure aid

The Matsyapurāṇa (18. 5-7 ) enjoins: piṇḍas should be offered to the departed for twelve days after death, since they serve him as food on his journey and give him great satisfaction. Therefore, the soul leaving the dead body is not taken to the abode of the departed for twelve days after death); the departed spirit hovers near his house, his sons, his wife for twelve days. Therefore for ten days after death milk (and water) should be placed (hung up) in space for ten nights for reducing all torments (or troubles of the departed) and for the removal of the fatigue of the journey (that the departed spirit has to make ).

The Viṣṇudharmasūtra¹⁰ (20.34-36 ) provides “the departed spirit enjoys in the world of pitṛs the food offered in śrāddha with the utterance of the word ‘svadhā’; whether the departed is in the state of a god or in the place of torments (Hell) or in the form of a lower animal or a human being, the śrāddha food offered by his relatives reaches him; when śrāddha is performed, the performer and the departed soul both certainly secure vigour (or prosperity ).”

The Brahmapurāṇa¹¹ states that śrāddha is to be treated of under five heads, viz. how, where, when, by whom and with what materials. But before proceeding to deal with these five heads, it is necessary to dilate upon the underlying ideas and significance of the word ‘pitaraḥ’ from the most ancient times of which we have literary records.

Meaning of ‘Pitaraḥ’

The word ‘pitṛ’ means ‘father’, but the word ‘pitaraḥ’ is used in two senses, viz. (1) a man’s three immediate deceased ancestors, (2) the early or ancient ancestors of the human race that were supposed to inhabit a separate world (loka) by themselves¹². For this second meaning, vide Ṛg. X. 14. 2 and 7, X 15.2 (translated above pp. 191-92, 194) and Ṛg. IX.97.39¹³.

“That Soma which becomes stronger and stronger and makes others strong,
that is strained through a strainer,
that flows in a stream, protected us by means of the luminary (the Sun)–
that Soma with whose help our ancestors knowing the place where the cows were kept concealed and the higher regions, harassed the mountain for the sake of recovering the cows.’

In Ṛg. X. 15.1 the pitṛs are said to be of three grades, lower, middling or higher. They are also said to be earlier and later ones (Ṛg. X. 15.2). They are all known to Agni, though all pitṛs are not known to their descendants (Ṛg. X. 15. 13).

The pitṛs are divided into several groups such as Aṅgirasas, Vairūpas, Atharvans, Bhṛgus, Navagvas and Daśagvas (Ṛg. X. 14,5-6), the Angirasas being particularly associated with Yama who is invoked to come to the sacrifice along with the Angirasas (Ṛg. X. 14. 3-5).

In Ṛg. I.¹⁴ 62. 2 it is said: ’through whose (Indra’s) help our ancient ancestors (pitaraḥ), the Aṅgirasas, who sang his praises and who knew the place, found out the cows.’ The pitṛs called Angiras were, it appears, again subdivided into two classes viz. Navagva and Daśagya¹⁵ both of which words occur in Ṛg. 1. 62 4, V. 39. 12 and X. 62. 6.

In several passages the ancient fathers are identified with the seven sages¹⁶ as in Ṛg. IV. 42.8 and VI. 22.2 and sometimes the Navagvas and Daśagvas also are said to be the seven sages (Ṛg. I. 62.4). Angirasas are said to be the song of Agni (Ṛg. X. 62, 5) and also of Heaven (Ṛg. IV. 2. 15). The pitṛs are often said to regale themselves in the company of gods, particularly of Yama (Ṛg. VII. 76, 4, X, 14, 10, X, 15, 8-10)¹⁷.

The pitṛs are said to be fond of Soma drink (Ṛg. X. 15. 1 and 5, IX. 97. 39), they lie down on kuśa grass (Ṛg. X. 15.5), they come with Agni and Indra to partake of the offerings (Ṛg. X. 15. 10 and X. 16.12) and Agni is also said to carry the offerings to the pitṛs (Ṛg. X. 15.12).

Fire is supposed to take the spirit of a cremated person to the pitṛs (Ṛg. X. 16. 1-2, 5=A, V. 18. 2. 10; Ṛg. X, 17, 3).

In later works also (e.g. in Mārk, chap. 45), Brahmā is supposed to have created in the beginning four classes viz. gods, asuras, pitṛs and human beings. Vide also Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa, Prakriyā, chap. 8, and upodghāta chap. 9. 35 (ityete pitaro devā devāśca pitaraḥ punaḥ anyonyapitaro hyete).

The World of Pitṛs

It was supposed that the departed spirit, after the cremation of the body, was endowed with an ethereal body and became associated with Yama, the gatherer of departed men (Ṛg. X. 14.1 and 8, X. 15. 14, X. 16.5), and with pitṛs. The departed spirit went to the world of the pitṛs and Agni was implored to take the spirit to the world of the departed whose deeds were good and to the stride of Viṣṇu (Ṛg. X. 14. 9, X. 15.3, X. 16. 4).

Although Yama is said to dwell in heaven (divi) in Ṛg. X. 64.3, he is really a god of the middle region(4), as the Nirukta states¹⁸. The Atharvaveda states:¹⁹

’let us worship with obeisance the fathers and grandfathers of our father, that enter the wide middle regions, that dwell on the earth and in heaven.’

In Ṛg. I. 35.6²⁰ it is said : there are three worlds; two of them (Heaven and earth) are in the lap of Savitṛ; one (i. e. the middle region) is in the domain of Yama where departed spirits congregate, ‘The great Luminary (the Sun) has risen, a gift of the pitṛs’ (Ṛg. X. 107. 1).

In the Tai. Br. I. 3. 10. 5²¹ it is said that the pitṛs dwell in the third world from this. This means that after bhūloka and antarikṣa comes the pitṛloka. In the Br. Up. I. 5.16 three worlds of men, pitṛs and gods are separately mentioned.

In Ṛg. X. 135. 1-7, Yama is spoken of in somewhat different language. He is in this hymn mentioned as a god by himself and not as the first mortal who made a path (Ṛg. X. 14. 2) or as the gatherer of men (X. 14.1) or as being in company of the pitṛs.

In a few other places Yama is no doubt called rājan and praised in the same breath with Varuṇa (Ṛg. X. 14,7). But such a position is very rarely mentioned. For the further development of Yama and his assistants as the punishers of men for evil deeds, vide pp. 159-160 above and notes 381-386.

Types of pitṛs

There is another division of pitṛs viz. pitaraḥ somavantaḥ²², pitaraḥ barhiṣadaḥ, pitaraḥ agniṣvāttāḥ. The latter two are named in Ṛg. X. 15. 4 and 11 (which occur also in Tai. S. II, 6. 12. 2). The Sat. Br. defines these as follows:-

“those that performed a soma sacrifice are pitaraḥ somavantaḥ;
those that offered cooked oblations (like caru and puroḍāśa) and secured a world are pitaraḥ barhiṣadaḥ;
those that did none of these (two actions) and whom fire consumes when burning them are ‘pitaraḥ agniṣvāttāḥ;’
these are the only ones that are pitaraḥ.”

The Tai.²³ Br. has a somewhat similar passage and the Kāthaka Samhita IX. 6. 17 also refers to these three kinds of pitṛs. Later writers introduced certain changes in the meanings of the words for the different classes of pitṛs and also increased the number of the classes of pitṛs. For example, the Nandipurāṇa q. by Hemādri states:

the pitṛs of brāhmaṇas are called ‘agniṣvātta’, those of kṣatriyas ‘barhiṣadaḥ’, those of vaiśyas ‘kāvyas’, those of śūdras ‘sukālin’ and those of mlecchas and untouchables are called ‘vyāma’²⁴.

Even Manu (III, 193-198) mentions several classes of pitṛs, connects pitṛs called Somapās, Havirbhujaḥ Ājyapās and Sukālins with the four varṇas and in III, 199 states that the pitṛs of brāhmanas are designated as Anagnidagdha, Agnidagdha, Kāvya, Barhiṣad, Agniṣvātta and Saumya. Those verses of Manu appear to summarize different traditions about the several classes of pitṛs. Vide Matsyapurāṇa 141. 4 for the same last four names and 141. 15-18 for their definitions.

In Śatātapasmṛti (VI. 5–6) twelve groups or divisions of pitṛs are mentioned viz. piṇḍabhājaḥ (three), lepabhājaḥ (three), Nāndimukhas (three) and Aśrumukhas (three). This is a classification of pitṛs from two different standpoints.

In Váyu 72,1 and 73.60, Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghāta 9.53), Padma V. 9. 2-3, Viṣṇudharmottara I. 138. 2-3 and other Purāṇas the classes of pitṛs are said to be seven, three of which are formless (amūrtimat) and four have forms (mūrtimat) and they and their offspring are described in detail. All this is passed over here.

The Skandapurāṇa (VI. 216. 9-10) speaks of nine groups of pitṛs, being Agniṣvāttāḥ, Barhiṣadaḥ, Ājyapāḥ, Somapāḥ, Raṣmipāḥ, Upahūtāḥ, those called ‘āyantunaḥ’, ‘Śrāddhabhujaḥ, Nāndimukhāh. In this list old and new elements are mixed up.

The Indian mind often revels in divisions, sub-divisions and classifications without much basis therefor and this is probably an illustration of that tendency.

pitṛs and Gods

Manu (III. 201) states that from the sages the pitṛs sprang, from the pitṛs sprang gods and human beings and from the gods arose the whole world whether moving or immovable. It is remarkable that here the gods are spoken of as springing from the pitṛs. This is really a mere eulogy of pitṛs (i. e. it is an arthavāda).

The pitṛs were in a class apart from the gods. On the meaning of the word ‘pañcajanāḥ’ occurring in Ṛg. X.²⁵ 53. 4. (pañcajanā mama hotram juṣadhyam) and other passages, the Ait. Br. (13.7 or 3.31) explains that they are the five classes, viz. Gandharvas with Apsarases, pitṛs, devas, sarpas and rākṣasas. The Nirukta III. 8 partly follows this explanation and also gives another. In the Atharvaveda X, 6.32 the gods, pitṛs and men are mentioned in that order.

The ancient Vedic texts and practice make a sharp distinction between the Gods and the Pitṛs. The Tai. S. VI. 1.1.1 states:

’the gods and men divided the quarters, the gods took the east, pitṛs the south, men the west and Rudras the north.’

The general rule is that sacrifices for gods are begun in the forenoon, while the pitṛ-yajña is performed in the afternoon (San. Br.)²⁶. The Sat. Br. II, 4.2.2 narrates that the pitṛs wearing the sacred thread over the right shoulder (and under the left arm) and bending their left knee approached Prajāpati, when Prajāpati said to them

‘you will have food at the end of) each month (on the Amāvāsyā),
your svadhā (cordial) will be swiftness of thought and the moon will be your light,’

while to the gods he had said that sacrifice will be their food and the sun their light. The Tai. Br.²⁷ I. 3. 10.4 appears to make a distinction between pitṛs who are of the nature and position of gods and pitṛs that are more or less like human beings.

The Kauśika-sūtra (1. 9-23) neatly collects in one place the difference in the procedure of the rites meant for gods and for pitṛs.

• The performer of rites for gods wears the sacred thread on the left shoulder and under the right armpit, while in the case of the rites for pitṛs it is worn on the right shoulder and under the left arm;
• the rite for gods is either begun facing the east or north, while that for the pitṛs is begun facing the south; the
• rite for gods is finished in the north-east (or north or east), while that for the pitṛs is completed in the south-west;
• an action is done only once for pitṛs, while for gods at least thrice or as many times as the texts direct;
• in going round (perambulating) the right side is turned towards gods and the left one in the case of pitṛs;
• offerings are made to gods with the words ‘svāha’ and ‘vaṣat’, while they are made to pitṛs with ‘svadhā’ and ’namaskāra’;
• the darbhas employed in rites for Fathers are those that are taken out from the earth with their roots, while for gods darbhas used are cut a little above the roots.

The Baud. Sr. II, 2. also mentions some of these in one place²⁸. The Ṛgveda itself (in X. 14,3 ‘svāhānye svadhayānye madanti’) marks this distinction in the words employed at the offerings to Gods and Pitṛs.

The Sat. Br. (II. 1,3,4 and II. 1.4.9) speaks of the gods as immortal and of the Fathers as mortal.

Shared traits

Though the gods and pitr̥s are placed in separate classes, still the pitṛs partake of some characteristics of the divine.

As Ṛg. X. 15. 8 shows, the pitṛs drank Soma.

In Ṛg. X.68.11 it is said that the pitṛs adorned the sky with nakṣatras (nakṣatrebhiḥ pitaro dyām-apimśan) and placed darkness in the night and light in the day.

The pitṛs are said to have found out the light that was secreted and to have produced the Dawn (Ṛg. VII. 76. 4). Here the pitṛs are credited with powers possessed by the highest gods.

Attitude to Pitṛs

Affection

The pitṛs are invoked with affection and regard for conferring various boons and their favour is sought in various ways. In Ṛg. X, 14. 6 the good will (sumati) and favour (saumanasa) of the pitṛs are sought. In Ṛg. X. 15. 1. and 5 the protection of pitṛs is sought. They are requested to grant happiness unmixed with trouble (Ṛg. X. 15. 4.), to bestow wealth on the sacrificer (Ṛg. X. 15.7 and 11) and on his son. Ṛg. X. 15.11 and A. V. 18. 3. 14²⁹ seek the bestowal of wealth and heroic sons, A. V. 14. 2.73 says ‘May the pitṛs who throng round the bride to see her grant her happiness endowed with progeny.’³⁰ In the Vāj. S. II. 33 occurs³¹ the well-known mantra

‘Oh pitṛs! deposit (in this wife ) an embryo, a child that (will wear later) a garland of lotuses so that he may become a grown-up male’

repeated when the wife of the performer of the śrāddha eats the middle one out of the three piṇḍas.

Fear

It should not be, however, supposed that the element of fear of the pitṛs is altogether wanting³². For example, Ṛg. X. 15.6 prays

‘whatever fault we may commit in reference to you through our being (erring) men do not injure us for that.’

In Ṛg. III. 55. 2 we read

‘May the gods and the ancient pitṛs who know the place (of the cows or the path ) not harm us here.’

In Ṛg.X.66. 14 it is said the Vasiṣṭhas praising the gods fashioned speech (hymns ) ’like pitṛs and like sages.’ Here pitṛs and ṛșis are separate groups and Vasiṣṭhas are compared to both³³.

Offering mantras

In many passages of the Vedic Literature the word pitaraḥ is applied to the three immediate deceased male ancestors of a man.

‘Therefore up to three generations they specify (the ancestors) by name; for so many are the ones to whom sacrifice is offered’ (vide n. 772 above).

The Sat. Br. II, 4. 2. 19³⁴ mentions the presentation formulas of the cakes to the father, grand-father and great-grand-father and then states that the performer mutters the words

“here, O fathers! regale yourselves, like bulls come here each to his own share” (Vāj. S. II. 31 first half).

Some (such as Tai. S. I. 8. 5.1) repeated the formula

“this here (ball of rice ) is for thee and (for those ) that come after thee.”

But the Śat. Br. emphatically says that he should not offer with this formula, but rather with the formula ’this here is for thee’.

In Sat. Br. XII. 8. 1. 17 the three immediate paternal ancestors are said to be svadhā-loving. Relying on these Vedic passages and on the fact that Manu (III. 221 ) and Viṣṇudharmasūtra (21. 3,75. 4) prescribe the invocation of pitṛs after mentioning their gotra and names that the Śrāddhaprakāśa (p. 13) concludes that it is really the father and the other ancestors that are the deities of śrāddha and not Vasu, Rudra and Āditya, since these latter have no gotra and that the description of the father and others as Vasu, Rudra and Āditya is meant only for contemplation (on them as identical with Vasus &c.).

On a passage of the Brahmapurāṇa³⁵ prescribing that the performer should say to the invited brāhmaṇas that he would call the pitṛs to the rites and that when the brāhmaṇas give permission to call them he should do so, the Śr. P. (p. 204) remarks that the pitṛs here meant are the divine ones viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas and also the human ones viz. the performer’s father and the rest. The Vāyupurāṇa (56. 65-66) Brahmāṇḍa and Anu. distinguish between pitṛs who are above and pitṛs who are laukika, viz. father, grand-father and great-grand-father. Vide also Vāyu 70. 34 for pitṛs that are like gods.

Origin

In the post-Vedic Literature, particularly in the Purāṇas, a great deal is said about the origin and classes of pitṛs. For example, the Vāyupurāṇa 56. 18 speaks of three classes of pitṛs viz. ‘kāvyāh, barhiṣadaḥ and agniṣvāttāḥ’, while the same Purāṇa, chap. 73, Varāha 13. 16 ff, Padma (Sṛṣṭi 9. 2-4) and Brahmāṇḍa III. 10.1 speak of the origin of pitṛs of seven classes that dwell in heaven, four of which have a form (mūrtimat) and three of which are without form (amūrta). The Śātātapa-smṛti (6. 5-6 ) speaks of 12 pitṛs viz. piṇḍabhājaḥ, lepabhājaḥ, nāndimukhāḥ and aśrumukhāḥ. All such descriptions have to be passed over from considerations of space.

Promulgators of śrāddha rites

From the sūtra period ( about 600 B.C.) to the most modern among medieval Dharmaśāstra works the authors wax eloquent over the praises or the importance or benefits of the institution of śrāddhas. One of the earliest works among these, viz. the Ap. Dh. S. gives the following interesting information :³⁶

“Formerly men and gods lived together in this world. The gods went to heaven owing to sacrifices (i. e, as a reward of sacrifices that they performed), but men remained behind. Those among men who perform sacrifices in the same way as the gods did, dwell in the other world (i.e. heaven) with the gods and Brahman.

Then (seeing that men lagged behind) Manu promulgated the rite which is designated by the word ‘śrāddha’ and which tends to the salvation (or happiness) of mankind. In this rite the Manes (pitaraḥ) are the deities but the brāhmaṇas (that are fed) are in the place of the āhavaniya fire (in which in sacrifices to gods oblations are offered)”.

On account of this last sūtra Haradatta (com, of Āp. Dh, S.) and others hold that feeding the brāhmaṇas is the principal act at a śrāddha.

The Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa (Upodghātapāda 9. 15. and 10. 99) speaks of Manu as the promulgator of śrāddha rites and Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 1. 30, Vāyu 44. 38 and Bhāgavata III. 1, 22 designate Manu as Śrāddha-deva, Similarly, in the Sāntiparva 345³⁷. 14-21 and the Viṣṇu-dharmottara I.139.14-16 it is stated that the institution of śrāddha was established in the Boar incarnation by Viṣṇu and that Viṣṇu should be regarded as dwelling in the three piṇḍas offered to the father, grand-father and great-grandfather.

From this and from the passage of the Ap. Dh. S. cited above we may infer that it was believed even several centuries before Christ that the institution of śrāddhas had a hoary antiquity behind it and that it was as old as Manu, the father of mankind according to the Ṛgveda (VIII. 63.1, VIII. 30. 3.). It is, however, very remarkable that the word ‘śrāddha’ itself does not occur in any undoubtedly authentic and ancient Vedic passage, though the rite called Piṇdapitṛyajña³⁸ (performed on the amāvāsyā of each month by an Āhitāgni, the Mahāpitṛyajña (performed in the Cāturmāsya called Sākamedha) and the rites called Aṣṭakās were known to the early Vedic literature.

The word śrāddha occurs in the Kaṭhopaniṣad (1.3.17)

‘whoever proclaims this highly esoteric doctrine in an assembly of brāhmaṇas or at the time of śrāddha tends to secure immortality’³⁹.

The other early occurrences of the word śrāddha known to me are confined to the sutra literature. The most reasonable and probable inference to be drawn from these facts is this that only a few rites (mentioned just above) were known as related to the pitṛs and that there fore no need arose for a generic term in very ancient times to comprehend several rites for the pitṛs. But when the number of rites in honour of pitṛs increased, the generic term ‘śrāddha’ was hit upon.

Panegyrics on śrāddha

A few samples of the panegyrics on śrāddha may be set out here. The Baud.⁴⁰ Dh. S. states that rites for the Fathers confer long life, heaven, fame and prosperity.

The Harivaṁśa⁴¹ says ’the would derives support from śrāddha and Yoga (i. e. Mokṣa) springs from it.’

Sumantu⁴² quoted in the Smr̥ticandrikā (śrāddha p. 333) states nothing else is declared to be more beneficial than śrāddha.’

The Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 14, 1-4) avers that if a man performs śrāddha with faith he thereby propitiates Brahmā, Indra, Rudra and the other gods, sages, birds, men, beasts, creeping animals, hosts of pitṛs and whatever else is styled a being and the whole world. Yāj. I. 270⁴³ promising long life and several other benefits arising from gratifying pitṛs has already been quoted above (p. 337).

Yama has a similar verse.

It is said in a passage of the Viṣṇudharmottara⁴⁴ quoted by the Śrāddhasāra (p,6) and Śrāddhaprakāśa (pp. 11-12) that the piṇḍa offered to the great-grandfather is declared to be god Vāsudeva himself, the one to the grandfather is designated Saṇkarṣaṇa, that to the father is known as Pradyumna and the offerer of the piṇḍas is himself in the position of Aniruddha.

In Śāntiparva 345. 21 it is stated that Viṣṇu should be looked upon as staying in the three piṇḍas.

In the Kūrmapurāṇa it is stated

‘on the day of Amāvāsyā the pitṛs assuming an aerial form come to the door of their former haunt and mark whether śrāddha is being performed by men of their family. This they do till sunset.

When the sun sets, being oppressed by hunger and thirst, they become full of despair and feel sorrow, breathe heavily for a long time and go away condemning their descendants. The pitṛs of him who does not offer śrāddha on amāvāsyā, even with water or vegetables, go away after cursing him’.

Etymology

It is necessary to say a few words about the derivation of the word ‘śrāddha’. That the word is derived from ‘śraddhā’ is quite clear.

In the definition quoted above from the Brahmapurāṇa and the definition⁴⁵ given by Marici and Bṛhaspati the connection of śrāddha with śraddha is emphasized. In śrāddha one entertains the firm faith or conviction that what is given up to the brāhmaṇas for the benefit of the departed man or the Fathers will reach him or them in some way.

The Skandapurāṇa VI. 218.3 says that śrāddha is so called because śraddhā is the root (or main spring) of that rite. This means that there is not only the conviction stated above but that there is a firm belief that a person is under an obligation to offer it.

Śraddhā is deified and addressed as a deity in Ṛg.⁴⁶ X. 151. 1-5, the first verse of which is explained in the Nirukta (IX, 31). The word also occurs in Ṛg. II. 26.3, VII. 32. 14, VIII, 1.31, IX. 113. 4. In some verses the two components of the word ‘śraddhā’ (viz. ‘śrat’ and ‘dhā’) are separated without any change in the meaning. For example, in Ṛg. II. 12. 5 (= A. V. 20. 34, 5) it is said ‘Have faith in him; O people! he is Indra’. In Ṛg. X. 147. 1, addressed to Indra, we have ‘I have faith in that high wrath of yours &c.’ (śratte dadhāmi prathamāya manyave).

In the Tai, S. VII. 4. 1. 1. it is⁴⁷ said “Bṛhaspati desired ‘may the gods put faith in me, may I reach the position of being their priest’”. Vide also Ṛg. I. 103.5. Śrat and śraddhā are both mentioned in the Nighaṇṭu (III. 10) as meaning ‘satya’.

In the Vāj. S. 19.77 we are told that Prajāpati put Śraddhā in truth and aśraddha in falsehood, while in Vāj. S. 19.30, it is said that truth is obtained by śraddhā.

In the post-vedic Literature, Pāṇini explains the forms ‘śrāddhin’ and ‘śrāddhika’ in V. 2. 85, in the sense of one who has eaten a śrāddha dinner.’ The word ‘śrāddha’ may be derived from śraddhā according to Pān. V.1.109 795.

Śrāddha is variously defined. In the bhāsya on Yogasūtra I. 20, ‘śraddha’ is defined as the composure of the mind⁴⁸ (or mental approval). Devala defines śraddhā: ‘confidence (in the efficacy) of religious acts is called śraddhā; one who has no faith has no reason (or motive) for engaging in religious acts’⁴⁹.

The Śrāddhasūtra⁵⁰ of Katyāyana prescribes

‘one endowed with śraddhā should offer śrāddha even with vegetables (if nothing else is available)’.

Vide Manu III, 275 which emphasizes śraddhā for the gratification of pitṛs. The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa (29. 27) emphasizes⁵¹ the relation of śrāddha to śraddhā and states that what is offered at śrāddhas becomes transformed into that kind of food for the use of the pitṛs who require food in the new bodies they might have assumed according to the doctrine of karma and punarjanma and it also remarks that śrāddha offered with wealth acquired in an improper or unjust way is a means of gratification to the pitṛs that are born as cāṇḍālas, pukkasas and similar very low grades of people.

Aṣṭakā śrāddha

It has already been stated above (pp. 349-350) that in very ancient times there were only three rites for departed ancestors, viz. Piṇḍa-pitṛ-yajña (offered by those who had consecrated the śrauta fires) or monthly Śrāddha in the case of those who had not done so (vide e. g. Aśv. Gr. II. 5. 10, Hir. Gr. II. 10. 1, Āp. Gr. VIII. 21. 1, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 14. 3 &c.), the Mahāpitṛyajña and the Aṣṭakā śrāddhas. The first two have been already described in vol. II (as said above), but the Aṣṭakā śrāddhas have not been described at all so far. Therefore some remarks will be offered here about them. They are of special importance, but the authorities present great variations on almost all points such as the number of days and the months in which they were to be performed, the deities to be worshipped, the offerings to be made and the procedure to be followed.

Gaut. (VIII, 19) mentions ‘Aṣṭakā’ rite as the first among the seven kinds of pākayajñas and as one of the forty saṁskāras. Aṣṭakā appears to have meant the 8th tithi in any month after the Full Moon day (vide Sat. Br. VI. 4. 2.10). The Sat. Br. states⁵² ‘On the 8th day (after full moon) he (the performer of agnicayana ) collects the materials for the fire pan, for sacred to Prajāpati is the 8th day (after full moon) and sacred to Prajapati is this rite viz. the firepan.’ Sabara in his Bhāṣya on Jai.⁵³ I.3.cites a verse occurring in the A, V. III, 10. 2 and in the Ap. M. P. II. 20. 27 as a mantra indicative of Aṣṭakā. The mantra is “May that (Aṣṭakā) night be very auspicious for us, whom people welcome like a cow coming towards a person and which is the wife of the Year.’ In the A. V. IIL 10. 8 the Ekāstakā is said to have the year (Saṁvatsara) as husband. The Tai. S. VII. 4. 8. 1. provides⁵⁴’ Men about to take dikṣā (consecration) for a Saṁvatsarasattra should undergo dikṣā on the Ekāṣṭakā; what is called Ekāṣṭakā is the wife of the year.’ Jai. (VI. 5. 32-37) explains that Ekāṣṭakā is the 8th tithi after the Full Moon of Māgha.

The Āp. Gr. (quoted by Haradatta on Gaut. 8. 19) says⁵⁵ the same, but adds that on it (the 8th tithi) the moon is in Jyeṣṭhā constellation. This means that if the 8th tithi is spread over two days, then that day on which the moon is in Jyeṣṭhā would be called Ekāṣṭakā⁵⁶. The Hir. Gr. (II, 15.9) also says that Ekāṣṭakā is called the wife of the year⁵⁷.

According to the Āśv. Gr. II, 4. 1 the Aṣṭakā days (and rites ) were four, viz. the 8th tithis of the dark halves of the four months of the two seasons of hemanta and śiśira (i. e. of Mārgaśirṣa, Pauṣa, Māgha and Phālguna). Most of the Gr̥hyasūtras viz. Mānava Gr. II. 8, Sān. Gr. III. 12.1, Khādira Gr. III. 3.27, Kathaka Gr. 61.1, Kausitaki Gr. III. 15. 1 and Pār, Gr. UIT. 3 say that there are only three Aṣṭakā rites viz. on the 8th after the Full Moon day of Mārgaśīrsa (called agrahāyaṇi) i.e. in the dark halves of Mārgaśirṣa, Pauṣa (or Taiṣa) and Māgha. The Gobhila Gr. III, 10.48 mentions that the Aṣṭakās are four according to Kautsa and in all flesh is to be offered, but that Gautama, Audgāhamāni and Vārkakhaṇḍi prescribe only three and Gobhila follows these latter, The Baud. Gr. II. 11. 1 provides that the three Aṣṭakā homas are performed in the months of Taiṣa, Māgha and Phālguna. Āśv. Gr. II. 4.2 refers to an option that Aṣṭakā rites were performed only on one Aṣṭami (and not on three or four). The Baud. Gr. provides that⁵⁸ the rite may be compressed into the three days (7th, 8th and 9th ) of the dark half of Māgha or even in one day (i.e. 8th of the dark half of Māgha).

The Hir. Gr. (II. 14. 2) describes only one Aṣṭakā rite viz. the Ekāṣṭaka in the dark half of Māgha. The Bhāradvāja Gṛhya II. 15 also speaks of only Ekāṣṭakā but adds that the 8th of the dark half of Māgha on which the moon is in Jyeṣṭhā is called Ekāṣṭakā. According to Hir. Gr. II. 14 and 15 the one Aṣṭakā extended over three days viz. 8th, 9th (on which a cow was sacrificed for the pitṛs) and 10th (which was the Anvaṣṭakā). The Vaikhānasa-smārtasūtra (ed. by Caland) IV. 8 says that Aṣṭakā is to be performed on the 8th of the dark half of Māgha and Bhādrapada or on the 7th, 9th or 10th tithi.

There is divergence in the offerings also. The Kāthaka Gṛ (61.3), Jaimini Gr. 2.3 and Sān. Gr. (III, 12.2 ) provide that on the three different Aṣṭakās the offerings are of cooked vegetables, flesh and apūpas (cakes), while the Pār. Gr. III, 3 and Khādira Gr. III. 3. 29-30 put apūpas for the first Aṣṭakā (and hence Gobhila Gr. III, 10. 9 designates it apūpāṣṭaka) and boiled vegetables on the last. According to Khādira Gr. III, 4. 1 a cow is sacrificed. According to Āśv. Gr. II. 4.7-10, Gobhila Gr. IV. 1. 18-22, Kauśika 138.2, Baud. Gr. II, 11, 51-61, on the 8th day very many options are given, viz, either to sacrifice a cow or a ram or a goat; or to offer some jungle flesh that may be available or flesh mixed with sesame and honey, or flesh of the rhinoceros, deer, buffalo, ram, boar, spotted deer, hare, Rohita deer, pigeons, śārnga and other birds, or an old red goat; fishes or rice cooked in milk so as to form thin gruel, or gifts only of uncooked corn or fruits and roots, or gold may be offered or only grass for cows or oxen or one may burn some thickets in a forest or present jars for holding water to those deeply learned in the Veda or should recite the mantras relating to śrāddhas, saying ’this is the Aṣṭakā I offer,’ but one should not remain without observing the Aṣṭakā day in some such manner as the above⁵⁹.

It is remarkable that although the Vārtika quoted above, and the Kathakagṛhya 61.1 state that the word “Aṣṭakā’ is applied to a rite in which the pitṛs are the deities worshipped, the greatest divergence prevails as to the devatā of the Aṣṭakās. The Āśv. Gr. (II. 4.3 and II. 5. 3-5) provides that on the 7th of the dark half the offerings are made to the pitṛs and on the 9th also, but Āśv. II, 4. 12 refers to the eight options as regards the deity of the 8th day, viz. Viśve-devāḥ (all the gods ), Agni, Sūrya, Prajāpati, Rātri (night), Nakṣatras (constellations ), the seasons, the Pitṛs, Paśus (cattle). The Gobhila Gr. III. 10.1 starts⁶⁰ by saying that Night is the devatā of Aṣṭakā, but adds that there are other views about the devatā being Agni, the Pitṛs, Prajāpati, Ṛtus (seasons) or all Gods.

The procedure of Aṣṭakā comprises three parts, viz. homa, inviting brāhmaṇas for dinner (up to seeing them go away after dinner) and the rite called Anvaṣṭakya or Anvaṣṭakā. When the Aṣṭakās were deemed to be three or four performed in the several months noted above, all these were gone through at each Aṣṭakā. When the Aṣṭakā rite was performed only in one month i. e, after the Full moon in Māgha, the above parts were performed on three days, 7th, 8th and 9th of the dark half. When compressed in one day only, they must have been performed one after another on the same day.

Many of the Gṛhyasūtras, such as those of Āśvalāyana, Kauśika, Gobhila, Hiraṇyakeśin and Baudhāyana describe a very elaborate procedure in the case of Aṣṭakās. One of the shortest being that contained in Ap. Gr. (VIII. 21 and 22 ) is given here by way of sample⁶¹. After defining Ekāṣṭakā (in VIII, 21. 10) Āp. proceeds: ‘He (the performer of the Aṣṭakā rite) should perform subsidiary (or preparatory) rites in the evening of the previous day (i.e, on the 7th of the dark half). He cooks (or bakes) a cake from rice taken up (from a heap) in four cups; according to some teachers the cake is prepared on eight potsherds (like a puroḍāśa).

Procedure of Aṣṭakā

After the actions up to the ‘Ājyabhāgas’⁶² have been performed in the same way as at the Amāvāsyã and Full Moon sacrifices he makes with his joined hands oblations of the cakes with the next verse⁶³. The rest of the cake that is already baked is divided by him into eight parts and offered to the brāhmaṇas⁶⁴. On the following day he prepares the cow for immolation by touching her with a darbha with the words ‘I make thee that are agreeable to the Fathers ready (for sacrifice)’. Having silently (i.e, without uttering the word svāhā ) offered five⁶⁵ oblations of clarified butter, having cooked the omentum of that (cow) and having spread under (the cooked omentum) and sprinkled over it clarified butter he offers it with a palāśa leaf from the middle or the end of the stalk with the next verse (i. e. Āp. M. P. II. 20. 28), ⁶⁶. He offers boiled rice together with the flesh (of the cow) with the next verses (seven from Ap. M. P. II. 20. 29-35). He offers the food of flour cooked (in milk) with the next verse (Ap. M. P. II. 21.1 ‘Ukthyaścātirātrasca’)⁶⁷. Then (he offers) the oblations of clarified butter with the following (eight) verses ( Āp. M. P. II. 21. 2–9). The rites from Sviṣṭakṛt⁶⁸ down to the placing of the piṇḍas are the same as at the monthly śrāddha (described in Āp. Gr. VIII-21. 1-9). Some teachers prescribe that the piṇḍas are to be offered the day after the Aṣṭakā (i. e, on the 9th of the dark half). Here follows another method (of celebrating the Aṣṭakā rite ). He sacrifices curds with his joined hands in the same way as he offers the cake. Having left over from the meat of the cow) as much as may be required, he performs on the day following (the Aṣṭakā day) the Anvaṣṭakā rite. Its procedure is explain ed by the description of the monthly śrāddha.

Though Āp. Gr. (II. 5.3) and San. Gr. III, 13. 7 state that the Anvaṣṭakya rite follows the procedure of Piṇḍapitṛyajña, some Gṛhyasūtras (such as Khādira III, 5, Gobhila IV. 2-3) give very elaborate descriptions of that rite. The Āśv. Gr. and Viṣṇudharmasūtra 74 follow a middle course. The description in Āśv. Gr. is comparatively brief and it is set out below. It may be noted that some Gṛhya-sūtras state that the Anvaṣṭakya rite is performed on the 9th or 10th of the dark half (e. g. Khādira Gr. III. 5. 1 ’navamim daśamim vānvaṣṭakyam )’. Further, it may be stated that though most Gṛhyasūtras call the rite Anvaṣṭakya still it is also called Anvaṣṭaka by Pār. Gr. III, 3. 10, Manu IV. 150, Viṣṇudharmasūtra 74.1 and 76. 1. The most notable peculiarity of this rite is that therein female ancestors are invoked and offerings are made to them of which liquor (surā), scum of boiled rice, collyrium, salves and garlands form part. Though some sūtras (like Āớv. Gr. II. 5) declare that the Aṣṭakā and Anvaṣṭakya are modelled on the monthly śrāddha or Piṇḍapitṛyajña, others (like the Baud. Gr. III, 12. 1. Gobhila Gr. IV, 4., Khādira III, 5. 35) say that the Aṣṭakā or Anvaṣṭakya is the norm which is followed in the Piṇḍapitṛyājña and all the śrāddhas. The Kāthaka Gr. (66. 1, 67. 1, 68. 1, 69. 1) avers⁶⁹ that the first śrāddha, the other śrāddhas (such as sapiṇḍikaraṇa), Pasuśrāddha (in which the flesh of an animal is offered) and the śrāddha performed every month follow the procedure of Aṣṭakā. The Piṇḍa-pitṛyajña could be offered on amāvāsyā only by one who was āhitāgni (i.e. had kept the sacred vedic fires). It is impossible to believe that everyone became āhitāgni. The case was probably the reverse i.e. only a few became āhitāgnis and the rest had only the gṛhya fire or many of the rest were without even the gṛhya fire. It appears possible that all were required to offer śrāddha on amāvāsyā on the analogy of piṇḍapitṛyajña. As the latter became rare, the requirement of offering śrāddha on amāvāsyā remained and in the sūtras and smṛtis all the details were mentioned under māsiśrāddha and in the case of the other śrāddhas the sutras and smṛtis pointed out only what was to be omitted. It is owing to this that the māsiśrāddha came to be called the prakṛti and the other śrāddhas were called vikṛtis or variations of the māsiśrāddha. Most of the details of the piṇḍapitṛyajña were required in māsiśrāddha and a few (such as giving arghya, gandha, dipa ) were added and more elaborate rules evolved.

The Anvaṣṭakya śrāddha

The Anvaṣṭakya⁷⁰ is described in the Āśv. Gr. (II. 5. 2-15) as follows:-Having prepared a portion of the same meat⁷¹ having established the fire on a surface sloping towards the south, having fenced it in and made a door on the north side of the enclosed shed, having strewn round the fire three times sacrificial grass with its roots without touching it, turning the left side (of one’s body) towards the fire, he should place down the things to be offered, boiled rice, boiled rice mixed with sesamum, rice cooked in milk, meal pap with curds and meal pap with honey. The ceremony should follow the ritual of the Piṇḍapitṛyajña (vide Āśv. Śr. II. 6). Having sacrificed (part of the foods specified except meal-pap) with honey let him offer portions of those substances to the pitṛs and to their wives with the addition of liquor and the scum of boiled rice. Some place the portion to be offered into pitṛs, which may be two or six. In those situated to the east he should present the offerings to the pitṛs; in those to the west, to the wives. Thereby the ceremony celebrated in the rainy season on the Maghā day in the dark fortnight after the full moon of Prauṣṭhapada (i. e. Bhādrapada) has been declared. And thus he should offer (a festival like the Anvaṣṭakā ) to the pitṛs every month, observing uneven⁷² numbers. He should give food at least to nine (brāhmaṇas) or to any un-even number of brāhmaṇas. (Food should be given) to an even number on auspicious occasions⁷³ or on the performance of meritorious deeds; to an uneven number on other occasions). The rite is performed from left to right. Barley grains are to be used instead of sesamum.

The Anvaṣṭakya rite was performed after each of the three or four Aṣṭakās and if only one Aṣṭakā in Māgha were performed, then after the 8th of the dark half.

There are two views about the rite called Māghyāvarṣa⁷⁴ in Āśv. Gr. II, 5.9. Acc. to Nārāyana, the rite is performed in the dark half of Bhādrapada for three days on 7th, 8th and 9th⁷⁵. The other view is that it is a rite like the Aṣṭakās but performed on the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada, when generally the moon is in the Maghā nakṣatra. There is doubt about the very name of the rite, as the mss. present various forms (vide Oldenberg’s note in S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 103 on Sān, Gr. III. 13. 1). The real name appears to be Māghyāvarṣa or Maghāvarṣa (meaning ‘a śrāddha in the rainy season when the moon is in the Maghā nakṣatra)’. The Viṣṇu Dh, S. 76. 1⁷⁶ mentions the following times for offering śrāddha viz, (twelve) Amāvāsyās (in a year), the three Aṣṭakās, the three Anvaṣṭakās, the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada when the moon is in the Maghā asterism, the seasons of śarad and vasanta. In Viṣṇu Dh. S. (78.52-53) also a śrāddha on the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada is highly eulogised. Manu III. 273 also states that whatever food mixed with honey is offered on the 13th day in the rainy season when the moon is in Maghā procures endless satisfaction. To the same effect are Vas. XI, 40 (in the rainy season and on Maghā), Yaj. I. 26 and Varāhapurāṇa⁷⁷.

Māghyāvarṣa-śrāddha

In the Hir. Gr. II, 13. 3-4 (edited by Kirste) the name appears to be Mādhyāvarṣa⁷⁸ and it is provided that meat is obligatory in it, but that if meat cannot be had then vegetables may be offered, In Pār,⁷⁹ Gr. (III. 3) the name (as printed) is madhyāvarṣa which is said to be a 4th Aṣṭakā in which only vegetables are offered. Aparārka (p. 422) also appears to call the rite ‘madhyāVarṣa.’ In the Bhavisyapurāṇa⁸⁰ (Brahma-parva), chap. 183. 4 also this rite is referred to but it is said that therein meat is to be offered. It appears probable that this ancient rite on the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapads is a precursor of the Mahālayaśrāddha of later times.

If Āśvalāyana’s view, viz. that there are four Aṣṭakās in Hemanta and Śiśira, were followed and if the Māghyāvarṣa śrāddha were to be performed on the 8th of the dark half of Bhādrapada as Nārāyaṇa holds, then there would be five Aṣṭakās in all. Bhattoji in his Caturvimsatimatasangraha says so⁸¹.

Considerations of space forbid the comparison of the above procedure from Āp. Gr. and Āśv. Gṛ. with the procedure described in the other Gṛhyasūtras. It should be noted that several of the sūtras often employ the same mantras in the various stages of the rite (ag pointed out above in notes 813-814).

It must be said that the Aṣṭakā śrāddhas gradually fell into oblivion and are not performed now.

The foregoing discussion establishes that the monthly śrāddha on Amāvāsyā was the model śrāddha (prakṛti) of which the Aṣṭakās and other śrāddhas were copies (vikṛtis) with suitable modifications, though a few dissident texts reverse the position.

In the Gobhilagṛhya (IV. 4. 3 ff) another śrāddha called ‘Anvāhārya’ is prescribed after the Piṇḍapitṛyajña on the same day. The Sān. Gr. IV. 1. 13 appears also to describe the monthly śrāddha as distinct from the Piṇḍapitṛyajña. Manu (III.122-23) states: ‘After performing the Pitṛyajña (i. e, piṇḍapitṛyajña) a brāhmaṇa who keeps sacred fires shall offer every month on the amāvāsyā day the funeral sacrifice Piṇdānvāhāryaka⁸². The wise call the monthly offering to the Manes Anvāhārya and that must be carefully performed with the approved kinds of flesh mentioned below.’ From this it appears that one who has consecrated the śrauta fires (i.e. an āhitāgni) was to perform the piṇḍapitṛyajña in the śrauta fires and also perform the same day another śrāddha after the piṇḍapitṛyajña, while those who had not consecrated śrauta fires were to perform on amāvāsyā a śrāddha in the gṛhya fire, which was called piṇdānvāhāryaka or simply anvāhārya and also were to offer piṇḍapitṛyajña in smārta fire (vide Sat. Śrauta II. 7. 64 ‘gṛhyāgnau anāhitāgneḥ’). From inquiries made I learn that nowadays most Agnihotrins (at least in the Deccan) do not perform Piṇḍapitṛyajña at all or perform it only once a year and that no one performs the Pindānvāhāryaka śrāddha. It is further to be noted that in smārta yajñas no one now sacrifices an animal but employs instead māṣa grain and there are āhitāgnis who do not offer meat in śrauta sacrifices also, but only piṣṭa-paśu (an effigy of an animal made of flour).

The literature on śrāddha is enormous in extent. From the Vedic Samhitās several thousand years ago up to medieval and modern commentaries and digests the various matters connected with śrāddha have been dealt with in more or less detail.

Literature on Śrāddha

The Purāṇas contain thousands of verses on śrāddha, An adequate and thorough treatment of all this vast mass would fill a separate volume, but considerations of space forbid such an attempt here. All that can be attempted here at the most (and that too not in all cases) is to present matters chronologically i. e. describe how śrāddha was dealt with in the Samhitās and Brāhmaṇa texts, then in the comparatively older Gṛhya and Dharma sūtras, then in such early smftis as those of Manu and Yāj., then in some representative Purāṇas, then in the early commentaries of Medhātithi, Vijñānesvara and Aparārka, and then in the medieval digests. Even in this way only a skeleton of the ceremonies described in some representative work of each class can be exhibited. Many differences of detail which arose owing to lapse of time, the locality, the śākhā and usages of each writer, his individual inclination and his ability, will have to be passed over altogether. In the days of the Purāṇas the differences in detail in the several śākhās have been adverted to⁸³. Apart from the smṛtis and passages of the Mahābhārata (such as Anusāsana chap. 87-92) and commentaries on the Sūtras, on Manu, Yāj. and other smṛitis, the digests on śrāddha are legion. Only the following digests (arranged in chronological order) have been laid under contribution in this volume: Kalpataru on śrāddha; the Hāralatā and Pitṛdayitā of Aniruddha; the Smṛtyarthasāra; the Smṛticandrikā; the Caturvargacintamani (section on śrāddha) of Hemādri (which in the B. I. edition covers 1716 pages); the Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara; the Madanapārijāta ; the Śrāddhasāra (a part of Nrsimhaprasāda); Śrāddhakriya-kaumudi of Govindānanda ; the Śrāddhatattva of Raghunandana ; the Śrāddhasaukhya (part of Todarānanda); the Śrāddhakalpalatā of Vinayaka alias Nandapandita; the Nirṇayasindhu; the Śrāddhamayūkha of Nilakantha; the Śrāddhaprakāśa (part of Viramitrodaya); the Śrāddhacandrika of Divākarabhatta ; the Smrtimuktāphala (on śrāddha); the Dharmasindhu; the Bālambhatti, a commentary on the Mitākṣarā. While presenting this exhaustive and heterogeneous material, some generalisations, when called for, will be made here and there. It will be seen later on how several minor matters such as whether food should be offered to gods before śrāddha, definitions of words like parivitti, vṛṣalipati increased the extent of treatises on śrāddha.

We should now turn to the several matters relating to śrāddhas.

First comes the question as to who are entitled to offer śrāddha (śrāddhādhikārin). This matter has been already dealt with in the H. of Dh. vol. III. p. 739 ff., and on page 763 and on pp. 256-261 (notes 581-588) above. It would be noticed that some (like the Viṣṇudharmasūtra ) prescribe that whoever takes the wealth of the deceased should offer piṇḍas (i.e. perform śrāddha for him), while others said that whoever was preferable as entitled to offer piṇḍas to the deceased propositus was to take the wealth. A few matters not mentioned there may be added here. In the Santiparva 65, 13-21 it is narrated⁸⁴ that emperor Māndhātṛ was told by Indra how Yavanas, Kirātas and similar non-Aryan peoples (that are styled Dasyus in the Epic) are to be made to conduct themselves and it is stated that all dasyus may perform Pitṛyajñas (in which they should feed men of their own kind and make monetary gifts to them) and offer money to brāhmaṇas also. The Vāyupurāṇa (83. 112) also speaks of the Mlecchas as persons that offer oblations to Pitṛs. The general rule is stated by the Gobhilasmṛti⁸⁵ that the husband should not offer piṇḍa to his wife even if she dies sonless, nor a father to his son nor an elder brother to a younger brother. The moral of the story of Nimi who performed śrāddha for his predeceased son and repented for having done so as it was dharmasaṅkara is the same. Vide Anuśāsanaparva 91. Aparārka (p. 538) quotes a verse from Ṣaţtrimśan-mata that a father should not perform the śrāddha of his son nor an elder brother of a younger one. But Bṛhatparāśara (p. 153) appears to state that even this general rule may have to be set aside sometimes. Baudhāyana and Vṛddhaśātātapa (q. by Sm. C, on śrāddha p. 337) allow a śrāddha (except sapiṇdikaraṇa) to be performed by any one for any relative through affection, particularly at Gayā.

Śrāddhādhikārin

Meaning of ‘putra’

It is emphasized⁸⁶ that he alone deserves to be called putra, who, while the father is alive, obeys his words, and gives plenty of food (to brāhmaṇas) every year (after his father’s death) and who offers piṇḍas (to his ancestors) at Gayā.

anupanītas

The general rule laid down was that a child, whose upanayana has not been performed, is like a sūdra and lacks authority to utter Vedic passages (vide Āp. Dh. S, II, 6. 15. 19, Gaut. II, 4-5, Vas. II. 6, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28. 40. Manu II, 172)⁸⁷. But an exception was recognized by almost all these authorities that a son, though his upanayana may not have been performed, can repeat the Vedic mantras required in funeral rites. Medhātithi on Manu II, 172 explains that a minor son, even though not initiated into Vedic study by upanayana, can offer water to his father, perform the navaśrāddhas (mentioned above in n. 593) and repeat such mantras as ‘śundhantām pitaraḥ’ required in these rites, but since he has no śrauta or gṛhya fire of his own he cannot perform such śrāddhas as the pārvaṇa.

The Smṛtyarthasara (p. 56) provides that boys whose upanayana has not been performed, women and sūdras should get śrāddhas performed through a priest or they may themselves perform them without mantras but only mention the name and gotra of the deceased or with the two mantras ‘devebhyo namaḥ’ and ‘pitṛbhyaḥ svadhā namaḥ’.

The above discussion shows that men and women, adults as well as children, those who are upanita as well as those that are anupanīta are under an obligation to perform śrāddha.

3 dēscēndēnts

Tai. S. I. 8. 5.1, Tai. Br. I. 6.9 (which will be quoted later on) show that śrāddha was offered to three immediate ancestors, father, grand-father, great-grand-father. The Baud. Dh. S. (I. 5. 113-115) states that there is a group of seven persons closely knit together that is called avibhaktadāya sapiṇḍas viz. great-grand-father, grand-father, father, the man himself (who offers piṇḍas to the preceding three), his full brothers, his son from a wife of the same caste, the grandson and great grandson; that sakulyas are those that are called ‘vibhaktadāyādas’, that the wealth of the deceased descends to those who are born of the body of the deceased⁸⁸. Manu IX. 137 (= Vas. 17,5 Viṣṇu Dh. S. 15. 46 ) solemnly ⁸⁹ affirms:

‘by (the birth of) a son a man wins the worlds (heaven &c.), he secures immortality by a grandson and by the grandson of a son he reaches the abode of the Sun’.

This verse shows that all the three descendants of a person confer equally great spiritual benefit on him. Yāj. also (in 1. 78) lumps the three together (without making any distinction between them) when he says ‘since a man secures perpetuation of lineage and heaven by means of son, grand-son and great-grand-son’. Therefore when Manu (IX. 106 ) says that by the birth of a son a man discharges his debt to his progenitors the Dāyabhāga (XI. 34) explains that the word putra stands for the three descendants up to the great grandson, since all the three are entitled to perform the pārvaṇa-śrāddha and equally benefit the ancestors by the piṇḍas they offer, and that the word putra is not to be taken literally but only as illustrative in order to include the great-grandson since one may with difficulty find a text expressly mentioning the adhikāra of the grandson (as a performer of śrāddha and taker of wealth) but there is no text expressly mentioning the great-grandson separately (as the taker of wealth and giver of piṇḍa )⁹⁰.

Debt

On Yāj. II. 50 which lays down that when the father dies or has gone to a distant country or is overwhelmed by calamities (incurable diseases or the like) his debts should be paid by the sons or grandsons, the Mit. adds that even when a son or grandson receives no ancestral property the father’s debts must be paid, the only difference being that the son has to pay the principal as well as the interest, while the grandson has to return only the principal and has to pay no interest and the Mit. quotes a verse of Bṛhaspati⁹¹ where all the three descendants are mentioned in one breath and the Mit. adds that the great-grandson has not to pay even the principal if he has received no ancestral property.

This last remark implies that the Mit, regarded that the great-grandson was also included in the extended sense of ‘putra’. Yāj. II. 51 begins by saying that whoever takes the wealth of a deceased person has to pay the latter’s debts, so the great-grandson would have to pay the great-grand-father’s debts if he received the assets of the grand-father. Therefore the Mit. on II. 50 expressly mentions that a great-grandson need not pay his great-grand-father’s debts if he received no assets, because, otherwise being included in the extended meaning of putra, he would have had to pay. There was no necessity to bring in or mention the prapautra under II. 50 if the Mit. did not include the prapautra in the word putra. Again on Yāj. II. 51 (‘putrahinasya rikthinaḥ’) the Mit. included even prapautra under the word putra. This shows that the Mit. is quite conscious that the three descendants of a man form one group and succeed to his estate and liabilities and putra includes three descendants wherever the context so requires. If the word ‘putra’ is not to be taken as only illustrative and as including both grandson and great-grandson, serious difficulties will arise even in the interpretation of Yaj. on which the Mit. comments. For example, in Yāj. II. 135-136 it is said that when a sonless man dies his wife, daughters and other heirs (named there ) succeed one after another. If ‘putra’ is taken to mean only ‘son’ and no one else, then on the death of a man without a son his wife or daughter (whoever is alive ) will take the wealth even if a son’s son exists. But that would be absurd and is not stated by any one. Therefore the word putra has to be interpreted in a wider sense in a proper context.

Many works such as the Vyavahāramayukha, the Viramitrodaya, the Dattakamimāngā interpret the word ‘putra’ as including three generations. Therefore, though the Mit. in its remarks on inheritance and succession expressly names the son and grandson only (lit. it should have mentioned only the son) it must be taken as including the great-grandson also, particularly in view of the fact that it refers to the great-grandson in its comment on Yāj. I, 50 and 51 as taking the riktha which the Mit. (on Yāj. II, 114) interprets as aptratibandha dāya. Baud., Manu, Yājñavalkya speak of the three descendants and Śankhalikhita, Vas. XI. 39 and Yama employ⁹² only the word putra or suta in relation to the three ancestors.

Kapadia’s error

Therefore, the remark of Dr. Kapadia in ‘Hindu Kinship’on p. 162 ‘Vijñāneśvara understands by the word putra sons and grandsons only’ is unjustified. It is impossible to hold with Dr. Kapadia that the Mit. ran counter to the express dicta of renowned Smṛtis such as those of Manu, Śankha-Likhita and Puraṇas like the Viṣṇu-purāṇa III. 13,30 (quoted above in note 582) and that in its remarks on succession it forgot its own interpretation of putra on Yaj. II. 51. He has also not correctly understood the words of the Mit, introducing Yāj. II. 137: ‘sons and grandsons take the wealth; in their absence, the wife and others; thus it is said (by me).’ This is wrong for several reasons. ‘Wife and others take the wealth’ is said by Yāj. (in II. 135-36). The following words are ’now (the author) declares an exception to both.’ This clearly refers to Yāj. (II. 137) and not to Vijñāneśvara and so ‘uktam’ also must refer to Yāj. and not to Vijñāneśvara. Therefore, according to the Mit, the great-grand son is included in the extended meaning of the word ‘putra’, is entitled just like a son or a grandson to offer śrāddha (in default of a son or grandson) and to take the wealth and pay the debts of the ancestor. In the matter of payment of debts there is, on account of the difference in the period that elapses, a difference between all the three descendants if no ancestral wealth is left by the ancestor, viz. the son pays the debt with interest, the grandson only the principal lent but without interest and the great-grandson nothing at all. This shows that even between the son and the grandson that are expressly mentioned by Yaj. II. 50 as to the payment of debts there is a difference and that as the great-grandson had to pay nothing when no ancestral property existed he was not mentioned at all in Yāj. II, 50.

Just as the king is an ultimate heir and also the guardian of all minors, so he is like the son of a person (who has no relatives left) for performing śrāddhas.

Times for Śrāddhas

The next question is about the times when śrāddha is to be performed. It has been seen above (vide H, of Dh. vol. II. p. 696 ff) that long before the time of the Sat. Br. five daily observances (called Mahāyajñas) were prescribed for each house-holder, viz. the sacrifice to beings, that to men, that to the Fathers, that to the gods and that to Veda. The Sat. Br. and the Tai. Ā. (II. 10) say further that this daily rite in which one offers svadhā (food) to the Fathers even up to water was called pitṛyajña, Manu III. 70 defines pitṛyajña as tarpaṇa (satiating ancestors with the offerings of water). Manu III. 82 provides that an householder should daily perform a śrāddha with food or with water or with milk, roots and fruits and thus please the Fathers. Śrāddha originally meant a sacrifice performed for the Fathers on Amāvāsyā (vide Gaut. 15.1-2)⁹³. By applying that word to the daily oftering of water to the Manes what is intended to be conveyed is that the special characteristics of śrāddha in the strict sense are to be extended to this daily rite so far as possible. Amāvāsyā is of two kinds, Sinivāli and Kuhū. Those who keep śrauta fires should perform śrāddha on the former, while those who have not kept śrauta fires and sūdras should offer śrāddha on the latter.

Types

Śrāddhas are divided into three classes, nitya, naimittika and kāmya. An observance is called nitya when it is laid down that it must be performed on a certain or fixed occasion (such as every day, on an amāvāsyā, or on Aṣṭakā day). What is laid down for being done on an occasion which is uncertain is called naimittika (such as the birth of a son). What is ordained to be done in case one desires a certain reward or fruit is called kāmya (e.g. the performance of a śrāddha on Kṛttikā or Rohiṇī by one who desires heaven or progeny ).

The five daily yajñas including pitṛ-yajña are nitya i.e. they must be performed without any eye to any reward therefrom and the non-performance thereof will lead to sinfulness.

Passages mentioning the rewards that follow from the performance of obligatory ( nitya ) rites are only laudatory, they only convey that such performances make a man pure, but it is not meant that they are not obligatory and may be performed only if a person desires the rewards or results promised (i, e. such performances are not kāmya).

Time

Āp. Dh, S. (II. 7. 16. 4-7) provides certain times for the performance of śrāddha viz, that it must be performed in the latter half of every month, that the afternoon is preferable for it, that the last days of the latter half of each month are preferable to the first days of the latter half.

Gaut, 15. 3 and Vas. XI. 16 say that śrāddha may be performed on any day of the dark half of a month after the 4th day and Gaut. 15. 5 adds that if particularly appropriate materials or particularly holy brāhmaṇas are available or the performer is near a very sacred place (such as Gaya) a śrāddha may be performed on any day. Kurma (II. 20. 23) says the same thing.

The Agnipurāṇa 115. 8 says that at Gayā a śrāddha may be performed on any day (na kālādi Gayātirthe dadyāt piṇḍāṁśca nityaśaḥ). Manu (III, 276-278) provides that the days of the dark half of the month beginning with the 10th but excepting the 14th⁹⁴ are recommended for śrāddha, that one performing a śrāddha on even lunar days (i. e, on the 10th, 12th) and on the even nakṣatras (i. e. on Bharaṇi, Rohiṇī &c.) gains the fulfilment of all his desires, that one who worships the Manes on uneven days (11th, 13th &c.) and on uneven constellations (Kr̥ttikā, Mr̥gaśiras &c.) obtains prosperous offspring and that just as the latter half of a month is preferable to the first half so the afternoon is preferable to the forenoon for the performance of a śrāddha.

Anuśāsanaparva 87. 18 is the same as Manu III. 276. Yāj. (I. 217-218), the Kurma (II 20.2-8), Mārkaṇḍeya (28. 20 ff) and Varāhapurāṇa 13. 33–35 sum up in one place the times for performing śrāddhas as follows:

• Amāvāsyā,
• the Aṣṭakā days,
• lucky days (such as the birth of a son),
• dark half of a month,
• the two ayanas (the two days on which the sun appears to start towards the south or north i. e. solstices),
• possession of sufficient materials (such as rice and pulse or meat),
• the arrival of a worthy brāhmaṇa,
• the equinoctial points (viṣuvat, i.e. the sun’s apparent entrance into Aries and Balance),
• the days on which the sun passes into one rāśi from another,
• the astrological conjunctions called Vyatīpāta⁹⁵,
• Gajacchāyā,
• eclipses of the sun and the moon,
• when the performer has an intense desire to perform śrāddha

- these are times for performing śrāddha.

The Mārkaṇḍeya⁹⁶ (chap. 28. 22-23), adds that śrāddha should be performed when a man dreams an evil dream and when evil planets affect the nakṣatra of his birth.

In an eclipse the appropriate time for śrāddha is what is called Sparśa Kāla⁹⁷ (i.e. when the eclipse begins), as stated in a verse of Vṛddha-Vasiṣṭha. The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 51-54) contains all the times specified by Yāj. and a few more. Vide also Skandapurāṇa VII, 1. 30-32, Viṣṇupurāṇa TII, 14. 4-6, Padma (sṛṣti 9. 128-129).

Acc. to Viṣṇu Dh. S. 76. 1-2, Amāvāsyā, the three Aṣṭakās and the three Anvaṣṭakās, the 13th day of the dark half of Bhādrapada on which the moon is in Maghā, Śarad and Vasanta are obligatory (nitya) times for śrāddha and that if a person does not perform śrāddha on these days he goes to Hell.

Viṣṇu Dh, S. (77.1-7) states that

• the day of the sun’s passage from one sign of the zodiac to another,
• the two equinoctial days,
• particularly the solsticial days,
• Vyatipāta,
• the constellation on which the performer is born,
• a time of rejoicing (son’s birth or the like )

--these are kāmya times and a śrāddha performed on these occasions gives infinite pleasure (to the Manes).

The Kūrmapurāṇa (Uttarārdha 16. 6-8) says that śrāddhas called kāmya are commended on eclipses, solstice days, equinoctial days and on Vyatipāta and they give infinite pleasure (to the Manes) and śrāddha performed on Saṅkrānti (sun’s passage from one sign of the zodiac to another) is inexhaustible and so also on days of birth and on the several nakṣatras śrāddhas should be performed.

Śrāddhas on several tithis

Ap. Dh, S. II. 7. 16. 8-22, Anusāsana 87, Vāyu 89. 10-19, Yāj. I 262-263. Brahmapurāṇa 220.15-21, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 78. 36-50, Kūrmapurāṇa (IL 20,19-22), Brahmāṇḍa III. 17.10-22 state what rewards a man gets if he performs śrāddhas on each of the days from the first to the 15th of the dark half. These lists do not completely agree with each other.

That of Āp. being probably the most ancient, is set out here:-Śrāddha performed on each of the 15 days of the dark half respectively yields the following results in order, viz. progeny chiefly consisting of females (on 1st tithi of dark half), sons that will be thieves, sons that will be possessed of Vedic learning and the performance of Veda-vratas, son that will own small domestic animals, many sons that will be distinguished (by their learning) and the performer will not die childless, a great traveller and gambler (on the 6th), success in agriculture (on 7th), prosperity (on 8th), one-hoofed animals (on 9th), success in trade (10th day), black iron and tin and lead (on 11th), son possessed of cattle (on 12th), many sons and many friends and handsome children which will die young (13th tithi), success in arms (14th), prosperity (on 15th i. e. Amāyāsyā).

Gārgya (q. by Par. M. I. 2 p. 324) provides that one should not perform śrāddha on Nandā, on Friday, on 13th of the dark half and on the nakṣatra of birth and the preceding and the following nakṣatras for fear of losing one’s sons and wealth. The Nandā tithis are 1st, 6th and 11th.

The Anuśāsana-parva (87.16) provides that he who performs śrāddha on the 13th tithi attains pre-eminence among his agnates, but then the young men in his house die as a consequence.

nitya vs kAmya

The śrāddhas performed on the days mentioned in Viṣṇu Dh, S. 77.1-6 are naimittika and those performed on certain tithis and days of the week for securing certain rewards would be kāmya śrāddhas.

According to Par. M. I. 1 p. 63 the performance of obligatory (nitya) actions is samskāraka (i.e. effects a purifying change in the mind making it fit for higher things ), while in some cases it may also produce the desire to know the Reality behind the appearances (i. e. it is ‘vividiṣā-janaka’ as indicated by the Gitā 9. 27). Jaimini (VI. 3.1-7) establishes the proposition that the nitya acts (such as Agnihotra, Darśa-pūrṇamāsa-yāga ) must be performed even though the performer is unable to perform a subsidiary part of the rite; while Jai. VI. 3. 8-10 provide that every part of kāmya actions must be performed and if the performer thinks that he would be unable to perform all he should not undertake to perform a kāmya rite at all⁹⁸.

Weekdays

The Viṣṇudharmasūtra (78.1-7) states that one performing śrāddha on Sunday secures everlasting freedom from disease and those who perform śrāddha on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday (Jaiva ), Friday and Saturday respectively secure happiness (or admiration by people ), victory in battle, all desires, such learning as he desires, wealth and long life. The Kūrma (II. 20, 16-17) also expatiates on the rewards for śrāddhas on the several days of the week.

nakṣatras

The Viṣṇu-Dharmasūtra (78. 8-15 ) mentions what rewards follow from performance of śrāddhas on the 28 nakṣatras from Kr̥ttikā to Bharaṇi (including Abhijit which is placed after Uttarāṣāḍhā and before Śravaṇa). Yāj. I. 265-268, Vāyu chap. 82, Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa 30, 8-16, Kūrma (II, 20. 9-15), Brahmapurāṇa 220, 33-42, Brahmāṇḍa ( Upodghātapāda 18.1 ff) also deal with the same topic, but all these works do not present complete agreement. For example, Viṣṇu Dh. S. and Yāj. agree that śrāddha performed on Kr̥ttikā, Rohiṇī, Aśvinī and Bharaṇī yield as rewards heaven, offspring, horses and longevity, but they disagree in several others e. g. while Viṣṇu says that prosperity, beauty (or happiness ) and all desires are obtained by performing śrāddha on the Puṣya, Aśleṣā and Maghā nakṣatras respectively, Yāj. provides that a śrāddha on these three yields strength, son and eminence. The Anuśāsanaparva 89 and Vayupurāṇa 82 set out the rewards of śrāddhas on the several nakṣatras from Kr̥ttikā as declared by Yama to Śaśabindu.

Yugādi and Manvādi tithis

It is stated in the Agnipurāṇa⁹⁹ that śrāddhas performed at a holy place and on days that are called Yugādi and Manvādi yield inexhaustible gratification (to the pitṛs). The Viṣṇupurāṇa¹⁰⁰, Matsyapurāṇa (17. 4-5), Padma V. 9. 130-131, Varāhapurāṇa and Prajāpati-smṛti verse 22 and Skanda VII, 1. 205, 33-34 state that the third tithi of Vaiśākha (bright half), the 9th of the bright half of Kārtika, the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada and 15th tithi of the dark half of Māgha are called Yugādi tithis (i.e. the first days of the four Yugas from Kṛta).

Matsya 17. 6-8, Agnipurāṇa 117. 61-64 and 209.16-18, Saurapurāṇa 51. 33-36, Padmapurāṇa (Sṛṣṭi 9. 132-135 ) mention the first tithis of the 14 Manus (or Manyantaras) as follows: 9th of the bright half of Āśvina, 12th of the bright half of Kārtika, the third of the bright half of Caitra and of Bhādrapada, the amāvāsyā of Fālguna, the 11th of the bright half of Pauṣa, 10th of bright half of Āṣādha and the 7th of the bright half of Māgha, the 8th of the dark half of Srāvana, the Full Moon of Āsādha, Kārtika, Fālguna, Caitra and Jyeṣṭha. The Matsyapurāṇa list is quoted in the Sm. C. I. p. 58, Kṛtyaratnākara p. 543, Par, M. 1 1. p. 156 and I. 2 p. 311, and the Madanapārijāta p. 540. The orders in the Skandapurāṇa VII. 1. 205, 36-39 and the Smrtyarthasāra (p. 9) are slightly different. In the Skandapurāṇa (Nāgarakhaṇḍa) the first tithis of thirty kalpas from Śveta onwards are specified as fit for śrāddha, but are passed over here.

Ap. Dh. S. II.¹⁰¹ 7. 17. 23-25, Manu III, 280, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 777.8-9, Kūrma (II. 16. 3-4), Brahmāṇḍa III. 14. 3, Bhaviṣya I. 185. 1 forbid the performance of śrāddha at night or at twilight or when the sun has just risen except in the case of an eclipse of the moon.

Āp. adds that when once a śrāddha is begun in the afternoon and owing to some cause there is delay and the sun sets then the performer should perform the remaining rites the next day and he should observe a fast till the placing of the piṇḍas on the darbhas.

Viṣṇu Dh. S. declares that śrāddha performed during an eclipse satisfies the Manes as long as the moon and stars exist and brings to the performer all advantages and the satisfaction of all his desires, while the Kūrmapurāṇa threatens that he who would not perform a śrāddha in an eclipse sinks (incurs sins or becomes ruined) as a cow in mud.

The Mit. on Yāj. I. 217 is careful to point out that though there is a prohibition against eating during the progress of an eclipse of the sun or moon, that prohibition would only affect the eater (the brāhmaṇa who eats śrāddha repast in an eclipse) but not the giver who will secure happiness (or good results ) thereby¹⁰².

aparāhṇa

Very learned disquisitions are held in Aparārka p. 465 ff, Hemādri p. 313 ff and other writers and digests as to the meaning of aparāhṇa which is the time for śrāddha prescribed by Manu (III. 278). There are several views.

Some hold that the part of the day after noon is ‘after-noon.’ The word ‘pūrvāhṇa’ occurs in Ṛg. X. 34. 11.

Others relying on a śruti¹⁰³ text ‘The forenoon is for gods, mid-day for men and afternoon for pitṛs’ hold that the third part of the day divided into three parts is ‘aparāhṇa.’

A third view is that aparāhṇa is the 4th part of the day divided into five parts and they rely ¹⁰⁴ on Sat. Br. II. 2.3.9. The five parts are called prātaḥ, saṅgava, madhyandina (or madhyāhna), aparāhṇa and sāyāhna (or sāyam or astagamana). The first three are expressly mentioned even in the Ṛg.eda V. 76. 3. Prajāpati-snirti (verses 156-157) says that each of these five parts extends over three muhurtas (the day being divided into fifteen muhūrtas).

It further states that kutapa is the 8th muhūrta from sunrise and that śrāddha should be begun in kutapa and should not last beyond Rauhiṇa muhūrta and that five muhūrtas (from 8th to 12th) are the maximum time for śrāddha¹⁰⁵.

Meanings of ‘kutapa’

The word kutapa has eight meanings as noted by the Sm. c. (śrāddha) p. 433 and Hemādri on śrāddha p. 320. The word is derived from ‘ku’ meaning ‘condemned’ (i.e.sin) and ’tapa’ means ‘what burns.’ The eight¹⁰⁶ meanings of ‘kutapa’ are ‘midday, a vessel of rhinoceros horn, woollen seat or blanket from Nepal, silver, darbhas, sesame, cows and daughter’s son.’ The general rule is that śrāddhas are performed in the afternoon (but this applies to śrāddha on New moon, Mahālaya, Aṣṭakā and Anvaṣṭakā śrāddhas ), while Vṛddhiśrāddha and śrāddha in which only corn is offered (āmaśrāddha) are performed in the morning. Medhātithi on Manu III. 245 quotes a smṛti text on this¹⁰⁷.

The Trikāṇḍamaṇḍana (II. 150, 162) provides that when it is not possible to perform a religious rite at the time prescribed for it as appropriate, it should be performed at some other time thereafter and that, between the proper time of a rite and the means, the former is to be preferred and one should not wait for a time later than the proper one with the desire of being able to collect all the principal materials¹⁰⁸.

Place

A few words must be said about the proper places for the performance of a śrāddha. Manu (III, 206-207 ) lays down that the performer should make efforts to secure a spot sloping to the south and smear it with cow dung, a spot that is pure and unfrequented by many persons) and that the Fathers are pleased by śrāddha at naturally clean spots or the banks of rivers and spots that are unfrequented. Yāj. I. 227 very briefly puts the requirements by saying that the place of śrāddha should be covered on all sides, should be pure and sloping to the south. Śaṅkha says :¹⁰⁹

‘one should not perform śrāddha on the backs of bulls, elephants and horses, nor on raised earth platforms nor on land owned by others.’

The Kūrmapurāṇa states ¹¹⁰

Yama provides¹¹¹ if one offers śrāddha to his pitṛs in spots belonging to others, that śrāddha rite is destroyed by the pitṛs of the owner of those spots.

‘Forests, sacred mountains, holy places, temples- these have no (definite) owner and they cannot be private property (of any one ). Therefore, a man should perform śrāddha on holy spots, on river banks, in sacred places and particularly in land belonging to himself, in bowers near hills and on mountain tops.’

The Viṣṇudharma-sūtra chap. 85 mentions numerous holy places and then adds

‘in these and other tirthas, big rivers, on all natural sandy banks, near streams, on mountains, in bowers, forests, groves and spots that look charming because of being smeared with cowdung ( śrāddha may be performed ).’

Śaṅkha (14. 27–29 ) states

‘whatever is given in holy Gayā, in Prabhāsa, Puṣkara, Prayāga, in the Naimiṣa forest (on the Sarasvati), on the banks of the Ganges, Yamunā, Payoṣṇi, on Amarakaṇṭaka, on Narmadā, in Benares, in Kurukṣetra, Bhṛgutunga, on the Himalaya, on Sapta-Veni, on Ṛṣikūpa–all that becomes inexhaustible.’

The Brahmapurāṇa ( 220.5-7) also specifies river banks, lakes, mountain tops, sacred spots like Puṣkara as the proper places for śrāddha.

The Vāyupurāṇa, chap. 77 and Matsya 22 contain long lists of sacred places, countries, mountains in relation to śrāddhas. The Kalpataru (śrāddha p. 40) and Sr. P. p. 147 state that special characteristics of the tirthas in the several countries that are declared to be fit places for śrāddha should be understood from the inhabitants of those various countries.

Sacred places will be dealt with in a separate section (on tirthas ).

Countries not fit for śrāddha

The Viṣṇudharmasūtra¹¹² ( chap. 84 ) prescribes that śrāddha should not be performed in Mleccha country, nor should one go to a Mleccha country and then defines a Mleccha country as one in which the system of the four varṇas is not established and states that Āryāvarta is beyond that. The Vāyupurāṇa provides¹¹³ that the country of Triśaṅku which is twelve yojanas in extent and which is to the north of the river Mahānadi and to the south of Kikata (i. e. Magadha ) is not fit for śrāddha; similarly the countries called Kāraskara, Kaliṅga, the country to the north of the river Sindhu and all countries where the system of varṇas and āśramas is not in existence should be sedulously avoided for śrāddhas, The Brahmapurāṇa (220.8-10) makes the somewhat startling remark that the following countries should be avoided for śrāddhas viz, the Kirāta country, Kaliṅga, Koṅkaṇa, Krimi (Krivi?), Daśārṇa, Kumārya (Cape Comorin), Taṅgaṇa, Kratha, the northern banks of the Sindhu river and the south bank of Narmadā and the east of the Karatoyā.

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa¹¹⁴ prescribes that for a śrāddha a place (ground) that is full of insects, that is arid, or is burnt by fire, from which proceed sounds that are painful to the ear, that is terrific in its aspect, that emits fetid smell should be avoided.

Participants

Dogs, patitas, etc..

It was also provided from very early times that certain persons and animals are to be ejected from the place where śrāddha is to be performed and are not to be allowed to pollute the śrāddha rite by looking at it or by disturbing it in various other ways.

Gaut. (15. 25-28) provides that food seen by dogs, cāṇḍālas and those guilty of mahāpātakas becomes unclean (and so unfit); therefore one should offer śrāddha in a covered (or screened) place; or he should strew round about the place sesame or a worthy brāhmaṇa who purifies a row of diners by his presence should perform a śānti for removing the taint caused (by a dog or cāṇdāla seeing the food &c).

Ap. Dh. S, prescribes that the learned condemn the seeing of a śrāddha by dogs and those who (being patita) are excommunicated and that a leper, a bald man, one having sexual intercourse with another’s wife, the son of a brāhmaṇa who follows the profession of arms, the son of a brāhmaṇa woman from a sūdra man if these eat śrāddha food they pollute the diners sitting to eat in a row.

Manu (III. 239-242) states:

a cāṇḍāla, a village pig or cock, a dog, a woman in her monthly illness, an impotent person- these should not be allowed to see brāhmaṇas engaged in taking dinner.

Whatever is seen by these at a homa(agnihotra), at a gift (of cows and gold), when brāhmaṇas are being fed, or at a religious rite (like the Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa sacrifice) or at a śrāddha becomes fruitless.

A pig taints food ( offered to gods or Manes) by merely smelling it, a cock by setting in motion the air with its wings, a dog by casting a glance and a man of low caste by touch.

If a servant of even the person who offers śrāddha is lame or squint-eyed or has a limb loss or more (i.e. having eleven or nine fingers &c.), he should be ejected from the place where śrāddha is to be performed.’

It is provided by the Anuśāsanaparva (127.13) that śrāddha food should not be seen by a woman in her monthly illness or by a sonless woman or by one suffering from white leprosy.

Viṣṇu-dharmasutra (82, 3 ff) contains a long list of about 30 persons who are not to be allowed near a śrāddha.

The Kūrmapurāṇa (II. 22. 34-35 ) states that one devoid of a limb, a patita, a leper, one suffering from an open ulcer, an atheist, a cock, a pig, a dog, should be kept far away from a śrāddha; one should also avoid one that has a disgusting appearance, an impure person, one who is naked, a mad man, a gambler, a woman in her monthly course, those that wear indigo-coloured or yellow-red garments and those who follow heretical views.

The Mārkaṇḍeya 32. 20-24, Vāyu 78. 26-40, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 16. 12-14 and Anuśāsanaparva 91. 43-44 also contain long lists which are passed over here. The Skandapurāṇa VI. 217. 43 also speaks about a dog, a woman in her monthly illness, a patita and a hog not being allowed to see the śrāddha rite.

The classification of Śrāddhas.

Śrāddhas have been variously classified. One classification, viz. into nitya, naimittika and kāmya has already been described above (p. 369). Another classification is that into Ekoddiṣṭa and Pārvaṇa¹¹⁵. The first is offered to one deceased person alone, while the latter is performed on the amāvāsyā of a month or in the dark half of Bhādrapada or on saṅkrānti and in it the three paternal ancestors are principally invoked.

Bṛhaspati quoted in the Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara mentions five classes of Śrāddhas as declared by Manu viz. nitya, naimittika, kāmya, Vṛddhi and Pārvaṇa¹¹⁶.

The Śrāddhaviveka remarks that the sixteen pretaśrāddhas (to be described later on) are included under naimittika and that such śrāddhas as Goṣṭhiśrāddha enumerated in other smṛtis are included in Pārvaṇa. The Kurmapurāṇa (II. 20.26) similarly speaks of the five śrāddhas as enumerated by Manu¹¹⁷. The Mit on Yãj. I. 217 states that there are five śrāddhas, viz. “ahar-ahaḥ-śrāddha, pārvaṇa, vṛddhiśrāddha, ekoddiṣṭa and sapiṇḍikaraṇa. The daily śrāddha is described by Manu III.82 ( Śaṇkha 13.16 and Matsya 16.4) as one that is performed every day with food (cooked rice, yavas &c.) or with water or with milk, fruits and roots.

Two verses of Viśvāmitra¹¹⁸ quoted by several works speak of twelve kinds of śrāddhas, viz. nitya, naimittika, kāmya, vṛddhi-śrāddha (performed on the birth of a son, marriage or similar incident of good luck), sapiṇḍana (sapiṇḍi karaṇa), pārvaṇa, goṣṭhiśrāddha, suddhiśrāddha, karmānga, daivika, yātrāśrāddha, puṣṭiśrāddha. Explanations of all these are quoted from the Bhavisyapurāṇa by the same works. Sapiṇḍana and Pārvaṇa will be described below.

Some of the rest not already defined may be briefly explained as follows:

• The Gosthi-śrāddha¹¹⁹ is one which is performed when a man becomes enthusiastic owing to a talk about śrāddha or when many learned men gather together at a sacred place and, finding it impossible to have separate cooking arrangements for each, pool their resources for collecting śrāddha materials and perform simultaneously śrāddha for the pleasure it affords to themselves and for the gratification of pitṛs.

• The Śuddhiśrāddha is one where brāhmaṇas are fed when a person undergoes śuddhi ( purification) after being guilty of some sin or transgression (it is a subsidiary act in a prāyaścitta).
• That śrāddha is called ‘karmānga’ which is performed at the time of the Garbhādhāna rite or at the performance of a soma sacrifice, or at simantonnayana, puṁsavana (it is like Vr̥ddhiśrāddha ).
• That is called daivika śrāddha which is intended to propitiate gods ( it is like nityaśrāddha and is performed on the 7th or 12th tithi or the like with sacrificial food).
• When a man going to a distant country on a pilgrimage or the like performs a śrāddha in which clarified butter is served ( to brāhmaṇas ) in abundance or when he comes back to his house, that is yātrāśrāddha.
• That is called puṣṭiśrāddha which is performed for the health (or fattening ) of the body (when taking some medicine for the purpose ) or for the increase of one’s wealth.

Out of these¹²⁰ twelve the principal ones are pārvaṇa, ekoddiṣṭa, vr̥ddhi and sapiṇḍana. There are works called Ṣaṇ-ṇavati-śrāddha such as those of Śivabhatta, son of Govinda, and of Raghunātha. The 96 śrāddhas to be performed in a year are briefly enumerated in a verse¹²¹ quoted in the note. They are:

• 12 śrāddhas on the 12 amāvāsyās in the year,
• the four śrāddhas on the Yugādi days (note 841 above),
• the fourteen śrāddhas on the Manvantarādi days (p. 375 above),
• the śrāddhas on 12 saṅkrāntis (i. e. the sun’s apparent motion from one sign of the Zodiac to another),
• the 13 śrāddhas on the Yoga called Dhr̥ti (i. e. Vaidhr̥ti) and the 13 śrāddhas on the Vyatipāta yoga,
• the 16 Mahalaya śrāddhas,
• the four Anvaṣṭakā days (according to Aśv. as noted on pp. 359-360),
• the four Aṣṭakā days and the four days (i.e. 7th of dark half of the months of Hemanta and Śiśira) of the day previous (to the Aṣṭakā).

Limited elaborate śrāddhas

These classifications and enumerations of śrāddhas will afford an idea how the doctrine of śrāddhas was carried to an exaggerated extent in the course of centuries. It goes without saying that only a few people could have indulged in the luxury of so many śrāddhas a year and most people were content with the performance of only one Mahālayaśrāddha and one or two more.

It may be noted that Manu (III. 122) first prescribed that on the amāvāsyā of each month an elaborate śrāddha should be performed, but knowing that this was almost impossible Manu recommends to all (III. 281) that an elaborate śrāddha should be performed on three amāvāsyās in one year¹²² (viz. in Hemanta, Grīṣma and Varșā ) and one should perform every day the śrāddha which is one of the five daily sacrifices (III. 82-83). Devala went further and recommended that an elaborate śrāddha may be performed only once a year.

Who should be invited at śrāddha

The next important question is about the qualifications of the brāhmaṇas that were invited to dinner on a śrāddha day. Only brāhmaṇas were and are entitled to be invited for śrāddha dinner whoever may be the performer of the śrāddha. In this connection many works contain high eulogies of brāhmaṇas, but they are passed over here, as the eulogy of brāhmaṇas has been already dealt with at some length in H. of Dh. vol. II, pp. 37-38, 135-138. It may be noted that the gṛhyasūtras contain a few requirements, but as we proceed the smṛtis and purāṇas go on adding qualifications and enlarging the lists of those that should not be invited.

For example, the Āśv. Gr.¹²³ IV. 7.2, San, Gr. IV.1. 2, Ấp, G. VIII. 21. 2, Ấp. Dh, S, II, 7. 17. 4, Hir. Gr. II, 10.2, Baud. Gr. II. 10. 5-6 and II. 8. 2-3, Gaut. 15.9 provide that the brāhmaṇas to be invited should be possessed of Vedic learning, should be of excellent character (free from anger and passion and possessed of control of mind and senses) and of meritorious conduct, pure, not deficient in a limb or not having an excessive limb (e. g. having six fingers).

The Ap. Dh. S. states that he who has studied the three Vedic verses in which the word ‘madhu’ occurs (Ṛg. I. 90.6-8, Vāj. S. 13. 27-29. Tai, S. IV. 2.9.3), he who has studied the Trisuparṇa, one who is a Triṇāciketa, one who has studied the mantras required for the four sacrifices (Aśvamedha, Puruṣamedha, Sarvamedha and Pitṛmedha ) or who has performed these four sacrifices, one who keeps the five fires, he who knows the Sāman called Jyeṣṭha, he who carries out the duty of daily Vedic study, the son of one who has studied the Veda and is able to teach the whole Veda with its aṅgas, a śrotriya–these persons sanctify the company if they eat at a funeral repast.

Gaut. 15. 28, Baud. Dh. S. II, 8.2, Manu III. 185-186, Yāj. I. 219, Varahapurāṇa 14.2 contain almost the same words about those who sanctify the company of diners (i. e. who are paṅktipāvana). The Anuśāsanaparva (90.25-31), Kūrmapurāṇa II. 21.1-14, Matsya 16. 7-13, Brahmapurāṇa 220. 101-104, Vāyu 79.56-59 and 83.5R-55, Skanda VI. 217. 21-25 give long lists of paṅktipāvana brāhmaṇas.

The Hir. Gr. II. 10.2, Baud, Dh. S. II. 2. 7, Kūrma (II. 21. 14) and others say that a performer of śrāddha should invite one who is not a relative connected by marriage (such as a maternal uncle) nor one who is of the same gotra, nor one who is connected with the performer by Veda study (i. e. is his teacher or pupil), nor a friend nor one who expects monetary help from the performer.

Manu (IIT, 138-139) provides that one should not invite at a śrāddha dinner a personal friend, that one may gain a friend by making valuable gifts to him (on other occasions), that one should feed at a śrāddha a brāhmaṇa whom he does not deem either his friend or foe and that he who performs śrāddhas and offerings to gods chiefly to gain friends reaps no reward after death by those śrāddhas or offerings. But Manu III. 144 (= Kūrma II, 21-22) provides that one may invite even a friend but not a foe though the latter may be learned.

Manu (III. 135-137 and 145-147 ) lays down that the main or best rule to be followed is to present śrāddha food to those who are devoted to spiritual knowledge,
that between a man who has studied one whole recension of the Veda but whose father was not a śrotriya
and one who is himself not a śrotriya but whose father had studied a whole recension of the Veda (i. e.whose father was a śrotriya) the latter is the more worthy of the two,
that one should strive to feed at a śrāddha an adherent of the Ṛgveda who has studied one entire recension of that Veda
or a follower of the Yajurveda who has studied one Śakhā thereof
or a singer of sāmans who has finished one recension of the Sāmaveda
and that if one of these preceding three is honoured and dines at a śrāddha, the ancestors of the performer will be gratified up to the seventh generation for a very long time.

Harita (q. by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 392 and Kalpataru on śr. pp. 66-67) describes the qualifications of those who are pāṅkteya brāhmaṇas viz, they must be born in a high family (possessing four characteristics), must be endowed with learning ( of six kinds ) and śila(character of 13 kinds) and good conduct (of 16 kinds).

ŚaṇkhaLikhita¹²⁴ give a long list of pāṅkteya (fit to be associated within a paṅkti i. e. row of diners) brāhmaṇas, viz, he who knows the Veda and the Vedāṅgas (viz. phonetics, kalpa or śrauta ritual, grammar, Nirukta, metrics and astronomy); one who keeps the five fires; one who has studied the Veda with its aṅgas; one who knows Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Upaniṣads and Dharmaśāstra; a śrotriya, a triṇāciketa, trimadhu, trisuparṇaka and one that has studied Jyeṣṭhasāman; one who has studied Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Upaniṣads and Dharmaśāstra; who is devoted to Veda; who always keeps sacred fires; who is obedient to his parents and devoted to Dharmaśāstra.

Similar rules are laid down by Viṣṇu Db. S. 83, Br̥hat-Parāśara p. 150, Vr̥ddha-Gautama p. 581, Prajāpati verses 70-72, Laghu-Śatātapa verses 99 100, Auśanasasmṛti (Jiv. vol. I. pp. 523-524). As Medhātithi¹²⁵ on Manu III 147 says the gist of all these passages is that a learned brāhmaṇa who has studied the Veda, whose conduct is good, whose family is famous, who is the son of a śrotriya father and who is not related to the performer must be invited and all the rest is mere arthavāda (by way of eulogy).

Manu (III. 128) laid down two propositions viz, all food offered as sacrifice to the gods and manes must be given only to a brāhmaṇa who studies the Veda and that whatever is presented to the most worthy brāhmaṇa (among brāhmaṇas studying the Veda) brings in the greatest rewards.

Then Manu (III. 183) declares that paṅktipāvana brāhmaṇas are those that sanctify a row of diners among whom sit some who are tainted by (latent) blemishes that make them unfit to be among the diners. Then Manu (III. 184-186) gives examples of paṅktipāvana brāhmaṇas viz, those who are the foremost among students of all the Vedas or their expository works and who are born in a family of unbroken descent of Vedic students, who are Triṇāciketa &c. Hemādri (on śr, pp. 391-395) and Kalpataru (śr. pp. 64-65) quote numerous verses from Yama on paṅktipāvana.

Manu III, 147 asserts that the best course is to invite a brāhmaṇa who fulfils the conditions laid down in Manu III. 132-146, but adds that if it is not possible to secure such a brāhmaṇa then the next best course¹²⁶ (‘anukalpa’) may be followed, viz. the performer may invite his own maternal grandfather, his maternal uncle, sister’s son, father-in-law, his teacher of the Veda, daughter’s son, son-in-law, a bandhu (such as mother’s sister’s son), wife’s brother or a sagotra, or his family priest, or his pupil. Similar provisions occur in Yāj. I. 220, Kūrma (Uttarārdha 21. 20), Varāhapurāṇa 14. 3, Matsya 16. 10-11, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 15. 2-4 (anukalpeṣvanantarān).

But Manu is careful¹²⁷ to point out in a later chapter that one who is able to observe the best course, but observes the second best does not reap other-worldly rewards by his actions.

Even Āp. Dh, S.¹²⁸ expressly says that if strangers do not possess the requisite qualifications, then even one’s full brother possessed of all the qualifications (as to Vedic learning, good conduct &c.) and pupils may be fed at a śrāddha.

Baud. Dh. S. also allows even a sapiṇḍa to be fed¹²⁹. Gaut. 15. 20 appears to be of the view that even pupils and sagotras may be invited when they are possessed of excellent qualities and strangers with good qualifications are not available.

prāyaścittas

Even in these times very learned brāhmaṇas are unwilling to be fed at a śrāddha, particularly within a few years (three or five ) from the death of the person for whose benefit the śrāddha is to be performed. Smṛtis attach a certain stigma to the fact of being the recipient of a śrāddha dinner and prāyaścittas are prescribed. For example, the Mit, on Yāj. III. 289 quotes several verses of Bhāradvāja, one of which says

“If a brāhmaṇa dines at a pārvaṇa śrāddha he has to perform six prāṇāyāmas (as expiation), if he dines at a śrāddha from the third month after a person’s death to one year, he has to undergo a fast; if he dines at a vṛddhiśrāddha, he has to perform three prāṇāyāmas, and a fast for a day and night if he dines at a sapiṇḍana śrāddha.”

The Mit. further quotes a verse from Dhaumya which prescribes Cāndrāyana for dining at a śrāddha on the birth of a son or at simantonnayana, in a navaśrāddha etc. Vide also Nirṇayasindhu III, pp. 467-468 for prāyascittas on eating śrāddha dinners, The Varāhapurāṇa (189. 12-13) provides that if a brāhmaṇa dies while the food offered to a preta is still in his stomach he dwells for a kalpa in a horrible hell, becomes a rākṣasa and then becomes free from the sin.

Age

According to Gaut. 15.10 young persons with the requisite qualifications are to be preferred to older ones, while, according to some, young men were to be invited at a śrāddha for one’s deceased father and old men for a śrāddha for one’s grand father. On the other hand, Āp. Dh. S. says among brāhmaṇas possessing the same qualifications, the older ones are to be preferred and among those that are old are to be preferred the poor that are anxious to earn money¹³⁰.

yogins

Some of the works lay special emphasis on inviting ascetics or yogins at a śrāddha dinner. The Viṣṇu Dh. S. states that yogins¹³¹ are particularly paṅktipāvana and quotes a stanza as recited by the pitṛs

‘May (a descendant) be born in our family who feeds a brāhmaṇa yogin at a śrāddha by which we are ourselves satisfied.’

The Varāhapurāṇa 14.50 says that a yogin is superior to 100 brāhmaṇas. The Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa provides

‘a wise man should always feed yogins at a śrāddha since the pitṛs rely for support on Yoga; if a yogin is fed by being seated as the first among thousands of brāhmaṇas he saves the performer and the other diners as a boat saves men in water.’

Then it quotes stanzas sung by the pitṛs (29. 32-34) to king Aila. The Saurapurāṇa, after mentioning the qualifications (in 19.2-3),¹³² winds up by stating that even one may suffice provided he be a single-minded devotee of Śivā (verse 6).

The Matsyapurāṇa (16. 11-12) recommends ‘He who expounds (the meaning of) texts; he who enters upon the discussion of śrauta sacrifices and he who knows the rules about the accents of sāmans is a purifier of paṅktipāvanas; one proficient in the Sāmaveda, a Vedic student, one endowed with knowledge of the Veda or of Brahma –where these are fed in a śrāddha it yields the highest benefit’¹³³.

śīla

Though in the above passages the greatest emphasis was laid on the possession of Vedic learning by the brāhmaṇas to be fed, one had also to see whether they were men of good character and observers of the rules of proper conduct, as provided by Aśv. Gr. IV. 7. 2 (note 862), Gaut. 15.9 and Manu II, 118 who says

‘a brāhmaṇa¹³⁴ knowing only the sacred Gāyatri but living a well-regulated life is to be preferred and not one who knows the three Vedas but who is not well-regulated in conduct and who eats anything (even forbidden food ) and who is a vendor of everything.’

The Skandapurāṇa VI. 217. 27 recommends that one should make every effort to know the family of the brāhmaṇas, then their character (śila), then their age and then the facts about whom they marry or to whom they give their daughters in marriage. The Brahmāṇda (Upodghāta, chap. 15) says that there should be no scrutiny of a brāhmaṇa about whom nothing is known because siddhas (yogins) roam about on the earth in the form of brāhmaṇas. But if faults in a brāhmaṇa are easily seen or if one knows his disqualifications on account of one’s dwelling near him, he should not be invited (verses 5-6). The same Purāṇa (Upodghāta 15. 24-26) arranges the orders of preference as follows: first yati (ascetic), then a brāhmaṇa who knows the four Vedas and itihāsa, then one who knows three Vedas, then one who knows two, then one who knows one Veda, then one who is an upādhyāya.

Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 443) quotes the Agnipurāṇa¹³⁵ as follows:

‘what is the use of (birth in a) famous family if the man is himself devoid of good conduct? Are not insects found in fragrant flowers ?’

Jātūkarṇya says

‘one should not honour even with a word (much less with food &c.) in rites for gods and Manes bad brāhmaṇas void of good conduct, even though they be endowed with learning and be born in a good family. This insistence on worth was due to the conception that pitṛs assuming an aerial form enter brāhmaṇas at the time of śrāddha. Vide Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa (Upodghātapāda 11. 49).

These requirements of learning, character and good conduct would naturally make it incumbent on the performer of a śrāddha to inquire into the antecedents, qualities and defects of the brāhmaṇas to be invited.

Inquiring into qualifications

Manu and others lay down several rules about the testing of the brāhmaṇas to be invited. Manu III, 149, Viṣṇu Dh.874 S. 82.1-2. provide

‘at an offering to the gods let a man not enquire into (the qualities of) a brāhmaṇa ( when he wants to invite ), but at a śrāddha offering to the Manes close inquiry (into qualities ) is declared to be proper and just.’

Manu III. 130 says that even if a brāhmaṇa be master of the Veda, one should enquire far (into his ancestry). The Vāyupurāṇa¹³⁶ appears to provide that inquiry into (the qualifications of ) brāhmaṇas should not be always undertaken when gifts are to be made, but enquiry is declared (necessary) in the case of rites for gods and Manes.

The Anuśāsanaparva provides¹³⁷ that in rites meant for gods a ksatriya knowing the rules about gifts should not (closely) inquire into the qualifications of brāhmaṇas, but in rites for the gods and Manes such inquiry is quite proper. Vṛddha-Manu and the Matsya-purāṇa¹³⁸ lay down that a brāhmaṇa’s character is to be inquired into at the place where he resides for a long time, his purity by his acts and transactions with other people, his intelligence by discussion with him: with these three one should inquire whether the brāhmaṇa (to be invited) is a worthy person.

The Nṛsimhapurāṇa¹³⁹ forbids close inquiry into the character and learning of one who comes by chance as a guest at the time of śrāddha. That inquiry was allowed as to brāhmaṇas who were invited and not as to those who came by chance uninvited as atithis. There are no doubt certain passages particularly in the Purāṇas where scrutiny into a brāhmaṇa’s qualifications is condemned. For example, the Skandapurāṇa quoted by Aparārka (p. 455) and Kalpataru (on śr. p. 102) states

‘The Vedic revelation is that śrāddha is to be offered (to a brāhmaṇa) after inquiry (into his learning and character), but straightforward action is better than scrutiny. When one offers śrāddha straightforwardly without inquiry his pitṛs are gratified and also gods’.

The Bhaviṣyapurāṇa (q. by Bālambhatti ) states

‘it is my view also that one should not test (the qualifications of) brāhmaṇas; one should only consider their caste and not their virtues’.

Such passages are explained away as referring to a śrāddha at sacred places or as applicable to gifts or to atithis (vide Hemādri on śrāddha p. 513, and Bālambhatti on ācāra p. 494 )¹⁴⁰.

Persons unfit to be invited

Brāhmaṇas were declared to be apāṅkteya¹⁴¹ (not fit to sit in the row of brāhmaṇa diners or as defiling a row of diners at śrāddha) on various grounds, such as bodily and mental defects and diseases, pursuit of certain avocations, moral lapses, being guilty of crimes, being followers of unorthodox systems, being inhabitants of certain countries. A distinction has to be made between brāhmaṇas who should not be invited and brāhmaṇas that are apāṅkteya or paṅktidūṣaka. For example, one should not ordinarily invite a friend or a sagotra brāhmaṇa even though learned, but these are not apāṅkteya.

The Ap.¹⁴² Dh. S. states that one suffering from white leprosy, a bald man, the violator of another man’s bed, the son of a brāhmaṇa who was a soldier by profession, the son of (brāhmaṇa who had become like) a śūdra from a brāhmaṇa woman–these defile the company if they are invited at a śrāddha repast.

Vas. Dh. S. XI. 19 also gives a brief list viz.

‘one should avoid naked (ascetics), those suffering from white leprosy, impotent men, blind men, those who have black teeth, those afflicted with black leprosy and those who have deformed nails’.

Very long lists of persons unfit to be invited at a śrāddha are given by Gaut. XV. 16-19, Manu III. 150-166, Yāj. I. 222-224, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 82. 3-29, Atri (verses 345–359 and 385-388), Bṛhad-Yama III. 34-38, Bṛhat-Parāśara pp. 149–150, Vṛddha-Gautama pp. 580-581, the Vāyu-purāṇa 83.61-70, Anuśāsana-parva 90.6-11, Matsyapurāṇa 16.14-17, Kūrma (II. 21. 23-47), Skanda VII, 1.205.58-72, VL 217.11-20, Varāhapurāṇa 14,4-6, Brahma purāṇa 220. 127-135, Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa (Upodghāta 15,39-44 and 19.30-41 ), Mārkaṇḍeya 28.26-30, Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 15.5-8), Nāradapurāṇa (pārvārdha 28.11-18), Saurapurāṇa (19.7–9 ) and several other works. The list in the Manusmṛti is one of the longest and that is set out here. One should not invite a brāhmaṇa that is

1. a thief,
2. an outcaste,
3. an impotent man,
4. an atheist,
5. one who wears his hair in braids (a student yet learning Veda),
6. one who does not study the Veda,
7. one who is afflicted with a skin disease,
8. a gambler,
9. one officiating as a priest for a multitude of men,
10. a physician,
11. temple priest (who worships images for money),
12. vendor of meat,
13. one who makes his livelihood as shopkeeper,
14. a paid servant of a village or
15. a paid servant of a king,
16. one with deformed nails,
17. one whose teeth are black (naturally),
18. one who opposes his guru,
19. one who has forsaken his sacred fire (śrauta or smārta) without a proper cause,
20. a usurer,
21. one suffering from consumption,
22. one who subsists by tending cattle (though not in distress),
23. a younger brother who marries before his elder brother
24. a younger brother who kindles sacred fires before his elder brother,
25. one who neglects the five (daily) sacrifices,
26. an enemy of brāhmaṇas or of Veda,
27. an elder brother who marries after his young brother,
28. an elder brother who kindles sacred fires after his young brother,
29. one who is a member of a guild or corporation,
30. an actor or singer,
31. one who has broken the vow of student-hood by unchastity,
32. one whose (only or first wife ) is a sūdra female,
33. the son of a remarried woman,
34. a squint-eyed or one-eyed man,
35. one in whose house a paramour of his wife resides,
36. one who teaches for hire,
37. one who is taught by a hired teacher,
38. one whose teacher is a sūdra,
39. one who instructs śūdra pupils,
40. one whose speech is harsh and untrue,
41. the son of an adulteress,
42. the son of a widow,
43. one who forsakes his mother, father or teacher without (adequate) cause,
44. one who has contracted an alliance with patitas either through the Veda (i. e. as teacher or pupil) or through marriage,
45. an incendiary,
46. one who undertakes sea-voyages,
47. a bard,
48. an oil-man,
49. a false witness (or forger of documents or counterfeiter of coins ),
50. one who has a dispute with his father in a law court,
51. one who induces others to gamble,
52. one who drinks wine,
53. one afflicted with a disease (in punishment for crimes in former lives),
54. one accused of a grave sin,
55. a hypocrite,
56. a vendor of substances used for flavouring food (such as sugar cane juice or molasses),
57. a manufacturer of bows and arrows,
58. one who is the husband of a woman married before her elder sister,
59. the betrayer of a friend,
60. the keeper of a gambling house,
61. one who learns (the Veda) from his own son,
62. an epilectic man,
63. one who has scrofulous swellings of the glands,
64. one afflicted with white leprosy,
65. an informer,
66. a lunatic,
67. a blind man,
68. a caviller of the Veda,
69. a trainer of elephants, horses, oxen or camels,
70. one subsisting by the practice of astrology,
71. a bird-fancier,
72. one who gives instructions in the use of weapons,
73. one who diverts watercourses,
74. one engaged in obstructing watercourses,
75. one subsisting by teaching or practising architecture,
76. a messenger,
77. one who plant trees for money,
78. a breeder of sporting dogs,
79. a falconer,
80. a defiler of a maiden (or who ascribes falsely fault to a maiden),
81. one given to injuring living beings,
82. one who gains his livelihood from śūdras,
83. one who officiates at a sacrifice on behalf of guilds,
84. one who does not follow the ordinary rules of conduct (as welcoming a guest &c.),
85. one who has no energy for religious acts,
86. one who constantly begs for gifts,
87. one who subsists by agriculture (carried on personally),
88. one who suffers from elephantiasis,
89. one who is condemned by good men,
90. a shepherd,
91. a keeper of buffaloes,
92. the husband of a remarried woman,
93. a carrier of dead bodies (for money )¹⁴³

Manu III. 167 says that a brāhmaṇa who knows the sacred laws should avoid or shun at both (sacrifices to Gods and to Manes) the worst of brāhmaṇas enumerated above whose conduct is reprehensible and who are unworthy of sitting in a row of brāhmaṇas at a śrāddha repast.

Manu III. 170-182 indulge in pointing out how feeding such unworthy brāhmaṇas results in the loss of the gratification of pitṛs and state that the food eaten by such unworthy persons becomes or is to be deemed as equal to foul things.

The Kūrmapurāṇa¹⁴⁴ forbids inviting at śrāddhas Bauddha ascetics, Nirgranthas (devotees who have withdrawn from the world and wander about naked or as beggars), those that follow the Pañcarātra and Pāśupata doctrines, those that are kāpālikas (devotees of Śiva of the left hand order) and other similar heretical people.

The Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 18. 70 ff) narrates how a king after a bath in a holy place talked with a heretic and had to pass in consequence through the bodies of a dog, a jackal, wolf, vulture, a crow, a crane and peacock and ultimately became freed from the taint by a bath at the avabhṛtha in an Aśvamedha sacrifice. The same Purāṇa provides (III. 18. 97) that one should avoid talking with or touching heretics, particularly at the time of a religious rite or when one has consecrated for a solemn sacrifice.

The Vāyupurāṇa¹⁴⁵ provides that people who are ’nagna’ should not be allowed to see a śrāddha and then defines “nagna’ people as follows:

’the three Vedas are declared to be a protective covering for all beings and therefore those who foolishly abandon the Vedas are called ’nagna’; those who vainly keep matted hair, those who shave their heads for no purpose, those who are nagna (naked) without any cause, those who engage in certain observances and mutter certain words aimlessly are called ‘nagnādi’’.

Prohibited countries

Just as certain countries were declared unfit for the performance of śrāddhas (vide note 853 above), so certain brāhmaṇas hailing from certain countries were declared in some works as not fit to be invited at a śrāddha¹⁴⁶. For example, the Matsyapurāṇa states that brāhmaṇas that are ungrateful, that are atheists, that stay in Mleccha countries or the countries of Triśaṅku, Karavira, Āndhra, Cīna, Draviḍa and Koṅkaṇa should be carefully avoided at the time of śrāddha.

Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 505) quotes from the Saurapurāṇa the following:

‘Brāhmaṇas hailing from the countries of Aṅga, Vaṅga, Kaliṅga, Saurāṣtra, (Kāthiawar), Gurjara, Ābhira, Koṅkaṇa, Draviḍa, Dakṣināpatha, Avanti and Magadha should be avoided at śrāddhas.’

It will be noticed that putting the above two passages together, brāhmaṇas from half of modern India would have been ineligible for being invited at śrāddhas if these passages were literally followed. This was probably a counsel of perfection prompted by the false pride and prejudices of the authors of those works. The Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara (pp. 39-41 ) contains one of the longest lists of persons unfit to be invited at a śrāddha.

Honouring atithi at śrāddha

The following reason is advanced by the Varāhapurāṇa¹⁴⁷ and others for honouring a guest who comes by chance at the time when a śrāddha rite is in progress:

“Yogins wander over the earth assuming different forms that prevent recognition, but doing good to people; therefore a wise man should honour a guest who arrives at the time of the performance of a śrāddha”.

The Bhaviṣya-purāṇa¹⁴⁸ similarly says that an atithi ( guest ) at a śrāddha is one who comes when least thought of and not one who had arrived before the śrāddha rite started. The Mārkaṇḍeya ( 26, 30 ) provides that one should not ask such an atithi about his gotra or caraṇa or his Vedic study nor should one consider whether he has a fine appearance.

Hemādri (on śrāddha pp. 430-433 ) quotes verses from the Sivadharmottara, Viṣṇudharmottara and Vāyu (71.74–75 ) Purāṇas that gods, siddhas and yogins wander over the earth in the form of brāhmaṇa atithis in order to favour people and to see how śrāddhas are being performed. About the definition of an atithi and the necessity and mode of honouring a guest in general, vide H, of Dh. vol. II. pp. 749-756.

Recension

Hemādri (Śrāddhakāṇḍa, pp. 380-385) holds an interesting discussion as to whether a performer of śrāddha belonging to one recension of a Veda must restrict himself to inviting brāhmaṇas that are students of the same recension of the Veda or whether he can invite any brāhmaṇa that may have studied any of the three Vedas. Some people relying on a maxim (‘as in the case of a bride so in the case of an offering’) invite only brāhmaṇas of their own śākhā possessed of the qualifications above set forth.

Hemādri replies that this is a wrong notion, relies on Āp. Dh. S. II. 6. 15.9 ‘one should feed¹⁴⁹ in all (religious) acts brāhmaṇas that are pure (in their conduct) and that have studied the Veda’ and asserts that no smṛti, Itihāsa, Purāṇa, Gṛhyasūtra nor Kalpasūtra contains the restriction of inviting only brāhmaṇas of the performer’s own śākhā. He further says that in such texts as ’triṇāciketas trimadhuḥ’ (quoted in note 862a above) the rule laid down is to invite brāhmaṇas that have studied different śakhās and Vedas.

He rejects the idea about any restriction as to selecting a bridegroom of the same śākhā as the bride’s father and remarks that if some people are not prepared to give their daughters in marriage to young men belonging to other śākhās, that is due to ignorance about the families and is also due to pride and vanity. He winds up by saying that in Āryāvarta countries it is found on all sides that marriage connections are entered into with persons studying different śākhās but living in the same district, (such connections) not being condemned, while persons who study the same śākhā of the Veda but do not know each other do not enter into marital connections¹⁵⁰.

As a contrast to this commonsense view it should be noted that the author of the Bālambhatti recommends that

‘Mahārāstra brāhmaṇas should not invite brāhmaṇas of other castes (of brāhmaṇas ) and particularly the Koṅkaṇastha brāhmaṇas should be avoided’

and it goes so far as to say that a pergon belonging to one’s own caste not possessed of good qualities and of a blemished character (provided he is not guilty of mahāpātakas or the like) should be preferred to one belonging to another sub-caste even if endowed with good qualities.

The Vas. Dh, S. provides¹⁵¹ that the performer should invite ascetics, house-holders, well conducted men, who are not rery old &c.

Yati preferred as an invitee

The Kūrmapurāṇa states¹⁵²

’that man whose offering (of food ) is eaten by a yati that knows the truth about prakr̥ti (primordial matter) and the guṇas (sattva, rajas and tamas) reaps the reward (merit) of feeding a thousand (other brāhmaṇas). Therefore one should feed in offerings to gods and manes an excellent yogin who is intent on true knowledge of God and others only if such a one is not available.’

śākhā-praises

Similar verses about ascetics and yogins occur in Varāhapurāṇa 14.50, Skanda (VI.217.7 ff) and Vayupurāṇa¹⁵³ chap.71.65-73, chap.76.28 &c. Bṛhaspati provides¹⁵⁴ a special rule that, if a person cannot afford to feed at a śrāddha more than one brāhmaṇa, then he should feed one who has studied the Sāmaveda, since in him all the three viz. R̥ks, the Yajus and Sāmans co-exist, that the father is pleased by R̥ks (i.e. by the feeding of a brāhmaṇa who has studied the Ṛgveda), the grand-father by Yajus, the great-grand-father by a Sāman and a chandoga (a chanter of the whole of Samaveda) is superior. A verse of Satatapa is¹⁵⁵ quoted to the effect that if a student of the Atharvaveda is fed in a rite for the gods or manes, that yields endless and inexhaustible rewards.

durbrāhmaṇa

Some of the smr̥tis were very strict in laying down the qualifications of brāhmaṇas to be invited at a śrāddha. Auśanasa (chap. 4) asserts:

’that brāhmaṇa¹⁵⁶ is called durbrāhmaṇa and should never be invited at a śrāddha in whose family Veda study and Vedi (i.e, the performance of Śrauta sacrifices) have been stopped for three generations’.

The same author¹⁵⁷ further says that six persons are merely brahma-bandhus (i.e. brāhmaṇas by birth or caste alone) viz.

• one who is hired by a śūdra or a king as a servant,
• who has a śūdra woman as his wife,
• who is a village priest and
• he who subsists by killing (animals) or by catching them.

So early as the Mahābhāsya¹⁵⁸ it was stated that austerities (leading a life of restraint and strict observances), Vedic learning and birth (from brāhmaṇa parents) are the causes of (a man being called) a brāhmaṇa and that he who is devoid of the first two is a mere brāhmaṇa by caste (but not a real brāhmaṇa). It is curious to note that Yama stated that, if brāhmaṇas that do not declare (or point out) the auspicious nakṣatra or tithi or day or muhūrta and other auspicious matters, eat (śrāddha) food it becomes inexhaustible.

Persons to be shunned

But the requisite qualifications were so exacting that it must have been found almost impossible to secure for a śrāddha brāhmaṇas altogether free from any of the blemishes set out above from Manu. Gautama (15. 15-18) contains long lists¹⁵⁹ of over 50 kinds of brāhmaṇas that were not to be invited at a śrāddha dinner or at a sacrifice for gods, but Gaut. adds that according to some only those beginning with ‘durvāla’ (Gaut. in 15.18) were to be shunned at a śrāddha (but could be invited at a sacrifice for the gods). The persons so to be shunned, according to some who flourished before Gautama (i.e. at least before 600 B. C.) are:

• a bald man,
• a man who has deformed nails or has black teeth (naturally),
• one suffering from white leprosy,
• the son of a re-married woman,
• a gambler,
• one who neglects japa ( the recitation of Vedic mantras),
• a servant of the king,
• one who uses false weights and measures,
• one whose (only) wife is a sūdra female,
• one who does not perform the daily five sacrifices,
• one who suffers from a virulent skin disease,
• a usurer,
• one who lives by trade or by handicrafts,
• one who makes his living by (manufacturing) bows (and arrows) or by playing on musical instruments or by keeping time (when another is singing), or by dancing or singing.

Vas. quotes a verse¹⁶⁰ as follows: If a brāhmaṇa knowing the Vedas is afflicted with physical defects which (ordinarily ) exclude a person from a row of diners, Yama declares that he is irreproachable and that he does sanctify the row of diners. But it must be said that even in modern times emphasis is laid on inviting learned and well-conducted brāhmaṇas for śrāddha. The idea (expressed by Manu III. 189 and the Padmapurāṇa) persists that the pitṛs enter into and hover round the invited brāhmaṇas and that the latter are to be looked upon as representing the pitṛs¹⁶¹. The Garuḍapurāṇa states that Yama allows the departed souls and the pitṛs to visit the world of men at the time of śrāddha from the nether regions.

Niyamas

The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (79.19-21) prescribes that the performer should avoid wrath, should not shed tears and should not do things in a hurry. The Varāhapurāṇa¹⁶² provides that the performer should not employ twigs for brushing the teeth (but should rinse his mouth twelve times with water), should remain chaste and pure. Āp. Dh. S. prescribes¹⁶³ that the performer should not eat food from the commencement (from the time he goes out to invite) up to the end of the śrāddha rite.

The Kūrma (uttarārdha 22.8) states that if a person first invites a brāhmaṇa and then foolishly invites another (passing over the first) then he becomes a greater sinner (than the brāhmaṇa who after accepting one invitation promises to dine at another śrāddha) and is born as a worm in human faeces.

The Bhaviṣyapurāṇa¹⁶⁴ provides that honouring gods, pitṛs and men and feeding (brāhmaṇas) should not be done without wearing an upper garment; otherwise the rite will bear no fruit.

Number of Invitees

About the number of brāhmaṇas to be invited at a śrāddha there were several options and several views. The Āsv. Gr. S. states¹⁶⁵ that at the Pārvaṇa-śrāddha (performed on a parvan day i.e. on Amāvāsya), the Ābhyudayika śrāddha, the Ekod diṣṭa or Kāmya, the larger the number of brāhmaṇas the greater is the reward, that in no case should a person invite only one brāhmaṇa at a śrāddha meant for all pitṛs or he may optionally invite only one brāhmaṇa except at the first śrāddha, that he may invite one, two or three brāhmaṇas for each of the three paternal ancestors. The Sān. Gr. (IV. 1,2) and Kauṣītaki Gr. III. 14.1-2 prescribe that one should¹⁶⁶ invite an uneven number of brāhmaṇas, at least three, to sit down as (representing the) fathers. Gaut. requires¹⁶⁷ ‘He shall feed an uneven number of brāhmaṇas, at least nine or as many as he is able (to feed) and that they should be learned in the Veda and endowed with polished speech, good appearance, mature age and good character’.

If five were invited two would be for gods and three for pitṛs; if seven, then four for gods and three for pitṛs and so on. Vas. XI. 27 ( = Manu III, 125 = Baud. Dh. S. II. 8. 29), Yāj. I. 228, Matsya 17. 13-14, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 15.14 provide that one must feed two brāhmaṇas at the rite for the gods and three for the manes or one only for each of the two purposes and even a rich man should not go in for a large company. The Padma purāṇa (Sṛṣṭi 9.98 and 141) says the same thing. So the number of brāhmaṇas to be invited did not depend so much upon the means of the inviter, but upon the point whether the inviter would be able to honour them all properly and with ease. The idea was that at the same time when śrāddha was to be performed two brāhmaṇas should be fed for gods and three for the pitṛs. When only one brāhmaṇa could be invited or was available, Vas. (XI. 30-31) provides that portions of the several foods cooked should be put in a vessel and should be placed at the place where Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇa would have been seated, then served in a plate and the viśve devāḥ be invoked and should be contemplated as present and then the food should be thrown into the fire or offered to a Vedic student (as alms) and then śrāddha rite should be continued. Śaṇkha¹⁶⁸ 14.10 provides a similar rule. The result is that if a man can afford to invite only one brāhmaṇa or can secure one only, then that brāhmaṇa is meant for the rite in honour of pitṛs and the offering for the gods is to be cast into fire. Baud, Dh, S. II, 8.30, Manu TIL. 126, Vas. XI. 28, Kūrma (uttarārdha 22.28 ) contain the same verse which emphatically states ‘A large company destroys these five desiderata, viz. the respectful treatment (of those invited), the securing of a proper place (such as one sloping to the south) and time, purity and (the choice of) meritorious brāhmaṇas; therefore one should not desire a large company’¹⁶⁹.

The Kūrmapurāṇa (uttarārdha 92.32) insists that an atithi must be fed at a śrāddha or otherwise the śrāddha is not praiseworthy. Though these ancient works insisted upon the avoidance of large preparations and expenses for śrāddhas in honour of a deceased person, there were other smṛtis that favoured lavish distribution of wealth in śrāddhas. For exanıple, Bṛhaspati lays down: ‘(An heir) should lay aside half of the wealth that comes to him (by inheritance ) for the benefit of the deceased owner and should expend it in the monthly, six-monthly and yearly śrāddhas’. The Dāyabhāga XI. 12 approves¹⁷⁰ of this and also quotes Ap. Dh. S. II. 6.13.3 “On the failure of a sapiṇḍa the teacher of the Veda takes the wealth of the deceased, on failure of the teacher, the pupil takes it and having inherited it he should employ it in the performance of works of charity for the benefit of the deceased’ (or he himself may enjoy it). These passages show to what lengths the cult of benefit to the soul of the deceased was carried in India by certain writers. More practical authors such as Haradatta did not relish these extreme views. In several purāṇas such as the Vāyu¹⁷¹ and Viṣṇu there are express directions that when a śrāddha is performed at Gayā, it should be on a profuse scale and no stinginess¹⁷² (lit. cheating in money matters ) in spending wealth should be shown there; otherwise the performer would not reap the benefit of the performance of śrāddha at that holy place.

Lavish expenditure recommended

The Padmapurāṇa appears to inculcate profuse expenditure of wealth in all śrāddhas. The Vāyupurāṇa¹⁷³ (82. 26-28 ) further says that the brāhmaṇas of Gayā are supermen, that when they are gratified (at a śrāddha) the gods together with pitṛs become gratified, that no question should be raised about the family, the character, the learning and the austerities (of the Gayā brāhmaṇas), that by honouring them a man attains liberation, that a man after honouring the brāhmaṇas should proceed according to his resources and strength to the performance of śrāddha; thereby he secures all heavenly desires and obtains the means of Mokṣa. The Skandapurāṇa goes so far as to say that Gayā brāhmaṇas even if they are depraved in their conduct and are backward deserve to be invited at śrāddha and are superior to brāhmaṇas who have mastered the Veda and Vedāngas. The Nirṇayasindhu (III. p. 401 ) notes that, according to the Tristhalisetu of his grandfather, this provision holds good only in the case of the śrāddha at the Akṣayya Vaṭa in Gaya and nowhere else. In modern times the brāhmaṇas at Gayā used to require the performer of śrāddha while he was in the sacred Phalgu river to make a declaration about his wealth and demanded fees accordingly, thereby carrying to the letter the words of the Vāyupurāṇa. Many people returned from Gayā thoroughly disillusioned and disgusted with the conduct of the brāhmaṇas at Gayā. In the Varāhapurāṇa¹⁷⁴ it is said that two verses were sung by the pitṛs viz. ‘Would such a blessed and intelligent man be born in our family who will offer piṇḍas (i.e. śrāddha) to us without being stingy about wealth and who would bestow on brāhmaṇas with reference to us (i.e. for our benefit) jewels, clothes, land, costly vehicles and all other kinds of wealth including water, when he has riches enough?’ Here lavish expenditure on all śrāddhas (not only at Gayā. śrāddha) appears to be strongly recommended.

Devala provides that on the days of śrauta sacrifices, of the celebration of charitable acts, of śrāddhas on the anniversary of death or on amāvāsyā, on lucky occasions (vṛddhi), on Aṣṭakā days, one should never give a frugal or poor dinner to[911a] the worthy brāhmaṇas invited for dinner.

If no brāhmaṇa is available, then the Śrāddhaviveka, Śrāddhatattva and other digests say that effigies of brāhmaṇas made with seven or nine darbhas (except in the case of a performer following the Sāmaveda who is not restricted as to the number of darbhas) should be got ready and śrāddha should be performed and afterwards the fee and other materials may be given later on to other brāhmaṇas¹⁷⁵.

Rules were laid from very ancient times about the method of inviting brāhmaṇas. The A.p. Dh. S. states¹⁷⁶ that the performer should make a request to the brāhmaṇas on the previous day, that on the day of the śrāddha he should request a second time (saying ’today is the śrāddha day’) and then he should address them a third time (with the words ‘food is ready, come’). Haradatta on the first of the three sutras explains that the request should be tomorrow there is a śrāddha, you should do me the favour of being in the place of the Āhavaniya fire’ i.e. you should partake of the food that will be prepared.

Invitation

Time of Invitation

Manu III. 187 also says that the invitation should be on the previous day or on the day of the śrāddha itself. The Matsyapurāṇa¹⁷⁷ and Padma (Sṛṣti-khaṇḍa 9.85-88) provide that the person intending to perform a śrāddha should in an humble manner invite the brāhmaṇas on the previous day or (in the morning of the day of śrāddha, that he should touch the right knee (of the brāhmaṇa to be invited) with the words ‘you are given this invitation by me’ and repeat in their hearing the following observance

‘you should be free from anger, should be intent on purity (of body and mind) and should abstain from sexual intercourse and I, the performer of śrāddha, shall also act in the same way and that the pitṛs in an aerial form wait upon the invited brāhmaṇas.’

The Bṛhan-nāradīya-purāṇa states that the invitation should be in the words ‘O best men! You should do me a favour and accept the invitation for śrāddha.’ It is noteworthy that the Prajāpati-smṛti (63) prescribes that one should invite brāhmaṇas for a śrāddha or sacrifice for gods in the evening of the previous day after uttering the verse ‘akrodhanaiḥ &c.’¹⁷⁸

The Skandapurāṇa VI. 217. 37 says that the performer should address the brāhmaṇa as follows:

‘my father (is or will enter) into this your body and so will my grand-father; let him (the grand-father) come with his father and you should strictly observe the vrata’ (the rules).

The invitation to the brāhmaṇas representing pitṛs is to be given with the sacred thread in the prācīnāvīta form and to those for Vaiśvadevika in the yajñopavīta form.

Sequence

On the question whether the Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇas were to be invited first or the brāhmaṇas for pitṛs were to be invited first there is a conflict among smṛtis and the medieval digests propose an option (vide Hemādri on śrāddha pp. 1154-1157). Manu III. 205 appears to lay down that the daiva brāhmaṇa should be invited first (daivādyantam tad-iheta).

Words

Yama quoted by several digests¹⁷⁹ says that the performer should request in the evening of the previous day brāhmaṇas with the words ‘You should all be free from exertions and should avoid passion and anger for the śrāddha in my house which is to be performed tomorrow,’ that the brāhmaṇas should reply ’let it be so if the night passes happily and without any mishap to us’. The digests (e.g. Śrāddhakriyākaumudi p. 81, Śrāddhatattva p. 194 and Nirṇayasindhu III, p. 804) say that the verse ‘sarvāyāsa &c,’ may be repeated when the invitation is given on the day previous to the day of śrāddha and the verse ‘akrodhanaiḥ’ when the invitation is given on the morning of the śrāddha day.

The words of invitation differ according to different authorities. For example, according to the Mit. on Yāj. I. 225 the words are ‘śrāddhe kṣaṇaḥ kriyatām.’.

āmantraṇa vs nimantraṇa

Vide Sr. Pr. p. 106 also, Manu III. 187 and 191 show that the words ’nimantraṇa’ and ‘āmantraṇa’ are used as synonyms. In the Śrāddhasūtra¹⁸⁰ of Kātyāyana the word ‘āmantrana’ is used. But Pānini¹⁸¹ (III. 3. 161) apparently makes a difference between the meanings of the two words and the Mahābhāṣya explains that invitation is called ’nimantraṇa’ which if rejected (without proper cause) involves a fault or sin, while that invitation which one is free to reject (without incurring blame) is called ‘āmantraṇa.’ Therefore, it must be held that the few writers such as Kātyāyana who employ āmantraṇa use it in a secondary sense.

Mode of inviting a brāhmaṇa

The invitation should be given by a performer himself or by his son, brother or a pupil or a brāhmaṇa, but it should not be given through a person of another varṇa¹⁸² or a woman or a child or person belonging to another gotra nor from a distance (Prajāpati 64). Pracetas provides that a brāhmaṇa performer of śrāddha when giving an invitation should touch the right knee, a kṣatriya inviter the left knee of the invitee, a Vaiśya inviter should hold both feet of the invitee and a śūdra should prostrate himself at the feet of the invitee (vide Sr. Pr. p. 106 and S. K. L. p. 47 ). The Mārkaṇḍeya (28. 35) states an exception that if, when a śrāddha rite is going on, brāhmaṇas or Vedic students or ascetics come by chance begging for food, the performer should make them pleased by falling at their feet and feed them (i.e. no formal invitation is necessary in these cases). Vide Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 15. 12 for feeding uninvited ascetics. It is provided by Bhṛgu quoted by Hemādri that the brāhmaṇas on accepting the invitation should pronounce the finely-worded and comprehensive Vedic benediction quoted below¹⁸³.

Uśanas¹⁸⁴ provides that the performer should wash the floor of his house with water, cowdung it and cleanse the vessels on the day previous to the śrāddha and then give an invitation to the brāhmaṇas with the words ’tomorrow I am going to perform śrāddha’. The Varāhapuraṇa and the Kūrma also provide for this and for the washing of the clothes. Manu III. 206 also requires that the spot where śrāddha is to be performed should be clean, secluded, cowdunged and should slope to the south.

The Śrāddhasūtra of Katyāyana¹⁸⁵ prescribes that a brāhmaṇa who has been invited (to a śrāddha dinner) by a faultless performer should not refuse the invitation nor should he, after being invited (and having accepted the invitation), accept a gift of even (uncooked) food from another person. Manu III. 190 and Kūrmapurāṇa provide that if a brāhmaṇa after receiving an invitation for a sacrifice to gods or manes according to śāstra directions and after having accepted it violates the appointment, he incurs sin and becomes a hog¹⁸⁶ (in his next birth). This does not apply where he is unable to go on account of illness or other valid reason.

Rules for performer and invitee

The smṛtis laid down some strict and elaborate rules which were to be observed by the brāhmaṇas invited for śrāddha and by the performer himself. Many of the rules are applicable to both. Gaut. prescribes¹⁸⁷ that the brāhmaṇa who has partaken of śrāddha dinner should remain chaste (i.e. shun sexual intercourse) that whole day, and if he has intercourse with a wife of the śūdra caste he thereby makes his own pitṛs stay in the ordure of that wife. Vas. XI. 37 makes this rule applicable both to the performer and the invited brāhmaṇa and as regards wives of all varṇas. Manu III. 188 provides that the brāhmaṇa invited to dine at a sacrifice in honour of pitṛs and the performer of the śrāddha should remain controlled (i.e. chaste and free from anger and passion) and should not study the Veda (except japa). Yāj. I. 225 (latter half) briefly puts the matter by saying ’they should be controlled as to their bodies, speech and thoughts’. The Matsyapurāṇa¹⁸⁸ prescribes that both the performer of śrāddha and the brāhmaṇa invited to dine at it should avoid dining again (after the śrāddha dinner), journey, going in a conveyance, exertions, sexual intercourse, study of the Veda, quarrel and sleeping by day.

Similar rules to observe continence are laid down for both on the day of śrāddha if invitation be given on the morning of the day of śrāddha and also on the previous day if invitation be given on the day previous to the śrāddha day. Vide Viṣṇu Dh. S. 69. 2-4, The Mit, on Yāj. I. 79 appears to strike a dissenting note about sexual intercourse with one’s wife during the days from the 5th to the 16th; while most other medieval writers such as Hemādri (śr. pp. 1006-7) and Śr. P. p. 111 are opposed to this view. The Śrāddhasūtra¹⁸⁹ of Kātyāyana provides that the performer should, from the time of giving invitation to the time when the brāhmaṇas sip water (i.e. perform ācamana after śrāddha dinner), remain pure, free from anger, hurry, negligence, should speak the truth and should shun a journey, sexual intercourse, hard work and study of the Veda and control speech (should remain mostly silent) and the brāhmaṇas invited should observe the same rules. Auśanasa (Jiv. vol. I. pp. 526-527) contains verses very similar in import to Kātyāyana. The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 106-108), Mārkaṇḍeya (28. 31-33) and Anuśāsana 125.24 have identical verses¹⁹⁰ and Vāyu 79.60-61 are very similar in import. Laghu-Śaṇkha 29, Laghu-Hārīta 75 and Likhita 60 have the same verse requiring the invited brāhmaṇas to avoid eight matters, viz. dining again, journey, carrying loads, Vedic study, sexual intercourse, making gifts, accepting gifts, performing homa, while Prajāpati 92 substitutes the brushing of the teeth (with a twig), tāmbula, bath after applying oil to the body, and fast for the first four of the above eight. The Anuśāsanaparva (90. 12-13) and Padma (Pātālakhaṇḍa 101. 94-95) also contain a list of actions that should be avoided. Briefly put, the following were the observances for both inviter and invitee, viz. avoidance of sexual intercourse, dining again, falsehood, hurry, vedic study, heavy work, gambling, carrying burdens, giving gifts and acceptance of gifts, theft, journey, sleep by day, quarrels; the performer alone was to abstain from eating tambūla, shaving, applying oil to the body, brushing the teeth with a twig;

while the brāhmaṇa invited was (alone) to observe the following, viz. not absenting oneself after accepting an invitation, making no delay when called for dinner (vide Śrāddhakalikā folio 4b and 5a and Pitṛ-bhakti on śrāddha¹⁹¹ ).

Elaborate provisions are made from ancient times about the substances and utensils proper for being used at śrāddha and about those that should not be used therein. Ap. Dh.¹⁹² S. remarks: ’the materials in śrāddha are sesamum, māṣas, rice, yavas (barley ), water, roots and fruits; but the pitṛs are extremely gratified by food that is mixed with clarified butter and for a very long time; so also they are gratified by wealth that is obtained lawfully and is bestowed on worthy persons’. Manu III. 267 ( =Vāyu 83.3) is to the same effect as Ap. Dh. S. Yāj. I. 258 is content to say that food which is fit to be offered in sacrifices (haviṣya) should be served. Manu III, 257 explains that food eaten by hermits in the forest, (cow’s) milk, soma juice, meat that is not prepared with spices (or that is free from a bad smell), rock salt are by their very nature havis (sacrificial food). According to Gaut. 27. 11 the sacrificial food (havis) comprises boiled rice, food obtained by begging, ground barley (after being baked or fried), grain separated from husk, barley gruel, vege tables, milk, curds, clarified butter, roots, fruits and water¹⁹³. Other smṛtis and digests very much elaborated these brief indications in the early works. The three kinds of wealth (viz. śukla, śabala and kṛṣna ) and the several lawful or uncondemned means of acquiring wealth have been described already in H. of Dh. vol. II. pp. 130 ff. The Mārkaṇḍeya (29. 14-15) condemns the use in śrāddhas of wealth that is obtained by taking bribes or from a patita (one guilty of a grave sin), that springs from bride-price or that is declared to be unlawful or is obtained by saying to another ‘give me for the sake of a śrāddha to be offered to my father’ (q. by Sm.C. on śrāddha p. 412).

Materials to be employed

The Skandapurāṇa emphasizes that at a śrāddha purity (śuddhi) must be specially secured in seven matters viz. the body (of the performer), the materials, the wife, the place (where śrāddha is to be performed), the mind, the mantras and brāhmaṇas¹⁹⁴. Manu III. 235 (= Vas, 11.35) states: three are the sanctifying things in a śrāddha, viz. a daughter’s son, a Nepal blanket and sesamum grains and three are commended in śrāddha viz, cleanliness, freedom from anger and absence of hurry¹⁹⁵. Pracetas mentions several kinds of oorn that are commended as food in śrāddha. Manu III. 255 summarises that in śrāddha the riches (i.e. the most important matters) are afternoon, darbhas, proper cleansing of the place (or house) for śrāddha, sesame, generous expense (on food &c.), seasoning food, eminent brāhmaṇas.

The Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa says that several kinds of corn yielding plants (some due to tillage in villages and some growing wild) were produced by Brahmā when he milked the earth for famished people, while Brahmavaivarta (q. by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 537) affirms that when a few particles fell down on the earth while Indra drank. Soma, from them arose such corn as śyāmāka, wheat, yava, mudga and red paddy and as they were produced from soma they were like nectar to the pitṛs and food prepared from these should be offered to pitṛs. The Mārkaṇḍeya speaks of seven kinds of grāmya corn and seven kinds of wild (āraṇya) corn. Prajāpati 119 recommends the use of eight kinds of corn, viz. nivāra, māṣa, mudga, wheat, paddy, yava, grain and sesamum, The Matsya (q. by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 538) narrates that when the Sun drank nectar some drops fell down from which arose the several kinds of paddy, mudga, sugarcane and that therefore sugar is sacred and may be employed in sacrifices to gods and manes.

The Mārkaṇḍeya¹⁹⁶ mentions several kinds of corn that may be employed for śrāddha food. The Brahma-purāṇa 220. 154-155, Vayu 82. 3, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 16. 5-6, Viṣṇu, Dh. S., 931 Brahmāṇḍa II, 7. 143-152 and III. 14. contain similar lists of different kinds of corn that may be used in śrāddhas. The Vāyupurāṇa (80. 42-48) mentions various desirable eatables prepared from corn of various kinds, sugar and clarified butter and milk¹⁹⁷.

Certain kinds of corn and cereals were forbidden. For example, the Matsya-purāṇa and Padma (Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa, chap. 9. 62-66 )¹⁹⁸ declare that masūra, linseed, niṣpāva, rājamāṣa, kusumbhika, kodrava, udāra, gram, kapittha, madhūka and linseed are forbidden. Viṣṇu Dh. S. 79.18 provides that the performer should avoid the bean called rājamāṣa, masūra, stale food and salt manufactured from seawater. The Ṣaṭ-trimśanmata¹⁹⁹ forbids the use in śrāddha of all kinds of cereals covered with dark husk except sesamum, mudga and māṣa.

What milk and water to be used

From considerations of space this matter cannot be pursued further. The Mit। on Yāj. I. 240 puts together a long list of allowed and of condemned kinds of grains and other articles.

What milk should be ordinarily partaken of and what should be avoided has been dealt with in H. of Dh, vol. II, pp. 782-783. A few words are added here. Manu III, 271 and Yāj. I. 258 provide that if cow’s milk or rice cooked therein (called pāyasa) is offered in śrāddha the pitṛs are satisfied for one year. Vāyu 78. 17, Brahma²⁰⁰ 220.169, Mārkandeya 32,17-19, Viṣṇupurāṇa III.16.11 forbid the use in a śrāddha of the milk of a she-buffalo, of a camari or female deer, of sheep or ewes, of she camels, of human females and of all animals with one hoof and the use of the curds and clarified butter prepared from such milk. But ghee prepared from buffalo milk was allowed by Sumantu and Devala (q. by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 572).

The Mārkandeyapurāṇa²⁰¹ (29.15-17), Vāyu (78.16) and Viṣṇupurāṇa (III, 16.10) lay down that the water to be employed in śrāddha must not have a bad smell, must not be foamy, or taken from a puddle or a small reservoir which cannot slake the thirst of a cow, must not have been brought overnight, must not be taken from a reservoir not dedicated to all or from a trough or the like meant for beasts.

Several rules are laid down about the fruits, roots and vegetables recommended or condemned for use in śrāddha. For example, the Brahma-purāṇa (220.156-158 ) enumerates several kinds of fruits such as mangoes, bilva, pomegranate, cocoanut, dates, grapes, as fit to be given in śrāddha. Vide Śaṇkha 14.22-23 also. Vāyu (78.11-15 ) states²⁰² that garlic, leeks and onions, other things that are of bad odour or taste and all exudation from trees not permitted by the Veda and salt gathered from saltish earth, should be avoided in śrāddha.

The Viṣṇudharmasūtra²⁰³ (79.17) contains a long list of fruits, bulbs and vegetables that were not to be employed in śrāddha. The Rāmāyāna states²⁰⁴ that Rāma when an exile in the Dandaka forest gratified his pitṛs by offering the fruits of inguda, badara, and bilva trees and generalises that deities are offered that food which is partaken of by a person (who is a devotee of That deity). From considerations of space detailed references to the smṛtis and purāṇas are passed over. The Smṛtyarthasāra pp. 52-53, Śrāddhaviveka (pp. 43-47 ) of Rudradhara and other digests collect in one place the foods, vegetables, fruits and roots that are allowed to be offered in śrāddha and that are condemned in śrāddha. Manufactured salt was forbidden, but natural salt from a lake (called saindhava) was allowed. Salt was not to be served directly (as Viṣṇudharmasūtra 79.12 says) but when put in while cooking vegetables it was not prohibited. There was a difference of opinion about the employment of asafoetida (vide Hemādri on Śrāddha p. 565). The Viṣṇudharmasutra (79.5-6) provides that flowers having a strong (or nasty) odour or no odour at all, the blossoms of thorny plants and red flowers should not be given, but one may give white and sweet-smelling flowers even though they are taken from thorny plants and flowers though red in colour may be taken from aquatic plants. Śaṇkha (14. 15-16) is to the same effect (q. by Hemādri p. 684). Vāyu (75. 33-35) is to the same effect and adds that the flowers called Japā, Bhaṇḍi, Rūpikā (of arka plant), Kuraṇṭaka should be avoided in śrāddha. The Brahmapurāṇa (220.162 165 ) specifies the several kinds of flowers that may be offered in śrāddha such as jāti, campaka, mallikā, mango blossom, tulasi, tagara, ketaki and various kinds of lotuses ( white, blue and red &c.). The Smṛtyarthasāra includes tulasi among things to be avoided in śrāddha.

The Sm. C. notes this and remarks that it is not clear on what this dictum prohibiting tulasi is based²⁰⁵.

Kuśas are required in śrāddha. Vide H, of Dh. vol. II. p.657 for general remarks on kuśas. A few words may be added here. The Sat. Br. VII, 2.3.2 states that the waters that loathed Vrtra went out to waterless deserts and became bushes of darbhas²⁰⁶. Similarly, Aśv. Gr. III. 2.2 summarizes a Brāhmaṇa text stating that darbhas are the essence of waters and herbs (apām vā eṣa oṣadhinām raso yad-darbhāḥ). Prajapati (verse 98 )²⁰⁷ provides that darbhas should be gathered from a pure spot in the morning by a brāhmaṇa, should have mantras repeated over them, should be greenish in colour, should be as long as a cow’s ear and then they are holy. The Gobhila gr. (1. 5. 16-17) states the barhis consists of kuśa grass cut off at the points at which the blades diverge from the main stalk and that the blades should be cut off near the roots at the rites meant for the Fathers’. Dakṣa (II, 33 and 35) provides that the second part of the day (divided into eight parts) is the proper time for collecting fuelsticks, flowers and kuśas. The Gobhilasmṛti (I. 20-21) says²⁰⁸ that the darbhas used in sacrifices are greenish, those to be used in Pākayajñas should be yellowish, those in rites for the pitṛs must be taken out from the roots and those that are to be used in Vaiśvadeva should be dark-pale, and that greenish darbhas together with ends uncut, that are smooth and well nourished, one aratni in length and touched with that part of the hand called pitṛtirtha are pure.

The Padmapurāṇa (Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 11.92 ) and Skanda VII1. 205.16 state that kuśas and black sesamum spring from the body of Viṣṇu and the Viṣṇudharmottara I. 139.12 says that tilas and darbhas sprang from the perspiration and hair of Viṣṇu in the Boar incarnation. The Matsya ( 22.89 ) says the same.

The Garuda²⁰⁹ (Pretakhaṇḍa 2.21-22) states that all the three gods dwell in kuśa grass viz. Brahmā at its root, Viṣṇu in the middle and Śaṅkara at the end and that brāhmaṇas, mantras, kuśas, fire, tulası leaf–these do not become nirmālya (stale and so unfit to be used again ) even when the same are employed again and again. But an exception is made by Gobhila ²¹⁰ that those darbhas which are spread on the ground for placing piṇḍas on them or that are used in tarpaṇa and those that are held in the hand while a man is answering the calls of nature should be given up (and not used again). The Viṣṇu Dh. S. 79.2 and Vāyu 75.41 provide that if kuśas are not available, kāśa grass or Dūrvā may be substituted. The Skandapurāṇa VII (Prabhāsakhaṇḍa ) part 1.206.17 says that straight darbhas are used in giving gifts, at baths, in japa, homa, dinner and worship of gods, but they are double-folded when used in rites for pitṛs. The Skanda VII. 1. 205,16 provides that the top of darbhas is for divine rites, while darbha with the root and tip is meant for paitṛka rites. This is based on the Sat. Br. II. 4. 2.17 which states that the top of the darbha belongs to gods, the middle to men and the root part to the fathers.

Great importance was attached to the use of tila (sesamum) in śrāddha. The Jaiminigṛhya II.1 states that the whole house should have sesamum grains scattered about in it. Baud. Dh. S. II. 8,8 provides that when the invited brāhmaṇas come they should be given water mixed with sesame. The Baud. gr. II. 11.64 provides that sesamum grains are holy in śrāddha for making gifts of them or as part of food or for being mixed in water.

Use of sesame in śrāddha

The Prajapatismṛti speaks²¹¹ of four kinds of tilas viz. white, black, very black and jartilas and states that each succeeding one gives greater gratification to the pitṛs than each preceding one. The Tai.s.V. 4.3.2 refers to jartilas and Jai. X.8.7 holds a discussion thereon. The Naradapurāṇa (pūrvārdha 28.36)²¹² provides that the performer of śrāddha should scatter tilas in the midst of the brāhmaṇas invited and at the doors with the mantra ‘apahatā’ (may the asuras and evil spirits that sit on the altar be struck and run away). Yaj. I. 234 also recommends this mantra ( which is Vāj. S. II. 29). The Kūrmapurāṇa (II. 22.18) states that sesame should be scattered all round and a goat should be tied near the spot, since śrāddha polluted by asuras becomes purified by sesame and a goat. The Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 16.14) prescribes that by tilas scattered on the ground one should ward off evil spirits (Yātudhāna ). The Garudapurāṇa²¹³ ( Pretakhaṇḍa 2. 16 ) makes Śrikṛṣna say “tilas have sprung from the perspiration on my body and are holy; asuras, dānavas and daityas run away on account of tilas”. The Anuśāsana-parva (90.22 ) says that yātudhānas and goblins snatch away the havis when the śrāddha is offered without tilas. The Kṛtyaratnākara (p. 540 ) quotes a verse as follows: ‘he who applies as unguent tilas, who bathes with water in which tilas are mixed, offers tilas into fire, makes gifts of tilas, eats tilas and who grows tilas-these six never sink (i. e. are not unlucky nor in trouble ).

A great deal is said about the vessels to be used in offering arghya (water for honouring the invited brāhmaṇas and piṇḍas), for cooking śrāddha food, for dining and for serving. The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana²¹⁴ provides that the arghya water should be taken in camasas (cups ) made of sacrificial trees (such as palāśa, aśvattha, udumbara ) or in vessels of gold, silver, copper, rhinoceros horn, precious stones whichever may be available, or in a vessel made of leaves.

Vessels to be used at śrāddha

The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (179. 14-15) provides that the performer should employ metallic vessels, particularly vessels made of silver. The Mārkaṇḍeya (31.65) and Vāyu (74.3) state that in a vessel of silver the (ancient) pitṛs milked svadhā and hence a silver vessel is highly desired by pitṛs and brings delight to them. Yāj. I. 237 also specially recommends silver vessels. The Vāyu (74. 1-2), Matsya (17. 19-22), Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghāta 11. 1-2) and Padma (Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 9. 147-150) state that vessels of gold, silver or copper are the (proper) ones for pitṛs; that even the talk about silver or the sight or gift of silver gives inexhaustible results to pitṛs in heaven, that vessels to be used for arghya, for piṇḍa and for the food to be offered should be preferably of silver and that in rites for gods a silver vessel is not auspicious. Atri (q. by Sm. C. II, p. 464) says that in rites for the gods and pitṛs, vessels of gold and silver should be respectively employed and in default of these vessels of other metals (such as copper, bell-metal) should be used (as stated by Viṣṇu Dh. S. 79.22 and 24). The Padma provides²¹⁵ that the vessels may be of sacrificial wood or of palāśa or of silver or made from a sea product (such as conch shell) and that since silver was produced from the eye of Śiva, it is a great favourite with pitṛs. Prajāpati (111) provides that the three piṇḍas should be cast in a vessel of gold or silver or copper or bell metal or of rhinoceros horn but not in earthenware or a wooden vessel, that (verse 112) the cooking vessels should be of copper or of any metal, but an earthen vessel baked in fire and immersed in water is the best (for cooking), that food cooked in an iron vessel is like crow’s flesh, that (115) the vessels to be used for taking food by the brāhmaṇas should be made of gold, silver or of an alloy of five metals or they may take their food in patrāvali (i.e. leaves stitched together);

vide also Matsya 17. 19-20. The use of plantain leaves for bhojana is forbidden²¹⁶ by some. Brāhmanas should not take ācamana from a vessel made of bell-metal, kharpara, śukra, stone, clay, wood, fruit or iron. Ācamana should be performed with water from a copper vessel. Atri (153) prescribes that no food should be served from an iron vessel, if so served the food is like ordure to the diner and the server goes to hell. The vessels for cooking śrāddha food are to be made of gold, silver, copper or bellmetal or even of clay provided the last are new ones and strong(well baked) but never of iron. Vide Sr. Pr. p. 155 for details. The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (79. 24) quotes a verse which says that food offered in vessels of gold, silver, copper, rhinoceros horn or of phalgu wood becomes inexhaustible.

Viṣṇu Dh. S. 79. 11 provides that for unguents (anulepana) to be applied to the bodies of the invited brāhmaṇas, sandalwood, saffron, camphor, aguru, padmaka may be used. The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 165-166) mentions kuṣṭha, jaṭā-māṅsi, nutmeg, uśīra, mustā and some others as proper perfumed articles to be used at śrāddhas.

It has already been seen at pp. 413-14 what kinds of food were recommended or condemned for śrāddha. The Matsyapurāṇa²¹⁷ states that food containing milk and curds and clarified butter from cow’s milk mixed with sugar gives satisfaction to all pitṛs for one month and that whatever food, whether cow’s milk or ghee or rice cooked in milk, is mixed with honey, yields inexhaustible results. The Brahmapurāṇa also ( 220. 182-184) provides that such eatables as are sweet and oily and are slightly sour and pungent should be served in śrāddha and one should shun eatables that are very sour or very saltish or very pungent, since they are āsura (fit for asuras).

Great emphasis was laid on serving preparations of food made from māṣa beans. The Auśanasa²¹⁸ -smṛti pronounces the threat that the brāhmaṇa, who, when dining at śrāddha, does not eat māṣa food, becomes a beast for twenty-one births after death. The Sm. C. quotes a smṛti text saying that a śrāddha in which no māṣa preparation is offered is as good as not performed.

Serving flesh at śrāddha

The greatest divergence has prevailed about the employment of flesh at śrāddhas among writers from the earliest times. The subject of flesh-eating in general has been discussed at great length in the History of Dharmaśāstra, vol. II, pp. 772-782. A few remarks about flesh in relation to śrāddha will not be out of place here. The Ap. Dh. S. prescribes²¹⁹ that the obligatory śrāddha (to be performed every month) must contain food mixed with fat, the best course (for supplying fat) is to employ clarified butter and flesh; on failure of these two, sesamum oil and vegetables may be employed. The same sūtra also provides²²⁰ that the pitṛs are gratified for a year by the offering of cow’s flesh in a śrāddha, that by the flesh of a buffalo the gratification of pitṛs extends to more than a year, that this rule extends to the flesh of wild animals (like hares) and village (or domesticated) animals (like goats) that are declared to be fit for being sacrificed, that the gratification of pitṛs extends to endless time if the flesh of a rhinoceros is offered to brāhmaṇas seated on rhinoceros skin, so also by the flesh of the fish called ‘śatabali’ and the flesh of a Vārddhrīṇasa.

Vas. XI. 34 contains the following remarkable Verse: ‘an ascetic, when invited in a rite for the gods or pitṛs, who avoids (does not partake of) flesh, dwells in Hell for as many years as the number of hair (on the body of the animal whose flesh he avoids).’ Even the Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa (T. 140. 49–50) emphatically asserts that he who does not partake of flesh-food in a row of diners at a śrāddha which has been properly employed goes to hell. Manu V. 35 and Kūrma II. 17.40 contain a similar verse applicable to all those who are invited as brāhmaṇas at a śrāddha. The Kūrmapurāṇa II. 22.75 provides that the brāhmaṇa who is employed for the performance of a śrāddha and does not eat flesh offered therein becomes a beast for 21 births. Manu III. 257 states that the following are said to be proper offerings in a śrāddha by their very nature viz. food (prepared from nīvāra grain and the like) fit for a forest hermit, milk, soma juice, flesh that does not emit foul smell and unmanufactured salt. An ascetic was ordinarly required not to partake of flesh; but Vasiṣṭha insisted on his partaking of it when invited at a śrāddha.

Manu IIT. 267-272, Yāj. I. 258–260, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 80.1 ff, Anuśāsanaparva chap. 88, the Śrāddhasūtra of Katyāyana (kandikās, 7-8), Kūrmapurāṇa II, 20.40-42, 29. 2-8, Vāyu 83. 3-9, Matsya 17. 31-35, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 16.1-3, Padmapurāṇa (Sṛṣṭi 9. 158-164 ), Brahmapurāṇa 220.23-29, Viṣṇudharmottara I. 141.42-47 state at length the periods of time for which pitṛs are gratified by the flesh of certain animals being served at a śrāddha. The verses of Yāj. being the shortest in all these works are given below. Yāj.²²¹ states; Pitṛs are gratified by the serving of sacrificial food (such as rice, fruits, roots & c.) for a month, for a year by (cows’s milk or ) rice cooked in cow’s milk, for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 months respectively by the flesh of fishes (pāthina), of (red coloured) deer, of a ram, of a bird (such as a tittiri), of a goat, of a spotted deer, of a dark-coloured deer, of a ruru deer, of a wild boar, of a hare; the offering of rhinoceros flesh, of a fish called Mahāśalka, of honey, of food fit for hermits (wild corn such as nīvāra), the flesh of a red goat, of Mahāśāka (i. e. Kālaśāka), and the flesh of Vārdhrīnasa–these secure inexhaustible fruit.

There is some divergence of views among the several works. For example, Manu III. 267 and 271, Katyāyana (in śrāddhasūtra 7 ) appear to hold that by offering food prepared from village corn (such as rice, māṣa & c.) or wild eatables (such as nīvāra or fruits and roots) the gratification is only for one month and the flesh of Vārdhriṇasa produces gratification for twelve years only (and not for all time ). Viṣṇu Dh, S. 80.10 and Manu III. 270 bring in buffalo flesh and tortoise flesh as giving gratification for ten and eleven month respectively. Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 590 )²²² is careful to point out that these words about the duration of time are not to be taken literally but what is really intended is to convey greater and greater gratification of the pitṛs according to the kind of flesh offered. Pulastya quoted by the Mit. and Aparārka p. 555 provides that a brāhmaṇa should generally or mainly offer at a śrāddha hermit’s food, a kṣatriya or a vaiśya should offer flesh, a śūdra should offer honey and all varṇas may offer anything else (except these three) which is not forbidden²²³. Whoever may be the offerer, the eater at a śrāddha dinner was to be a brāhmaṇa alone and so it follows that brāhmaṇas invited to a śrāddha by a kṣatriya or vaiśya had to eat flesh. Yet it is remarkable that even the Mitākṣarā and the Kalpataru written about 1100-1120 A. D. do not expressly say that in the Kali age flesh-eating at śrāddha is totally prohibited at least for brāhmaṇas. It has been shown already (H. of Dh. vol. III, pp. 775-776) that even when animal sacrifices were the order of the day in the Ṛgveda and the Brāhmaṇas there was an undercurrent of thought that the offerings of fuel-sticks or of boiled rice when made with heart felt devotion to the gods were as good as flesh offerings for securing their favour.

Use of flesh in modern times

In course of time that conception grew stronger and stronger, so much so that Manu (V. 27-44 and V.46-47) and Vasiṣṭha appear to be in two minds (vide H. of Dh. vol. II pp. 778–780). Gradually the offering of flesh in Madhuparka and in śrāddhas came to be totally condemned in works of the 12th and 13th centuries and onwards as a matter prohibited in the Kali age (Varātithipitṛbhyaśca paśūpākaraṇakriyā). (Vide H. of Dh, vol. III pp. 945-946 and p. 964). Now except among the brāhmaṇas (in Northern India ) who have no objection to include fish in diet as permissible to them no brāhmaṇa offers flesh in śrāddha. The usage of Northern India would be in accordance with the view set out in Bṛhannāradiya-purāṇa that one should offer honey, flesh and other things according to the usage of the country, as explained by the Pṛthvicandrodaya.

Manu ( V.11-18) contains long lists of animals, birds and fishes whose flesh was not to be eaten even by those who were flesh-eaters.

If a person is destitute, some of the Purāṇas such as the Viṣṇu (III. 4.24-30) and the Varāha (13,53-58) mercifully provide in identical²²⁴ verses that instead of entertaining brāhmaṇas with a sumptuous dinner or flesh the poor man may offer only uncooked corn, or some vegetables growing wildly or some slight dakṣiṇā if he cannot offer even uncooked food or vegetables, or he may offer a few grains of sesamum (7 or 8 ) to a brāhmaṇa with water in his folded hands, or grass to a cow enough for one day and if he cannot afford even any one of these, then he may repair to a thicket of trees, raise his arms so that his armpits are exposed and loudly address the guardians of the worlds such as the Sun in the following words: ‘I have neither wealth nor money nor anything else fit to be offered by way of śrāddha; I bow to my pitṛs; may the pitṛs be satisfied by my devotion; I have stretched these arms in space!’ (lit. the path of the wind).

It is now time to describe the procedure of the PārvaṇaŚrāddha²²⁵ which is the pattern or norm (prakṛti) of the other śrāddhas²²⁶ (even including the Aṣtakās). Here one meets with great divergences of views even from the times of the sūtras up to modern times. Though the main items and stages in the rite of śrāddha are generally the same, there is variation in the mantras, the details and sometimes in the order of the several items. Kātyāyana lays down that every man has to follow his own sūtra as to the use of the word ‘svāhā’ or the words ‘svadhā namaḥ’, as to wearing the sacred thread in the yajñopavita or prācīnāvita way and as to the number of āhutis²²⁷.

It would be very interesting first to find out the vestiges of the sacrifice to the fathers in the most ancient Vedic texts. The Tai, S. (I. 8. 5. 1-2) deals²²⁸ with the Mahāpitṛyajña performed in Sākamedha, the third of the four Cāturmāsyas: “He offers to Soma accompanied by the pitṛs a cake baked on six potsherds, to the pitṛs Barhiṣadaḥ (sitting on darbha grass or in a yajña) fried grains, for the pitṛs called Agniṣvātta he milks a drink from a cow which has to be won over (to another calf). This for thee, O father and for those who come after thee (i.e. for thy descendants); this for thee, O grandfather, great-grandfather and for those who come after thee; do, yo Pitṛs rejoice in your portions. May we gladden thee, O Indra, that castest thy glance at us, come forth now with full chariot seat; being praised (by us) thou goest to places desired by you. Yoke, O Indra, thy two bay steeds. They (pitaraḥ) have eaten, they have rejoiced, the dear ones have dispelled (evil); the radiant sages have been praised with newest hymn, Yoke, O Indra, thy two bay steeds. The pitṛs have eaten, the pitṛs have rejoiced, the pitṛs have been glad, the pitṛs have purified themselves. Go away, O Pitṛs, that art soma-loving by your majestic ancient paths. Then reach ye the pitṛs that well know you (or everything) and that revel in the company of Yama.”

In the Tai.²²⁹ Br. I.2.10 the Piṇḍapitṛyajña is dealt with at some length. In the note below the important passages are set forth leaving out the legends, repetitions and matters not relevant to our purpose: “Therefore the rite (called piṇḍa pitṛyajña) is performed the day previous (to the Darśeṣṭi).

He says ’to Soma drunk by the pitṛs, svadhā! Adoration!’ He says to Agni, the carrier of kavya, svadhā! Adoration ! (Thereby ) he pleases the fire that pertains to the pitṛs. He offers (into fire ) three oblations; he puts down (on the darbhas spread on the ground) three piṇḍas. (These) thus come to six in number. Six indeed are the seasons. He (thereby) pleases the seasons. The seasons are indeed the shining (or divine) pitṛs……The darbha grass is cut with one stroke; the pitṛs have as it were (passed away) once for ever. He puts down thrice (the piṇḍas). The pitṛs are indeed in the third world from here. He (thereby) pleases them. He (the performer) turns his face away to the north from the south), for the Fathers are shy. He remains with his face turned away till the steam (of the boiled rice of the piṇḍas) ceases to rise, for the Fathers have the steam of rice as their share; he should simply gmell (the piṇḍas). That as if does not amount to eating or non-eating. The pitr̥s when departing (from the śrāddha rite) take away or grant a valiant son. He cuts off the fringe (of a garment to place it on the piṇḍas), for the share of Fathers is taking away (what is offered). He (thereby) allots their proper share to the pitṛs (and dismisses them). When the performer) is in the latter part of life (i. e, over 50 years of age) he cuts off hair (from his chest instead of presenting a daśa). At that time he is nearer to the pitṛs (when above 50 years of age). He offers adoration, because adoration (namaskāra) is dear to the pitṛs. Adoration to you, O Fathers, for vigour; adoration to you, O fathers, for life; adoration to you, O fathers, for svadhā; adoration to you, O fathers, for ardour; adoration, O fathers, for the terrible! O fathers! here is adoration to you. This (piṇḍapitṛyajña) is indeed a sacrifice of men (i.e. sacrifice to departed men) and other sacrifices belong to the gods.’ In the Tai. Br. I. 4. 10 the Pitṛyajña performed in sākamedha is praised (in 2) and further on it is said that Ṛtus (seasons) are pitṛs and they offered pitṛyajña to Prajāpati, their father. This passage supports the provision made in Manu and some of the digests that the Ṛtus are to be identified with pitṛs and obeisance is to be made to them²³⁰.

Piṇḍapitṛyajña in sat. Br.

The Sat. Br. (II. 4. 2) contains the following somewhat fuller account of the Piṇḍa-pitṛyajña, omitting legendary or other irrelevant matters :-When the moon is not seen either in the east or in the west, then he (the performer of the Darśa sacrifice) presents food to the Fathers in each month …… He presents it in the afternoon. The forenoon indeed belongs to the gods; the midday to men; and the afternoon to the Fathers; therefore he presents (food to the Fathers) in the afternoon. While seated behind the Gārhapatya fire with his face turned towards the south and the sacred thread on his right shoulder he takes that material (for the offering from the cart). Thereupon he rises from thence and threshes the rice while standing north of the Dakṣiṇa fire and facing the south. Only once does he clean the rice, for it is once for all that the fathers have passed away. He then boils it. While it stands on the Dakṣiṇa fire) he pours some clarified butter on it. After removing it (from the fire) he offers to the gods two oblations in the fire …… Here he is engaged in a sacrifice to the Fathers; hence he thereby propitiates the gods and being permitted by the gods, he presents that food to the Fathers. He offers to both Agni and Soma … He offers with the formula To Agni, the carrier of kavya (what is offered to the Manes), svāhā!’, ‘To Soma accompanied by the Fathers, svāhā!’ (Vāj. S. II 29). He then puts the pot-ladle (mekṣaṇa) on the fire, that being in lieu of the Sviṣṭakṛt. Thereafter he draws (with the sphya, the wooden sword) one line south of the Dakṣiṇa fire, that being in lieu of the altar. He then lays down a firebrand at the further (south) end of the line. For, were he to present that food to the Fathers without having laid down a firebrand, the Asuras and Rākṣasas would certainly tamper with it. … He lays it down with the text ‘whatsoever Asuras roam about being attracted by the svadhā (offering to Fathers), assuming various shapes, be they large-bodied or small-bodied, may Agni expel them from this world (Vāj. S. II, 30)… He then takes the water jar and makes the Fathers wash (their hands) merely saying ‘N. N., wash thyself’ (naming) the sacrificer’s father; ‘N. N. wash thyself (naming the sacrificer’s) grandfather; ‘N. N., wash thyself(naming) the sacrificer’s great-grandfather.

As one would pour out water (for a guest) when he is about to take food, so in this case. Now those (stalks of sacrificial grass) are severed with one stroke and cut off near the root; the top belongs to the gods, the middle part to men and the root part (of darbhas) to the fathers. Therefore they are cut off near the roots …… He spreads them along with the line with their tops towards the south. Thereon he presents (to the fathers the three round cakes of rice). He presents thus :- for the gods they offer thus: for men they ladle out; and in the case of the fathers they do in this very way; therefore he presents (the cakes to the fathers) thus. With ‘N. N., this for thee!’ he presents one cake to the sacrificer’s father. Some add ‘for those that come after thee’, but let him not say this, since he himself is one of those to whom it would be offered in common. Let him therefore merely say ‘N, N., this for thee!’ as to the sacrificer’s father; ‘N. N., this for thee’ as to his grandfather; ‘N. N., this for thee’ as to his great grandfather…He then mutters ‘Here, O fathers, regale yourselves; like bulls come hither each to his own share!’ (Vāj. S. II, 31). Whereby he says ‘Eat each his own share’. He then turns round to the left so as to face the opposite (north) side ; for the fathers are far away from men; and thereby he also is far away (from the fathers). ‘Let him remain (standing with bated breath) until his breath fail’ say some; ‘for thus far extends the vital energy’. However, having remained so far a moment-he again turns round (to the right) and mutters ’the Fathers have regaled themselves; like bulls they have come each to his own share’ (Vāj. S. II, 31); whereby what he says is ’they have eaten each his own share’. Thereupon he takes the water jar and makes them wash themselves (by pouring water on the piṇḍas), merely saying ‘N. N., wash thyself’ (naming) the sacrificer’s father; ‘N. N. wash thy self’ (naming) his grandfather; ‘N. N., wash thyself’ (naming) his paternal great-grandfather. Even as one would pour out (water for a guest). When he has taken his meal, so it is here. He then pulls down the tuck (of the sacrificer’s garment) and performs obeisance. The tuck is sacred to the Fathers; therefore he performs obeisance to them after pulling down the tuck, … Six times he performs obeisance, for there are six seasons and the fathers are the seasons. He mutters ‘Give us houses, O fathers’ for the fathers are the rulers of houses; and this is the prayer for blessing at this sacrificial performance. After the piṇḍas have been put back (in a dish) the sacrificer smells at (the rice); this (smelling) being the sacrificer’s share.

Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

IV]

Conceptions of Pārvaṇaśrāddha

431

The stalks of darbha cut with one stroke he puts on the fire; and he also throws away the firebrand on to the fire²³¹.

It will be noticed that many of the fundamental conceptions of a pārvaṇa-śrāddha are very clearly brought out in the Sat. Br. Wearing the sacred thread on the right shoulder, afternoon as the proper time, cleansing the paddy only once, boiling the rice on the Dakṣiṇa fire, offering into the same fire two oblations to the gods first, the two formulas of presentation to Agni Kavyavāhana and to Soma Pitṛmat, drawing a line or furrow to the south of the Dakṣiṇa fire, laying down a firebrand, making the three paternal ancestors wash (avanejana)²³², darbha grass severed from near the root, spreading the darbhas on the line or furrow and offering three piṇḍas to the three ancestors to regale themselves, turning away from the piṇḍas for a moment and then resuming his position and saying that the ancestors have regaled themselves, offering water for washing (pratayavanejana), pulling down the tuck and performing obeisance six times (and identifying the Fathers with seasons) and praying to the Fathers to bestow houses, smelling the boiled rice, throwing the darbhas and firebrand into the fire–these are the principal matters even now in the Pārvaṇa-śrāddha performed by students of the Śukla Yajurveda, although several other details (such as the introduction of the mother’s paternal ancestors) and some mantras are added. The Kātyāyana Sr. IV. 1. closely follows the Sat. Br., but adds certain details viz. he folds his hands and repeats the six mantras (Vāj. S. II, 32 ’namo vah pitaro rasāya’ &c.) throwing three threads on each piṇḍa with the mantra ’etadvaḥ’ (Vāj. S. II, 32) or the woollen fringe of a garment or hair from the chest of the sacrificer when he is beyond fifty years of age, sprinkling water on the piṇḍas or on the ground near them with (Vāj. S. II. 34)²³³.

Pārvaṇaśrāddha in Āśv. gr.

The other samhitās also contain identical mantras. For example, the Vaj. S. II. 29–34²³⁴ are mantras most of which are employed in the Piṇḍapitṛyajña in Sākamedha²³⁵. Similarly, in the Maitrāyani Samhitā²³⁶ I. 10.3. 10-21 these are mantras for the pitṛyajña employed in Sākamedha many of which are the same as in Vaj.s.or Tai. Br. M.S. I. 10.3.11 is the same as Vāj. S. III 52 and M, S, I. 10. 3. 17-20 are the same as Vāj. S. III.51,53-55. M.S. I. 10.3.13-14 greatly resemble Vaj.S. II. 32 and Tai. Br. I. 3. 10.8.

Coming to the sūtra literature, it is best to begin with the procedure of pārvaṇaśrāddha as described in the Āśv. gr. IV. 7-8 966. It is stated by the Anākula on Ap. gr. 21.1 that the monthly śrāddha (māsi-śrāddha) is the prakr̥ti of Aṣṭakā and other śrāddhas in which three ancestors are to be invoked. It is as follows: Now then at a Pārvaṇa-śrāddha, or at a śrāddha celebrated for securing some desired object, or at an Ābhyudayika-śrāddha or at an Ekoddiṣṭaśrāddha, the performer causes to sit down brāhmaṇas who are endowed with learning, moral character and proper conduct or who are endowed with ( at least) one (of these three characteristics ), who have been invited already in proper time, who have taken a bath, whose feet are washed (by the performer) and who have sipped water (taken ācamana), as representatives of (or equal to) the Fathers, with their faces turned to the north, one for each of the Fathers, or two for each or three for each. The larger the number of brāhmaṇas invited the greater is the fruit or reward. But in no case (should he invite ) only one for all (the Fathers ); or he may invite only one brāhmaṇa except at the first śrāddha²³⁷. By the exposition of the Piṇḍapitṛyajña the rules for the pārvaṇa-śrāddha have been declared. Having given water (into the hands of the invited brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas after they sit down) and double-folded darbha blades as a seat (on which the darbhas are to be kept), having again given water to them and having poured water into three vessels of metal (silver &c.), of stone and of earthenware or into three vessels made of the same substance (out of these three) which are covered over with darbha blades and having recited (over the water in the vessels ) the verse ‘śanno &c.’ (Ṛg. X. 9.4)²³⁸ the performer puts sesamum grains into the water with the mantra “Sesamum art thou, Soma is thy deity, at the Gosava[969] sacrifice thou hast been created by the gods, thou hast been offered by persons who are like ancient ones; through the svadhā mayst thou make the Fathers and these worlds pleased with us! svadhā! Adoration!” The different items of the rite are performed from the right to the left²³⁹. With the part of the other hand (i.e. left) between the thumb²⁴⁰ (and forefinger) since he wears the sacred thread over the left shoulder, or with the right which he seizes with the left, (he offers the Arghya water) to Fathers with the words “Father, this is: the arghya for thee; Grand-father, this is the arghya for thee; Great-grand father, this is the arghya for thee”; after first offering (ordinary) water to the Fathers. When about to induce the brāhmaṇas to accept the arghya water he should once only (for each brāhmaṇa or group of brāhmaṇas for each of the Fathers) say to them ‘svadhā! these are arghya waters’ and then over the waters that are poured out he recites the verse (separately for each brāhmaṇa) ‘The heavenly waters which have been produced on the earth, in the aerial regions and the waters that are terrestrial, that are golden-hued, and fit for sacrifice-may these waters bring us welfare and be favourable to us’. Pouring together (in the first vessel) what has been left in the vessels (for holding arghya water) he anoints his face with that water if he (the performer) desires that a son be born to him. ‘He should not remove the first vessel into which the arghya water for the Fathers has been poured (till the end of the rite). The Fathers dwell therein concealed; thus did Śaunaka say’²⁴¹. Just at that time the gifts of sandalwood paste, flowers, incense, lamp, and clothes are to be offered (to the brāhmaṇas)²⁴². Having taken some food (from the Sthālīpāka prepared for Piṇḍapitṛyajña) and smeared it with ghee he asks the brāhmaṇas’ permission in the words ‘I shall offer it in the fire’ or in the words ’let me offer in the fire’. The permission is given (by the brāhmaṇas) in the words ‘Let it be done’ or in the words’do it’. He then sacrifices in the fire as stated before ²⁴³ or (if the brāhmaṇas give permission) in the hands of the brāhmaṇas; since the Brāhmana text says ‘fire is verily the mouth of the Fathers’. If he offers in the hands of the brāhmaṇas²⁴⁴, then he assigns other food to them after they have sipped water and the food (that remains) is mixed with the food that is served to the brāhmaṇas, since it is said ‘what is abandoned and given to (brāhmaṇas )²⁴⁵ brings prosperity’. When he sees that the brāhmaṇas are satiated (with the food served at the dinner) he (the performer) should recite to the brāhmaṇas the verses containing the word ‘madhu’ (Ṛg. I. 90.²⁴⁶ 6-8) and also the verse ’they have eaten, they have enjoyed themselves’ (Ṛg. I. 82.2). Having asked the brāhmaṇas ‘was the dinner perfect?’ (they should reply that it was) and then having taken (portions of) the different foods that were enjoyed by the brāhmaṇas together with the sthālīpāka food in order²⁴⁷ to make lumps (piṇḍas) thereof he should present all (the rest of the food) to the brāhmaṇas. After the brāhmaṇas have either accepted (the rest of the food) or given him permission (to use it for his family and friends), and after they have finished eating he should, before they have sipped water (performed ācamana after finishing their dinner), put down the lumps²⁴⁸ (piṇḍas) for the Fathers. According to some teachers (piṇḍas are put down) after the brāhmaṇas have sipped water (on getting up from the dinner). Having strewn the food on the ground (near the remnants of food) and wearing the sacred thread on his left shoulder²⁴⁹ he should (after turning the first vessel with top upside and after giving dakṣiṇā to the brāhmaṇas) bid adieu to the brāhmaṇas saying ‘utter Om!Svadha’ or he should say ‘Om! Svadhā !’ (and they should reply Om! Svadhā!)²⁵⁰.

From considerations of space it is impossible to set out all the differences among the several gṛhyasūtras of the Ṛgveda, of the Taittiriya śākhā (viz. Baudhāyana, Āp., Hir., Bharadvāja and Vaikhānasa), of the Vājasaneya śākhā (such as Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana), of the Sāmaveda (such as Gobhila and Khādira) and of the Atharvaveda (being Kauśika sūtra). A few matters may be set out by way of illustration. The Āp. gr. (21. 3-4)²⁵¹ states that after the brāhmaṇas are invited for śrāddha dinner) from the food prepared for the dinner a portion is taken out in a vessel and therefrom seven āhutis are cast into the fire with the seven mantras beginning with ‘yan me mātā’ (in Āp. M. P. II. 19, 1-7), the first two for the father, the next two for the grand-father, next two for the great-grand-father and the 7th to pitṛs in general with svāhā (but without naming any one) and then six oblations of clarified butter are offered with the six formulas beginning with ‘svāhā pitṛe’ (Ap. M. P. II. 19, 8-13). Thus the agnaukaraṇa in Ap. consists of two parts viz, āhutis of food and of clarified butter, while in Asv. it is made only with food. Then the performer should touch all food (cooked food and the remainder of what is employed for offering into fire ) with the three mantras “eṣa te tata madhumān’ (Ap. M. P. II. 19. 14-16), he should make the brāhmaṇas touch the food served to each with the Yajus formula ’the earth is thy vessel’ (Ap. M. P. 2. 20. 1) quoted in n. 992 below.

Āp. gr. prescribes the mantra, ‘putrān pautrān’ (Ap. M. P. II. 20. 24) for moistening the piṇḍas, while Baud. gr. and Vaikhānasa gr. (IV. 6) employ the mantra “ūrjam vahantir’ (Vāj. S. II, 34) for the same purpose. It may be noted that these sūtras which belong to the Taittiriya śākhā employ a Verse from another recension viz. the Śukla Yajurveda.

The Hir. Gr. (II. 10-13) is more elaborate than the Ap. Gr. and not only sets out at length many of the mantras in Āp. M. P. II. 19-20, but adds some more. The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana (1-3) sets out the procedure of the monthly śrāddha almost in the same way as the Yājñavalkyasmṛti (which is set out below). It states that in the monthly śrāddha first come the daiva rites and then the various items occur as in the Piṇḍa-pitṛyajña ‘piṇḍapitṛyajña-vad-upacāraḥ’ (first sūtra of the 2nd kaṇḍikā). Some details which it contains (and Yāj. does not expressly mention) may be set out here. It gives in full the mantras “tilosi’, ‘yā divya’ (both of which occur in Aśv. gr.), ‘pṛthivi to pātram’ (which is Āp. M. P. II, 20.1). It prescribes that in addition to the Gāyatri and the Madhumati verses the word ‘madhu’ should be repeated thrice. The holy texts to be repeated while the brāhmaṇas are engaged in eating according to Kātyāyana are the Gāyatri (once or thrice), the five Rākṣoghni verses (Ṛg. IV. 4.1-5, Vaj. S. XIII. 9-13, Tai. S. T. 2. 14. 1-2). Puruṣasūkta, the Apratiratha hymn (Ṛg.X. 103. 1-13 = Vaj. S. 17. 33-34, 46 = Tai. S. IV. 6. 4. 1-4) and others. It expressly states that the svadhāvācana (Yāj. I. 244) relates to both paternal and maternal ancestors. Besides the blessing contained in Yāj. I. 246, Katyāyana provides that the performer is to pray for and the brāhmaṇas are to pronounce two more viz. ‘May the pitṛs be kind (lit. not dreadful) to us’ and ‘May our family prosper’. Dr. Caland in his learned work ‘Altindischer Ahnencult’ (pp. 150–152) appears inclined to hold that when a sūtrakāra has not actually said anything on certain items in the śrāddha ritual, one has no right to anticipate, on the authority of later authors, that those items existed in the times of that sūtrakāra. I demur to this conclusion. Dr. Caland has attached no weight to the fact that Jaimini (as stated in H. of Dh, vol. III p. 870) laid down the principle that one may include certain items from another śākhā. Jaimini’s sūtras cannot be supposed to have laid down those propositions for the first time. Jaimini’s sūtras are at least as old as some of the extant śrauta sūtras such as that of Katyāyana. Therefore hardly any chronological conclusions can be drawn with certainty from the silence of a sūtrakāra as to a certain item in the śrāddha ritual.

We shall now turn to the metrical smṛtis. Manu Treats of the procedure of Śrāddha at some length in III. 208–265. But as the procedure prescribed by the Yājñavalkyasmṛti (I. 226–249) is more compact and at the same time more lucid it is set out here. “When the invited brāhmaṇas come in the afternoon the performer having a pavitra²⁵² in his hand should seat them on seats and make them sip water. The brāhmaṇas invited should be even in number (2, 4 &c.) according to the performer’s resources at the daiva rite (i.e. the Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇas should be two, four &c.) and uneven (three or five &c.) at a (pārvaṇa) śrāddha for the pitṛs; the brāhmaṇas should be seated in a pure (cow dunged) plot screened on all sides and sloping towards the south. At the daiva (part of pārvaṇaśrāddha when Viśve-devāḥ are to be invoked) two brāhmaṇas facing the east should sit down and three brāhmaṇas facing the north should be seated in the rite for the pitṛs or only one may be seated for each (i.e, in daiva and in pitṛya). The same rule applies to a śrāddha for maternal ancestors. In both (pitṛśrāddha and mātāmahaśrāddha) the worship of Viśvedevas may be performed separately or simultaneously²⁵³. Then having poured water on the hands of the brāhmaṇas (meant for the rite in honour of viśve-devāḥ) and having given kuśa blades for a seat²⁵⁴ (towards their right side on the seat already occupied), he should, with the permission of the invited brāhmaṇas, invoke the Viśvedevāḥ with the verse ‘O! all the gods come!’ (Ṛg. II. 41.13 or VI. 52.7; Vāj. S. VII. 34).

Having scattered on the ground (near the brāhmaṇas representing Viśve-devāḥ) barley grains and then having cast into a vessel (of metal &c.) covered with a pavitra water with the verse ‘śan no devir’ (Ṛg.x.9.4, Vaj.S.36.12, Tai. Ar. IV. 42.4) and barley grains with the mantra ‘Yavosi’ (Vāj. S. V. 26, Tai. S. I. 3. 1. 1) and (also sandalwood paste and flowers) he should place in the hands (of the brāhmaṇas) the arghya²⁵⁵ water with the verse ‘yā divya’ (those heavenly waters &c., Tai. Br. II. 7. 15.4). Then he should pour water into the hand (of the Vaiśva-deva brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas) for washing the hand and give to them perfumes, flowers, incense, lamp²⁵⁶ and garment. Then wearing the sacred thread on the right shoulder²⁵⁷ and under the left arm (i.e, being prācināviti) the performer should offer to the pitṛs (i.e. to the three brāhmaṇas representing them) double-folded kuśas (with water) for a seat on the left (i. e, on the seats already occupied kuśas should be placed on the left side for a viṣṭara), he should then invoke²⁵⁸ the pitṛs after taking the permission of the brāhmaṇas with the ṛk. ‘uśantas-tvā’ (Ṛg. X. 16. 12, Vāj. S. 19.70, Tai. S. II. 6. 12. 1), and should then recite in a low voice the mantra (āyantu naḥ pitaraḥ) ‘may the pitṛs come to us’ (Vāj. S. 19. 58). The performer, having scattered sesamum seeds all round (the brāhmaṇas) with the mantra ‘Apahatā’ (Vāj. S. II. 29), should employ sesamum for all purposes where yavas were employed (in the daiva part of the ceremony) and should perform all the items such as giving arghya (water for worship) for the pitṛs as before (for the daiva rite). After offering arghya water, he should collect the drops of the arghya water fallen from the hands (or fingers ) of the brāhmaṇas in one vessel (the pitṛ vessel), them turn it upside down²⁵⁹ on the ground (over a bunch of kuśas with ends turned towards the south) with the mantra ’thou art a place for the pitṛs.’²⁶⁰. Then, being about to perform “agnaukaraṇa’ (offering in sacrifice), he takes the food mixed with clarified butter and asks the brāhmaṇas (in the words ‘I shall offer into the sacred fire’) and when permitted by them with the words ‘do so’, he offers into the fire (two portions cut off from the food mixed with ghee) with a mekṣaṇa²⁶¹ according to the procedure laid down for Piṇḍapitṛyajña. He, being intent (only on performing śrāddha correctly), should serve the food that remains after (making the two offerings mentioned above) in plates (except earthen one) that he may be able to secure, and particularly silver oness (plates are meant for feeding pitsya brāhmaṇas). After serving the food in the plates, he should invoke over the plates the mantra ’the earth is thy²⁶² support’, he should take hold of the thumb of the brāhmaṇas and put it on the food (served in the plates) with the mantra²⁶³ ‘idam Viṣṇur’ (‘Viṣṇu strode over this’ Ṛg. I. 22. 17, Vāj, S. V. 15, Tai S. I. 2. 13. 1). The performer should then mutter the Gāyatri verse (Ṛg. III. 62. 10, Vāj. S. III. 35, Tai. S. I. 5. 6. 4) together with ‘Om’ and the ‘Vyāhṛtis’ and the three verses beginning with ‘Madhu vātā’ (Ṛg. I. 90. 6-8, Vāj. S. 13. 27–29, Tai. S. IV. 2.9.3), he should say ‘partake (of the food) as you please’ and the brāhmaṇas also should eat the food silently. He should serve without anger or bustle food fit for being offered as havis (in a śrāddha) and liked by the brāhmaṇas till they are satiated (so that some food is left in their plates) and should repeat (while the brāhmaṇas are engaged in eating) sacred texts and the texts for Japa (Gāyatri &c. already referred to in Yaj. I. 239 above). The sacred texts to be repeated according to the Mit. on Yāj. I. 240 are the Puruṣasūkta (Ṛg. X. 90. 1-16), the Pāvamāni verses (i.e. verses like ‘svādiṣṭhayā madiṣṭhayā’ from the 9th maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda as stated by Medhātithi on Manu III, 86 and Haradatta on Gautama (19. 12). Manu III. 232 mentions other works for recitation such as the dharmaśāstras, ākhyānas, itihāsa (Mahābhārata), purāṇas and khilas (like Śrīsūkta and Vidyāsūkta).

Japa in Pārvaṇaśrāddha

There is great divergence of views about the sacred texts to be recited by the performer in a low voice, while the brāhmaṇas are engaged in partaking the food cooked for śrāddha. Vide note 1005 below. It may be that the japa of sacred texts is to be done by the performer wearing the sacred thread in the upavita way as stated by Hemādri p. 1070 and the Madana-pārijāta p. 599, but the Śrāddhatattva (p. 231) is opposed to this and relies on Manu III. 279. Certain verses from the Purāṇas also are to be recited such as the verses from the Varāhapurāṇa (14. 26-31) and Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 15. 31-36, which are identical with the preceding) quoted by the Kalpataru on śrāddha (p. 197), Aparārka (p. 502) and Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 109), the first and last of which are quoted in the note below²⁶⁴. The Garudapurāṇa (Ācārakhaṇḍa 218.20 ff.) prescribes that while the brāhmaṇas are eating one may recite a eulogy of pitṛs such as the ‘saptavyādha’ verses²⁶⁵.

Then, after holding the food in his hands, the performer should ask the brāhmaṇas ‘are you satisfied’ (and after they reply that they are satisfied) he should tell them that there is food still left (and ask them what to do with it) and after taking their permission²⁶⁶ (in the words ‘partake of it along with your friends and relations’), he should spread (in front of the brāhmanas for pitṛs) the remaining food on (darbhas with their ends to the south placed over) the ground (with the mantra ‘ye agnidagdhāḥ’, those that were cremated and those that were not cremated &c.) and he should pour water once for each into his hand (for rinsing the mouth). Collecting all the cooked food (i.e. portions from each food) with sesamum mixed with it, the performer facing the south should offer the piṇḍas near the remains of the food (eaten by the brāhmaṇas) according to the procedure of the piṇḍapitṛyajña, For maternal ancestors also the same procedure is to be followed (from invoking the Visvedevāḥ to offering piṇḍas). Then he should give water to the brāhmaṇas for sipping. Then (he should say to the brāhmaṇas ‘pronounce benediction’); after making the brāhmaṇas say ‘svasti’, he should offer water into their hands for saying ’let it be inexhaustible’(after he requests them ’let it be inexhaustible’). Then after giving to the brāhmaṇas dakṣiṇā (fee or presents)²⁶⁷ according to the ability of the performer, he should say to the brāhmaṇas “may I request you to repeat the word ‘svadhā’” and when they permit him in the words ‘do request us’, he should say ’let svadhā be pronounced for the persons concerned’ (i.e. the pitṛs and maternal ancestors). Then the brāhmaṇas should say ’let there be svadhā’. On the brāhmaṇas saying so, he should sprinkle water on the ground and say ’let the Visvedevāḥ be pleased’ and when the brāhmaṇas have responded with ‘let the Viśve–devāḥ be pleased’ he should mutter the following:²⁶⁸ May donors increase in our family, may the (study or teaching of) Vedas prosper and progeny increase in our family); may our faith (in rites for pitṛs) not vanish and may there be plenty of things for us to make gifts’²⁶⁹. Having muttered this, having spoken pleasing words to the brāhmaṇas²⁷⁰, having fallen at their feet (after going round them) he being pleased in his heart should dismiss the brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘Vāje vāje’ (Ṛg. VII, 38.8, Vāj. S. 21.11, Tai. S. I. 7.8.2), the sending them away being so arranged that the brāhmaṇas representing the pitṛs start first²⁷¹, (i.e. first goes the representative of the great-grandfather, then the one for the grandfather, then the one for the father and then the one representing the Viśvedevāḥ). The vessel in which the drops of arghya water from the hands of the brāhmaṇas had been collected before should be turned face upwards²⁷² and then the brāhmaṇas should be dismissed. After following the departing brāhmaṇas (up to the boundary) and going round them, he (should return) and should eat the food that remains in the house after) the brāhmaṇas representing the pitṛs have partaken of it. He and the brāhmaṇas that partook of the śrāddha dinner should abstain from sexual intercourse on the night of the śrāddha day²⁷³.

Many of the Purāṇas contain detailed descriptions of the śrāddha to be performed on every amāvāsyā; for example, Matsya 17. 12-60 (closely resembling Yāj. 225-259), Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 15. 13-49, Mārkaṇḍeya 28. 37-60, Kūrma (II. 22. 20-62), Padma (sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa) 9. 140-186), Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghātapāda, chap. 12), Skanda VI. 224. 3-51, Viṣṇudharmottara I. 140.6-44. The Agnipurāṇa chap. 163 verses 2-42 are the same (with very slight variations and the omission of 2 1/2 verses) as Yāj. I. 227-270; while Agni chap. 117 contains many verses that closely follow the Āśv. Gr. and Yāj. Similarly the Garudapurāṇa contains numerous verses that are identical with Yājñavalkya’s. For example, compare Yāj. I. 229-239 with Garuda I. 99. 11-19. The Purāṇas closely follow the Gṛhya sūtras, Manu and Yājñavalkya and often employ the same mantras and formulas, though here and there they introduce some details. As remarked by the Varāhapurāṇa 14.51, the procedure for śrāddha is the same in all Purāṇas (iyam sarvapurāṇeṣu sāmányā paitriki kriyā). For sample, a summary of the procedure in the Padma (sṛṣṭi 9. 140-186) is set out here, The performer having honoured the Viśve-devāḥ (i.e. the brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas invited to represent them) with a seat and with yava grains and flowers should fill two vessels with water and should place them on a pavitra of darbhas. The water should be offered with the verse ‘śam no devir’ (Ṛg. X. 9.4) and the yava grains with ‘Yavosi’. They should be invoked with the verse ‘Viśve devāsaḥ’ (Ṛg. II, 41.13) and yavas should be scattered about with the two verses ‘Viśve devāsaḥ’ (Ṛg. II. 41. 13-14) and he should scatter about yava grains with the verse ’thou art yava, the king of grains &c.’ ( quoted²⁷⁴ below).

After decking the brāhmaṇas with sandalwood paste and flowers he should honour them with water with the verse²⁷⁵ ‘yā divyā’ (vide n. 985). After taking leave of the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas that have been honoured with arghya he should begin the pitṛyajña. He should prepare seats with darbhas on them, worship three vessels, place pavitras on them and pour water in them with ‘śam no devir’ (Ṛg. X. 9.4), should cast sesamum grains in them with ’tilosi’ and then put in them sandalwood and flowers. (Then verses 147-152 speak about the vessels to be employed). He then should announce the names and gotra of his ancestors and give darbhas in the hands of the brāhmaṇas. He should then request brāhmaṇas with the words ‘I shall invite the pitṛs’ and when they reply ’let it be so’ he should invoke the pitṛs with the two verses ‘uśantas tvā’ (Ṛg. X. 16.12) and ‘ā yantu’ (Vaj. S. 19.58). Then, having offered arghya to the brāhmaṇas (representing the pitṛs) with ‘yā divyā’ (vide n. 985), having given them sandalwood paste and the other things including garment as the last, he should collect the remainder of the water (in the arghya vessels) into the vessel meant for the father and should keep aside the latter to the north with its top turned downwards with the words ’thou art a seat of the pitṛs’. Then he should begin to serve various kinds of food after bringing the utensils in which the food was cooked and holding them with both hands. (Verses 157-165 speak of the various foods to be offered and the periods of gratification caused thereby to the pitṛs). While the brāhmaṇas are engaged in eating he should recite the Vedic hymns²⁷⁶ referring to the Fathers, all the Purāṇas, various eulogies of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, the Sun, Rudra and the Vedic hymns addressed to Indra, Rudra and Soma and the Pāvamāni verses, the Sāmans called Bṛhat, Rathantara and Jyeṣṭha Sāman, the chapter on Śānti rites (propitiatory rites for removing evil events or prognostications), the Madhubrāhmaṇa, the Mandala Brāhmaṇa and whatever else gives pleasure to the brāhmaṇas and the performer; and the Mahābhārata also should be recited, as it is very dear to the pitṛs.

After the brāhmaṇas have finished their dinner the performer should collect together in a lump portions from all kinds of food, put water over them and spread²⁷⁷ it (on the ground over darbhas) in front of the plates of the dining brāhmaṇas and should say²⁷⁸ ‘May those persons in our family that were cremated or not cremated be gratified by the food offered on the ground and being gratified may they attain the highest world (or bliss)! May this food offered on the ground for the gratification of those that have neither father nor mother nor relative nor any other friend and have no food (offered by any one else in śrāddha) proceed for union with them wherever it may have to go’! The remainder of the food cooked for śrāddha and food spread on the ground are the lot (or share) of those that died without the saṁskāras (caula, upanayana and the like) being performed on them, that abandoned their gurus and of (unmarried) women of the family. Finding that the brāhmaṇas are satisfied (by the dinner) he should give water once in the hand of each brāhmaṇa, should place on the ground smeared with cow’s dung and urine darbhas with their ends turned to the south and place on them piṇḍas made from all kinds of foods (cooked for the śrāddha dinner) following the method employed in Piṇḍapitṛyajña after washing them with water. He should then utter the names and gotra (of the ancestors to whom the piṇḍas are to be offered) and should offer flowers and the rest and should again wash them (piṇḍas). He should perambulate the piṇḍas thrice holding darbhas in his hand and he should light lamps and offer flowers for the piṇḍas. When the brāhmaṇas sip water after eating the dinner, he should himself sip water and give water once to each of the brāhmaṇas and flowers and akṣatas and then akṣayyodaka with sesamum grains. He should then make according to his means presents to the brāhmaṇas) of cows²⁷⁹, land, gold, clothes, splendid beds and whatever else was liked by the brāhmaṇas or by the performer himself or his father. He should not be stingy in his presents. Then he should request the brāhmaṇas to say ‘svadhā’ and they should do so. Then he should request the brāhmaṇas to pronounce the following benedictions and should receive them from them while he faces the east. They are ‘May the pitṛs be kind (not dreadful) to us’; the brāhmaṇas should say ’let it be so’; ‘May our family increase!’; they should say ‘so be it’; ‘May donors in my family prosper and also (the study of) the Vedas and progeny and may these benedictions come out true!’; they should respond let it be so’. He should then remove the piṇḍas and request the brāhmaṇas to utter the word ‘svasti’ and they should do so. The remains of the food eaten by the brāhmaṇas remain (unremoved or unwiped) till the brāhmaṇas are dismissed; then he should perform the (usual) daily rites Vaiśvadeva, balihoma²⁸⁰ &c. The remnants of food that lie on the ground are the share of the group of slaves that were straight-forward and not roguish (dishonest or shirkers ). The performer holding a vessel full of water and muttering the verse ‘vāje vāje’ (Ṛg. VII. 38. 8, Vāj. S. IX. 18, Tai. S. I. 7. 8. 2) should touch the brāhmaṇas with the tip of kuśas and dismiss them. He should follow them out of his house for eight paces, should circumambulate them, should then return with his relatives, sons and wife, should then perform the daily Vaiśvadeva and balihoma. Then after Vaiśvadeva he should together with his relatives, sons, guests and servants partake of the food that remains in the cooking pots after what was eaten by the brāhmaṇas.

It should be noticed how closely the Padmapurāṇa follows the procedure (including the mantras ) contained in Yājñavalkya. What procedure the author of a Purāṇa follows depends upon his learning and the sūtra that he studied. For example, the Viṣṇudharmottara 1.140 appears to rely on the Ap.gr. and the Ap. M. P. (II. 19-20), since I. 140, 12 refers to Āp. M. P. II, 19.1., 1. 140.29-30 to Ap. M. P. II. 19. 14-16, I. 140. 35 to Āp. M. P. II, 20.1. Similarly, Skanda (VI. 224. 3-51) closely follows Āśv. gr and Yāj.

Owing to the difference in details of śrāddha in the several gṛhyasūtras, the smṛtis and the purāṇas, an important question arises whether a person should perform a śrāddha rite only in accordance with the gṛhyasūtra of his own Veda or Śākhā or whether he may perform it after the inclusion (upasaṁhāra ) of the several items found in other sūtras and smṛtis though not included in the kalpa or gṛhyasūtra of his own Śākhā. This topic is discussed at great length by Hemādri (on śrāddha ) pp. 748-759 and briefly by Medhātithi on Manu II, 29 and XI.216, by the Mit, on Yāj. III. 325, Aparārka p. 1053 and others. Those who are for strictly following the details in one’s own sūtra alone argue as follows: If one were at liberty to include details other than those contained in one’s own sūtra, the order of the details (krama) given in one’s sutra and the time specified for each detail would be interfered with. Besides, if the addition of details were permissible, one would be liable to the charge of giving up the usages of one’s own family handed down for generations. These objectors rely upon such passages as that of the Viṣṇudharmottara which states ‘He who violating (the dictates of ) his own sūtra acts according to a sutra meant for others, treats thereby his own sage ( the author of his sūtra ) as unauthoritative and incurs (the blame of) doing what is improper.’²⁸¹ The smṛtis that contain additional details may be meant for those men who have no kalpa or gṛhyasūtra of their own or they may be useful for Śūdras.

Those who espouse the view that as far as possible all details found in several gṛhyasūtras and smṛtis on one rite should be included by every one rely mainly on Jaimini II. 4. 8-33 which is called ‘śākhāntarādhikaraṇanyāya’ or ‘sarvaśākhāpratyayanyāya’. The principal sutra is Jai. II. 4. 9.²⁸² It is established in this sūtra that the prayojana (purpose ) or phala (reward to be secured) of the rite is the same in different sūtras and smṛtis. For example, the rewards of śrāddha are stated to be the same in all sūtras and smr̥tis (vide notes 787-790 above); then the dravya (materials) and the deity are the same (in Pārvaṇaśrāddha the deities are the paternal ancestors and the materials, viz. kuśas, tilas, water, vessels, foods &c. are the same in all works).

The effort that is enjoined (the vidhi) is the same and the name (Pārvaṇaśrāddha, Ekoddiṣṭa śrāddha &c.) is the same. Therefore, on account of these various signs one easily recognizes that the same rite is being dealt with by all sūtras, even if many of them differ in details. It cannot be said that smṛtis will be useful for those who have no sutras of their own. Each man of the first three varṇas is attached to some sūtra or other by the tradition of his family or caste. Similarly, the smṛtis cannot be held to be meant for śūdras alone, since the smṛtis mainly deal with upanayana, the study of the Vedas, agnihotra and other matters with which a śūdra has no concern. Similarly, the objection that if details were allowed to be inserted from other sūtras and smṛtis the krama and kāla prescribed in one’s Sūtra might have to be set aside, the reply is contained in Jai. I. 3. 5-7 (explained at great length in H. of Dh. vol. III. pp. 841-848 )²⁸³. The śruti says ‘after getting ready a bundle of kuśa grass he prepares the vedi (altar)’. Here a certain order of acts is laid down. If after a bundle of kuśas is got ready, the man has a sneeze, he has to sip water (perform ācamana) immediately as laid down by Manu V. 145 and Vas. III. 38 before he prepares the vedi. So the objector says the krama will be interfered with. The reply is that the sequence (krama) is only a characteristic of the items in the śruti passage, that all that is meant is that the making of the altar follows the getting ready of a kuśa bundle, but that it is not meant that the making of the vedi should follow immediately after the bundle is got ready. Therefore, the conclusion is that whatever detail is not in conflict with one’s own śākhā or sutra may be included in the rite one is about to perform, but if there is a direct conflict, then one should stick to one’s own sūtra. As observed by Kātyāyana ‘whatever is declared, whether in great detail or in brief, in one’s own gṛhyasūtra about a rite, if he performs that much, it may be taken that he has done all that is required of him; but what is not handed down in one’s śākhā (or sūtra) but is contained in another śākhā and is not in conflict with one’s own śākhā, should be performed by the learned, as in the case of agnihotra and the like’²⁸⁴.

The first verse of Katyayana may be explained as applying where one’s śākhā or sūtra deals with a matter without requiring any addition or as the next best course where one is not able to supplement one’s sūtra owing to some unseen cause or owing to human difficulties. The Saṅgraha says that where different items of the śrāddha rite are declared to be performed at different times and there is no agreement among the sages, one should follow one’s gṛhyasutra, but where one’s gṛhyasūtra is silent as to a certain item or as to the stage when it is to be performed, there is an option and one may follow the opinion of some gage as to that item²⁸⁵. It appears that even the ancient gṛhya sūtras exhibit tendencies that led to the sarvaśākhā-pratyaya-nyāya e.g. Aśv. gr. (q. in n. 966) employs several passages (such as ‘Tilosi’, ‘Yādivyā,’ which do not occur in the Ṛgveda.)

It is owing to this maxim of ‘sarvaśākhā-pratyayanyāya’ that medieval digests go on heaping up details from all smṛtis and purāṇas in their descriptions of the several śrāddhas, the procedures of which were not originally very extensive.

The Kūrmapurāṇa²⁸⁶ provides that the performer should before noontime is past bring to his house the invited brāhmaṇas who have shaved themselves and pared their nails, should offer them materials for brushing the teeth and request them to sit down on separate seats, then give them oil and water for bathing. It will be seen that here the purāṇa has added several details that were not provided for by the Āśv. gr̥. (n. 966), Manu (III. 208 ), Yāj. (I. 226) and even by some of the purāṇas such as the Varāha 14, 8, which begin the procedure with seating the brāhmaṇas in the afternoon on seats after welcoming them. Many more examples could be given, but that attempt is not made owing to considerations of space.

Before proceeding to give some idea as to how the pārvaṇaśrāddha was dealt with in medieval and modern times, observations must be made on several relevant matters, on which there is a difference of views or which are important in a general way.

When the invited brāhmaṇas come afternoon, it is provided in some of the purāṇas that two maṇḍalas should be made in front of the performer’s residence for receiving the brāhmaṇas. For example, the Nāradapurāṇa states²⁸⁷ the maṇḍala for a brāhmaṇa performer should be square (four cornered) in size, for a kṣatriya triangular, circular for a vaiśyà and for a śūdra mere sprinkling of the ground with water is enough.’ The maṇḍalas should be made on ground smeared with cowdung and with water mixed with cow’s urine. Of the two maṇḍalas one should be on the northern side sloping towards the north and the other on the southern side sloping towards the south. On the northern maṇḍala kuśas with points towards the east should be placed along with akṣata (unbroken or whole) grains and on southern one double-folded kuśas should be placed along with sesamum grains. The northern maṇḍala should generally be two cubits on each side while the southern one should be four cubits on each side. The brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas that represent the Viśvedevāh should be honoured in the northern maṇḍala first by the performer himself with water for washing their feet after bending his right knee and the brāhmaṇas representing the pitṛs should be then honoured in the southern maṇḍala with water for washing the feet (hence called pādya) after bending his left knee.

Making of maṇḍalas

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The mantra at the time of offering pādya is “śanno devir’ Ṛg. X. 9. 4)²⁸⁸. After the mantra is recited he should give the water to the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas and to the pitṛya brāhmaṇas as noted below (in n,1017). After the pādya water is offered the brāhmaṇas should come in front of the maṇḍalas and sip water ( take ācamana).

The ancient sūtras and smr̥tis like those of Manu and Yāj. (T. 229) say generally that the Viśvedevāḥ are to be invoked, but some of the later smṛtis (such as Prajapati, verses 179-190) and purāṇas contain verses enumerating ten names of Viśve devās and assign two each (out of the ten) to five classes of śrāddhas. They say²⁸⁹: “in śrāddha performed in an iṣti the Viśvedevas are Kratu and Dakṣa, in a Nándimukha śrāddha they are Vasu and Satya, in Kāmyaśraddha Dhuri and Locana, in naimittika śrāddha Kāla and Kāma and in Pārvaṇa-śrāddha Purūravas and Ārdrava’. According to the Sm. C. and Hemādri a seat (āsana) is to be given to the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas and invocations are to be made in the several śrāddhas after taking the names enumerated above.

The Mit. on Yaj. I. 229, Hemadri (on śrāddha p. 1225) and other digests state that the mantras for invoking the Viśvedevas in Pārvaṇa-śrāddha are two viz. ‘Viśvedevāsa āgata’ (Ṛg. II, 41.13) and ‘āgacchantu mahābhāgā’ (q. above in note 984), while the Sm. C. (p. 444) prescribes an additional mantra ‘viśve devāḥ śruṇuta’ (Ṛg. VI. 52. 13).

The general rule is that the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas are to be seated facing the east and the pitṛya brāhmaṇas facing the north (Yāj. I. 228, Varāha 14. 11), but there were at least five differing views about the directions which the brāhmaṇas were to face as Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 1200) points out. It is further pointed out by Hemādri and others (like Yāj. I. 247) that in all items in the procedure of śrāddha the Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇas have precedence except in the matter of washing the hand smeared with the remains of food and the final dismissal of the brāhmaṇas at the end of the śrāddha²⁹⁰. It may be noted that in southern and western India brāhmaṇas invited at śrāddha are worshipped, while in Bengal it is the effigy made with darbhas (darbhabatu) that is worshipped as shown by the late M. M. Haraprasad Shastri (Catalogue of Mss, vol. III p. 406). The Śrāddha-tattva (folio 2b) of Raghunandana provides for the same: ‘purūravā-mādravasor viśveṣām devānām pārvaṇa-śrāddham kuśamayabrāhmane kariṣye iti pṛcchet.’

In the Vāyupurāṇa²⁹¹ it is stated that the following mantra should be repeated thrice at the beginning and end of a śrāddha and at the time of offering piṇḍas; on repeating it the pitṛs come quickly to the śrāddha and rāksasas run away and that the mantra saves the pitṛs in all the three worlds. The mantra is ‘Perpetual adoration to the gods, to pitṛs and to the great Yogins, to svadhā, to svāhā’.

‘Saptārcis’ mantra

The Sm. C. (on śrāddha p. 441) states that the mantra should be repeated after the brāhmaṇas come and sit down and before kuśas are placed on the seats of the brāhmaṇas. This mantra occurs also in Brahmapurāṇa 220.143, Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghātapāda 11. 22), Viṣṇudharmottara I. 140, 68-70 and is styled ‘saptārcis’ by the last two and is said to be equal to Aśvamedha.

A certain order of words about referring to the ancestors in offering a seat, offering kuśas on seat, and arghya is laid down by Bṛhaspati²⁹², some of the purāṇas and the digests. As almost in every case there are different views here also. Bṛhaspati says: ‘when giving a seat, when offering arghya, or piṇḍas, in offering ablutions of water on piṇḍas, the performer has to declare his relation to each of the ancestors, the names and gotras of the ancestors and also the form in which each of the ancestors is to be contemplated (viz, as Vasu, Rudra, Āditya respectively). It is further laid down that the genitive is to be employed for the ancestor’s name in offering a seat ( to the pitṛya brāhmaṇa) and aksayyodaka, the objective in invoking the pitṛs, the dative in offering food, the vocative in other cases.

It is laid down that the perfornier has to take ācamana(sip water) in śrāddha rite six times viz., at the commencement of śrāddha, when washing the feet of invited brāhmaṇas, in worshipping them, in making the vikira, in offering piṇḍas and at the end of the śrāddha²⁹³.

An important question which exercised the minds of many medieval writers was ‘who was the real recipient (sampradāna)²⁹⁴ of the offerings made in śrāddha, whether the brāhmaṇas or the pitṛs’. Relying on the words of the Āśv. gr. IV.8.1 (quoted above in n. 966 ’etasmin kāle … dānam’) and passages of the purāṇas such as the Varāha (13. 51) ‘vibhave sati viprebhyo asmān uddiśya dāsyati’, the Mahārnavaprakāśa, Harihara and some others held that brāhmaṇas were the recipients, while others like Sridatta, relying on indications furnished by śruti passages like Vāj. S. 19. 36 (akṣan pitaraḥ amimadanta pitaraḥ) and such formulas as ‘pitar-etat te arghyam’ or ‘etadvaḥ pitaro vāsaḥ,’ held that the real recipients intended were the pitṛs, but, as the pitṛs had gone to another world and could not be bodily present to receive the gifts of such things as sandlewood paste, flowers and clothes, the latter were only handed over or assigned to the brāhmaṇas who were for the moment contemplated as not different from the pitṛs²⁹⁵. Vide Sm. C. (śrāddha pp. 447-449 ), Śr. Pr. pp. 30-31 for a discussion of these two view points. It should, however, be noted that the water given to the brāhmaṇas and the dakṣiṇā given to them were only meant for the brāhmaṇas, the former for purification and the latter for the inexhaustible merit that dakṣiṇā to brāhmaṇas conferred.

It is to be noted that in the invocation (āvāhana) of the pitṛs there is a divergence of views as to the mantras to be employed and also as to the stage when it is to be made. Hemādri (śrāddha, pp. 1254-56) states that there were five different views on the latter point, the three most important of which were that āvāhana should come before giving darbhas as āsana on the left side of the seats of the pitṛya brāhmaṇas or after giving such darbhas or after agnaukaraṇa. As regards the former (viz. the mantras), Yāj. (I. 232-233), the Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa and several others say that the invocation mantra is ‘uśantas-tvā’ (Ṛg. X. 16. 12, Vāj. S. 19. 70, Tai. S. II. 6.12.1) and after the āvāhana the performer should perform japa of the verse ‘ā yantu naḥ’ (Vāj. S. 19.58). The Viṣṇudharmasutra²⁹⁶ (73. 10-12) states “the performer after having received permission from the brāhmaṇas should invite the Manes. Having driven away the Yātudhānas (demons) by strewing grains of sesamum and by reciting the two mantras (the first of which begins with ‘may the Asuras go away’) he should invite the Manes with the four mantras ‘come near, ye Manes!’, ‘conduct them here, O Agni!’, ‘May my (ancestors ) come near’, ’this is your (share), O Manes’”.

Mantras of āvāhana

Hemādri (śrāddha pp. 1260-1267) points out how the mantras differ according to different writers.

There is a great deal of discussion about agnaukaraṇa mentioned in Yaj. I. 236-237. The Mit. points out that if a man has kept śrauta fires by the sarvādhāna method then in the pārvaṇa-śrāddha that he offers after piṇḍapitṛyajña he offers homa in the Dakṣiṇāgni, as he has no aupāsana (i.e. gṛhya) fire and supports this by quoting a passage which occurs in the Viṣṇudharmottara-purāṇa²⁹⁷. But if a man consecrates the śrauta fires by the ardhādhāna²⁹⁸ method, then he has to offer pārvaṇa homa in the aupāsana fire and one who is without śrauta fires and has kept up only aupāsana fire has to offer homa in that fire. One who has neither the śrauta fires nor the gṛhya fire offers it in the brāhmaṇa’s hand only. The Mit. relies on Manu III. 212 and on two verses from a gṛhya and comes to the conclusion that one who has consecrated śrauta fires performs homa in daksina fire in the case of Anvaṣṭakya śrāddha, the śrāddha on the day previous to Aṣṭakā, the śrāddha performed in the dark half of each month on some day from the 5th and in the case of pārvaṇa-śrāddha, but he performs, in the case of kāmya, ābhyudayika, Ekoddiṣṭa and Aṣṭakā śrāddhas, homa only on the pitṛya brāhmaṇa’s hand; while for one who has kept no sacred fire the homa is to be made only in the pitṛya brāhmaṇa’s hand. Vide Hemādri (śrāddha pp. 1328-1344), Bālambhatti (on ācāra p. 518). The Todarānanda (śrāddhasaukhya ) following Manu III. 282 states that one who is an Agnihotrin cannot perform a pārvaṇa-śrāddha on any day except on darśa (i.e, on amāvāsyā).

Another important question on which there is great divergence concerns the number of āhutis to be offered in agnaukaraṇa, the deities to whom the homa was to be offered, the order in which the deities were to be named and the form of words to be used. On these matters there appears to have been divergent views from very ancient times. According to the Śat. Br. II, 4. 2. 12-13 the āhutis were only²⁹⁹ two, they were offered to Agni and Soma in that order and the word svāhā was used at the end. According to the Tai. Br. I, 3.10.2–3³⁰⁰ the āhutis were three, they were to be offered to Soma, Agni and to Yama in that order and the formula ended with ‘svadhā namaḥ’ (and not with ‘svāhā’). It is therefore that a verse of Kātyāyana³⁰¹ says “whether to employ the word ‘svāhā’ or the words ‘svadhā namaḥ’, whether and when to wear the sacred chord in the yajñopavīta form or prācināvita form and what was to be the number of āhutis-all these have to be understood from one’s own sūtra.” The difference of views which is noticed as far back as the Brāhmanas persists in the sūtras, smṛtis, purāṇas and is briefly indicated here.

Number of āhutis

The Ap. Gr. S. (quoted above in n. 981 ) speaks of thirteen āhutis, seven with food and six with clarified butter. Two āhutis only are mentioned by Aśv. Śrauta II. 6. 12 (quoted in note 974), Asv. gx. IV. 7.20, ŚaṇkhaLikhita³⁰² Kathaka-gṛhya, Nārada-purāṇa (pārvārdha 28. 48 ) and Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa. Three āhutis are mentioned by most of the smṛtis and purāṇas, such as Baud. Dh. S. II. 14.7, 1031 San. Śrauta IV. 3 and gṛhya IV. 1. 13, Viṣṇu Dh, S. 73. 12, Manu III. 211,Varahapurāṇa³⁰³ (14.21-22), Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa (Upodghatapāda 11.93-94), Viṣṇudharmottara I. 140.19. It is here that various combinations of the order of the deities and of the words ‘svāhā’ and ‘svadhā’ occur. The texts of a few works are cited below for illustration. Some give the order as ‘Soma accompanied by the pitṛs, Agni the carrier of kavya, Yama Angiras;’ while others give it as ‘Agni the carrier of kavya, Soma accompanied by the pitṛs, Yama Vaivasvata &c.’ It is further provided that the āhuti to Agni is made to the southern side of the fire, to Soma on the northern part of it and in the middle of the two sides to Vaivasvata (Yama )³⁰⁴.

Various rules of etiquette about serving food, about the way brāhmaṇas are to eat and related matters have been laid down from ancient times and are observed even now. The Sm. C. (p. 465-470 ), Hemadri (Śrāddha pp. 1367-1384), the Sr. Pr. pp. 116-123 and other digests contain elaborate rules on these matters. Yāj. I. 237 prescribes that what remains after offering homa should be served in the plates meant for the brāhmaṇas representing the Fathers and the plates should preferably be of silver.

Kātyāyana says that the performer who has no fire (either śrauta or smārta ) should offer the homa on the hand of the most eminent among the pitṛya brāhmaṇas to the accompaniment of a mantra and should offer the remainder in the plates of the other pitṛya brāhmaṇas³⁰⁵. The Sm. C. notes that Yama and the Vāyupurāṇa say that the homa should be in the hand of the daiva brāhmaṇa and that on account of this conflict there is an option. It is further provided that a portion of the food from which agnaukaraṇa was effected should be kept aside for making piṇḍas (Mārkaṇḍeya and Garuda). The food should be served by the performer himself wearing the sacred thread in the yajñopavīta form or by his wife of the same caste or by some attendant who is purified. Manu (III. 224-229, 231-233, 236-238) contains several rules³⁰⁶. ‘Himself holding the vessels full of food with both hands the performer should slowly place them near the brāhmaṇas seated for dinner while thinking of his ancestors. That food, which is brought near the brāhmaṇas without (the containing vessel being held in ) both hands, is snatched away by wicked asuras. The performer being himself pure and concentrating his mind (only on the serving of food ) should place the vessels containing the side dishes viz. broths, vegetables, milk, curds, ghee and honey on the ground and not on a wooden stool or the like). The vessels placed on the ground should contain various kinds of food (such as sweetmeats, pāyasa), fruits and roots, delicious flesh, spiced or perfumed drinks.

Rules about serving food

Having brought near the brāhmaṇas all the vessels containing food, he should serve it in the plates declaring the characteristic of each kind of food (saying ’this is sweet, this is sour’ &c.). The performer while serving should not shed tears (remembering his ancestors ), he should not become angry, should not utter falsehood, he should not touch the vessel containing ) food with his foot and should not serve food with a violent jerk. Whatever is liked by the brāhmaṇas should be served to them without any grumbling and he should talk about Brahma (or about Vedic riddles ), because that is agreeable to the pitṛs. The performer himself, being pleased, should ( by his sweet speech ) gladden the brāhmaṇas, should make them partake of food without hurry, and should urge them on frequently (to take more food) by declaring the good points of the various items of food. All food should be steaming hot and the brāhmaṇas should partake of it silently and should not themselves speak of the good points of the food even when questioned by the performer. When the food is hot, when the brāhmaṇas eat in silence and when the good qualities of the food are not declared by the brāhmaṇas, the Fathers partake of it. When a brāhmaṇa (at a śrāddha dinner) partakes of food, having his head covered with a garment (a turban &c)or facing the south or having his sandals on, evil spirits partake of the food (and not the Fathers).’ As early as Gaut., it is provided that the food for the brāhmaṇas should be of the highest sort and should be enriched by condiments and flavoured.

Some of the other rules are : The Prajāpati-smṛti (verses 57-62 ) states who should cook the food for the śrāddha dinner. The wife, any fortunate (or handsome) woman of the performer’s gotra whose husband is living and who has a son or brother and is devoted to waiting upon her elders, the performer’s teacher’s wife, his maternal uncle’s wife, paternal or maternal aunt, his sister, his daughter or daughter-in-law, all of them having their husbands alive, should engage in the cooking, of the food for śrāddha. Women of good family, who have a large progeny, whose husbands are alive and who are about 50 years old or these women if they have become widows, and the wife of one’s paternal uncle or brother, one’s mothers (natural or step-mothers ) and the mothers of one’s father may cook the śrāddha food and also a woman of the same gotra who is mild by temper. In the Anuśāsana parva (92.15) it is stated that a woman belonging to a gotra other than that of the deceased should not be employed for cooking śrāddha food. One’s brother, paternal uncle, brother’s son, sister’s son, one’s son, pupil, one’s daughter’s son or daughter’s husband may also engage in cooking the śrāddha food, but not a woman who wears a white and wet garment, who has let her hair loose, who does not wear a bodice, who is ill or who has bathed her head. Before the brāhmaṇas begin to eat, the food should be first served in the plates for the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas and then in those of the pitṛya brāhmaṇas (Viṣṇu Dh. S. 173. 13-14), but once the brāhmaṇas have begun to eat there is no such precedence; whatever each brāhmaṇa may be noted as requiring should be served to him (as indicated by Manu III, 231). The performer of the śrāddha when serving food to the brāhmaṇas (including pitṛya) wears his sacred thread in the upavita form. Though it is said that the food should be hot, that does not apply to such eatables as curds, fruits and roots and flavoured³⁰⁷ drinks (as Śaṇkha XIV.13 and Skandapurāṇa say ). As Hemādri (śrāddha p. 1371) points out, the serving of food in a śrāddha rite should be done with the right hand supported by the left; besides, nothing should be served with the bare hand or with a single hand, but with a wooden ladle or other utensil (but not an iron one). All cooked food, all side dishes and ghee should be served with a ladle (and not with the bare hand) but not water or eatables like laddus. No salt was to be directly served (Viṣṇu Dh. S, 79.12). In Kātyāyana’s Śrāddha-sūtra it is provided[^1036] “The food that remains after agnaukaraṇa should be served in the plates of the pitṛya brāhmaṇas and the performer should touch each plate for those brāhmaṇas after repeating the mantra ’the earth is thy vessel, the sky is the cover, I offer nectar in the brāhmaṇa’s nectar-like mouth; svāhā’. Then the performer plunges the (right) thumb of the pitṛya brāhmaṇa in the food (the remains of the homa in fire) with the ṛk or yajus addressed to Viṣṇu; and after scattering sesamum grains all round the place where the dinner is to go on with the mantra (the asuras and rākṣasas) are struck and driven away’ he (the performer) should serve hot food very much liked (by the departed or by the brāhmaṇas)”.

1036. पिण्डपितृयज्ञवद्धुत्वा हुतशेषं दत्त्वा पात्रमालभ्य जपति पृथिवी ते पात्रं द्यौरपिधानं ब्राह्मणस्य मुखे अमृते अमृतं जुहोमि स्वाहेति वैष्णव्यर्चा यजुषा वाङ्गष्ठमन्नेऽवगाह्यापहता इति तिलान् प्रकीर्योष्णं स्विष्टमन्नं दद्याच्छक्त्या वा। कात्या० श्राद्धसूत्र 3 quoted and explained by हेमाद्रि on श्राद्ध p 1374. The वैष्णवी ṛk is ‘इदं विष्णुर्विचक्रमे’। (ऋ.I. 22.17) and वैष्णवी yajus is ‘विष्णो हव्यं रक्षस्व’। (ते. सं. I. 1. 3. 1. वाज. सं.I.4). अपहताः – is वाज. सं.II. 29.

Yāj. I. 238 briefly refers (as translated above ) to the mantras and the item of plunging the thumb of the brāhmaṇas in the food; and so does the Baud. Dh. S. also (II.8.15-16). The Kalika-purāṇa prescribes³⁰⁸ that the thumb of the brāhmaṇa should be moved about in the food covered with ghee and honey with the mantra “the earth is thy vessel &c.’ because Viṣṇu in the form of the thumb protects food meant for sacrifices to gods and manes. The Baud. Pitṛmedhasūtra provides that while plunging the thumb of the brāhmaṇa in the food served it should be so arranged that the nail of the thumb is not smeared with food³⁰⁹. Vasiṣṭha provides that the brāhmaṇas eating śrāddha food should always hold the plate from which they are eating with (the left ) hand till the end of the dinner. Śaṇkha-Likhita provide³¹⁰ that brāhmaṇas (eating śrāddha food ) should not declare the good or bad points of the food served, should not say what is untrue, should not praise each other, nor should they say ’there is plenty of food and drink (and so do not serve more food ), except by signs made with the hand.’ Whatever is offered in a brāhmaṇa’s hand (by way of agnaukaraṇa) and whatever food is placed in the plates should be mixed up and eaten. Hemādri quotes passages from the Maitrāyaniya-sūtra and from the Skandapurāṇa setting out the mantras wherewith certain articles were to be served; e. g. the Skandapurāṇa says that pāyasa should be served with the verse ’namo vah pitaro’ (Vāj. S. II. 32. Tai. S. III, 2.5.5), clarified butter with the mantra ‘Tejosi śukram’, curds with the mantra ‘dadhikrāvno’ (Ṛg. IV. 39.6, Vāj. S. 23. 32, Tai. S. 1. 5. 11. 4). Ap. Dh, S. (II. 8. 18. 11) provides that the leavings of a śrāddha dinner should not be given to one who is inferior to the invited brāhmaṇas in qualities and Manu III. 249 states that the man who after eating śrāddha dinner gives the leavings to a śūdra falls in the Kālasūtra Hell.

The Matsyapurāṇa and some other works provide that the brāhmaṇas should pronounce blessings on the performer (who faces the east) after they have sipped water and have been given water, flowers and akṣata grains. The performer prays ‘May our Fathers be not terrible (i, e, be kind) to us. The brāhmaṇas reply “let it be so’. The performer prays ‘May our family grow’, ‘May donors increase in our family and also food’, ‘May these blessings turn out to be true’. To all these the brāhmaṇas reply after each one of the prayers³¹¹ ‘May it be so’. There are rules about the time when the leavings or particles of food in the plates of the brāhmaṇas that ate the dinner should be removed or swept away. Vas. (XI. 21-22) and the Kūrmapurāṇa provide that the leavings of food should not be removed till the Sun sets, since streams of nectar flow from them, which are drunk by the (spirits of) those departed persons for whom no water was offered. Manu III. 265 (which is the same as Matsya 17.56 and Padma, Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 9.185) provides another rule that the leavings of the food in the plates may remain where they are till the brāhmaṇas are dismissed and depart.

Rules about removal of leavings

Hemadri (Śrāddha, p. 1512 )³¹² therefore provides that if the performer has another house the leavings may not be removed till sunset, but if he has only one house, they may be removed after the brāhmaṇas have gone away (vide Yāj. I. 257, Matsya 17.56 ). It is further provided by Bṛhaspati³¹³ that the plates should not be removed before the brāhmaṇas pronounce the word ‘svasti’, and Jatūkarṇya³¹⁴ and the Skandapurāṇa say that the plates and the leavings should be removed by the performer himself or by his pupil or son, but not by women nor by a child nor by one who is not of the same caste. Manu III. 258 provides that, after the brāhmaṇas have left, the performer should look at the south and pray to the pitṛs for certain blessings contained in Manu III, 259 which are the same as Yāj. I 246 translated above (vide p. 447), Viṣṇu Dh. S. 73.28, Matsya 16.49-50. The Ap. gr. 20.9 (q. in note 981), Ap. Dh. S. II. 7. 17.16, Manu III, 264, Yāj. I. 249 provide that the performer should partake of the remainder of the food cooked for the śrāddha along with his wife, paternal and maternal relatives after reciting (according to Haradatta) the Yājuṣa mantra (Ap. M. P. II. 20.26) which means ’entering the life breath I offer nectar; my soul is centred in Brahman for the sake of immortality’. The Ap. gr. and Ap. Dh. S. provide³¹⁵ that the performer must eat at least a morsel of the food left after serving to the brāhmaṇas. Vyāsa and Devala prescribe that on the day of śrāddha the performer must not observe a fast (even if he usually does so as on Ekādaśī or Sivarātra). A way out was provided by the Brahmavaivarta-purāṇa by recommending that the performer should merely smell the remnants of the śrāddha food.

Vide Hemādri (śrāddha, pp. 1519-1521) for the discussion. Hemādri (p. 1485) refers to the practice (observed even now) that after the performer receives the blessings referred to above, his son, grandson and the like should offer adoration to the devatās in the form of piṇḍas. The brāhmaṇas should praise the good characteristics of the food served at the end of the śrāddha ceremony³¹⁶. The brāhmaṇas should not get up from the dinner, carelessly leaving remnants of food in their plates, but they may leave in the plates a little food except milk, curds, honey or barley flour³¹⁷.

There were several views as to the exact stage at which the offerings of piṇḍas were to be made. According to Sān. Gr. IV. 1.9., Āśv. gr. IV. 8. 12, 1047 Śaṇkha 14.11, Manu III. 260-261, Yāj. I. 242 and several other works, the performer offers the lumps of boiled rice after the brāhmaṇas have finished eating their dinner. The piṇḍas are made with boiled rice mixed with sesame and are placed on darbhas on a clean spot and at a distance of about one aratni from³¹⁸ the plates in which the brāhmaṇas ate and the performer faces the south. Here again there are two opinions, one being that piṇḍas were to be offered before the brāhmaṇas sip water (perform ācamana) after dinner (e. g. āśv. gr. IV. 8. 12–13, Śrāddha-sūtra of Kātyāyana, kaṇdikā 3), while others hold that they were to be offered after the brāhmaṇas have rinsed their mouth and taken ācamana. Another view referred to as the view of some by Sān. gr. IV. 1.10 and Manu III, 261 was that piṇḍas were to be offered to the ancestors first after honouring the invited brāhmaṇas or after agnaukaraṇa and then the brāhmaṇas were to partake of the dinner.

Time of offering piṇḍas

The Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa³¹⁹ emphatically asserts that this is the correct position as stated by Bṛhaspati. The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (73 15-24) provides that the piṇḍas are to be offered to the ancestors while the brāhmaṇas are actually eating. A fourth view is that of the Ap. gr. 24.9, Hir. gr. (II. 12.2-3) which state that the performer³²⁰ should, after the brāhmaṇas have eaten and gone away and he has followed and circumambulated them, offer piṇḍas. Owing to this conflict of views Hemādri (quoting smṛti) and the Madanapārijāta (p. 600) say that each one should follow the procedure laid down in his own śākhā³²¹. Hemādri adds that those in whose gṛhyasūtra no special time is mentioned for piṇḍadāna should follow the view that piṇḍas are to be offered after the brāhmaṇas have partaken of the dinner and sipped water. The Sr. P. (p.247) endorses this view³²². The piṇḍas were to be deposited on bunches of (25) darbhas for each piṇḍa. Aparārka on Yāj. I. 24 states that in all cases without exception piṇḍas were to be offered near the plates from which the brāhmaṇas took their meals, while Hemādri who relies on Katyayana’s word ‘ucchiṣṭasannidhau’ says that where the performer is an āhitāgni the piṇḍas were to be offered near his sacred fire, but when a performer had not kept the sacred fires piṇḍas were to be offered near the plates from which brāhmaṇas ate the śrāddha food. The Śrāddhasāra (p. 163) quotes Atri to the effect that piṇḍas should be offered at a distance of three aratnis from where the brāhmaṇas ate the śrāddha dinner and that in such śrāddhas as Navaśrāddhas Vaiśvadeva is to be performed before piṇḍadana and that it is to be performed after piṇḍadāna in Samvatsarika śrāddha, Mahālaya and the like (p. 164).

There is another conflict of views as regards the ancestors to whom piṇḍas are to be offered at the śrāddha on amāvāsya. Most of the ancient Vedic works refer only to the three paternal ancestors as the devatās of the Pārvaṇa-śrāddha and not to any other relatives. The three paternal ancestors are separately the devatās of śrāddha and not cumulatively, as indicated by the Āśv. Śrauta II. 6.15 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 73.13-14. The important questions are whether the wives of the paternal ancestors, viz, the mother, the grandmother and the paternal great-grandmother were associated with their husbands in ancient times and secondly, whether the three paternal ancestors of one’s mother viz. the maternal grandfather, the maternal great-grandfather and the maternal great-great-grandfather were invoked together with their wives in the Pārvaṇa. The answer to both these questions so far as the Vedas and Brāhmanas are concerned is in the negative. Vide Tai. S. I. 8. 5.1, Tai. Br. I. 3. 10, II, 6. 16, Vāj. S. 19. 36-37, Sat. Br. II, 4.2. 16, in all of which the only persons expressly named are the pitṛs and three paternal ancestors. It may be noted, however, that in Vāj. S. 9. 19 (which is cited by Kātyāyana at the end of Śrāddhasūtra 3 as the mantra to be recited when following the brāhmaṇas that are dismissed) there is a clear reference to paternal ancestors and also to mothers. Almost all sūtras also are silent as regards the invocation of the maternal ancestors in Pārvaṇa-śrāddha along with paternal ones. Vide³²³ Āśv. Śr.; Sudarśana on Ap. gr. VIII. 21. 2 states that the Sūtrakāra and Bhāṣyakāra did not speak of Mātāmahaśrāddha as it is not obligatory for a daughter’s son to offer it. The Śrāddhasūtra of Katyāyana³²⁴ speaks of three piṇḍas being made for the paternal ancestors and three for the mother’s paternal ancestors.

Ancestors to whom piṇḍas were offered

The Gobhilasmṛti provides³²⁵ that six piṇḍas should be offered except in the Anvaṣṭakāśrāddha, the first śrāddha (on the 11th day), the sixteen śrāddhas and the yearly śrāddha for a deceased person. Dhaumya³²⁶ prescribes that where the paternal ancestors are honoured (or fed) the maternal ancestors also should be certainly honoured without making any difference (between the two classes ); if he makes a distinction the performer will go to Hell. The Viṣṇupurāṇa³²⁷ the Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa and the Varāhapurāṇa say that some hold that a śrāddha for maternal ancestors is to be performed separately while other sages hold that one śrāddha is to be offered at the same time to the paternal and maternal ancestors. Bṛhaspati (q. by Kalpataru on śrāddha p. 204) prescribes³²⁸ that one should offer piṇḍas made from all food cooked for the śrāddha and mixed with honey and sesamum grains for both paternal and maternal ancestors according to the rules of one’s gṛhyasūtra. The Varāhapurāṇa (14. 40-41) says that pitṛya brāhmaṇas should be dismissed first and then the daiva brāhmaṇas together with those for the mother’s ancestors and that separate piṇḍas were to be offered to the mother’s paternal ancestors (14.37). Some held the view that the offering of piṇḍas to maternal ancestors was obligatory for the putrikāputra³²⁹ (son of the appointed daughter) or for a daughter’s son that inherited the wealth of his maternal grandfather. Bṛhat-Parāśara (chap. V. p. 153) mentions several views on this point.

It seems probable that when the appointment of a daughter as a son became rare or went out of vogue the maternal ancestors came to be associated with the paternal ancestors in pārvaṇa-śrāddha.

The question when the wives of ancestors became associated with the male ancestors cannot be solved satisfactorily. The pitāmahi is not mentioned in the extant Vedic Literature. But it is certain that the wives of male ancestors had come to be associated with their husbands in the sūtra period. For example, the Hir. Gr. II, 10 associates the mother, the paternal grandmother and the paternal great-grandmother with their respective husbands in the monthly śrāddha performed in the dark half. Similarly, the Baud. gr. II. 11.34 not only associates in the Aṣṭakā śrāddha the male maternal ancestors with the male paternal ancestors, but also their respective wives. The Āp, M. P.³³⁰ has mantras referring to the three male paternal ancestors as well as their wives. The Sān. gr. (IV. 1.11) provides that behind the lumps for the paternal ancestors the performer places the lumps for their wives, putting something between the two sets of piṇḍas and the commentator explains that darbhas are placed between the two sets. The Kauśikasūtra (88.12) also provides for the offering of piṇḍas to the wives of male ancestors to the south of the piṇḍas for male ancestors. The Āśv. gr. (II. 5. 4-5), while speaking of the Anvaṣṭakya rite, refers to piṇḍas to be offered to the wives of ancestors with the addition of rum and the scum of boiled rice. The Vaikhānasa-smārta-sūtra IV. 7 (after describing the Piṇḍapitṛyajña in IV.5-6) notes that the difference between it and the ordinary monthly śrāddha is that in the latter piṇḍas are offered to the wives of the pitṛs³³¹. Dr. Caland (in ‘Ahnencult’ p. 164) thinks that this inclusion of the women ancestors among those to whom piṇḍas were to be offered was made by taking over from Anvaṣṭakya ceremonial described above. This conjecture does not look very probable. The Aṣṭakā rites existed from remote antiquity as shown above.

Participation of females in piṇḍas offered

If the offering of piṇḍas to women ancestors were borrowed from the Anvaṣṭakya this item would have figured in all sūtras just as Aṣṭakāśraddha does. It is rather more probable that the extension to women was a natural growth in course of time. Some of the smṛtis emphasize the participation of the wives of paternal ancestors in the pārvaṇaśrāddha offerings. Satatapa states³³² : “In what is offered to the pitṛs after Sapiṇdikaraṇa, the mother is a participant everywhere. A śrāddha may be separately offered to the mother in the Anvaṣṭakā rites, in Vṛddhi-śrāddha, at Gayā and on the anniversary of the day of her death; but in other cases it is performed along with the husband’. It is stated by Bṛhaspati that the mother partakes of the śrāddha food along with her husband (i.e. the father of the performer); that the same rule applies to the paternal grandmother and the paternal great-grandmother³³³. The Kalpataru[^1064] and others held that the wives of the paternal ancestors were not devatās in the pārvaṇa-śrāddha, but they only enjoyed the ethereal food which came to the pitṛs, while Hemādri and other southern writers held that the mother and other female ancestors were among the devatās of pārvaṇa-śrāddha, but not the stepmother. There was a divergence of views whether the words ‘mother’, ‘paternal grandmother’ and ‘paternal great-grand-mother’ included the co-wives(sapatnis) of these, Hemadri (on śrāddha pp. 97-104) has a long disquisition on this question. According to one view the step-mother, the co-wife of the pitamahi and the co-wife of the prapitāmahi would be included in the presentation formula (as quoted below), while according to Hemādri only the real mother, the real paternal grand-mother and the real paternal great-grandmother would ordinarily be included except on rare occasions such as a Mahālayaśrāddha or a śrāddha at Gayā³³⁴.

As regards the mantra to be recited when offering each of the piṇḍas there is some divergence of views, which reaches far into antiquity. The piṇḍa³³⁵ is offered to each ancestor after stating his gotra, his relationship to the performer and name (all in the vocative). According to several writers the form of the presentation of the piṇḍa is ’this is for thee, O Father! N.N. (by name) and so and so by gotra.’ In the Tai. S. I. 8.5 1, in the Ap. M. P. II. 20.13 and in some sutras, the following is added ‘and for those who follow thee’ (ye ca tvām-anu)³³⁶. In the Gobhila-gṛhya IV. 3.6 and Khādiragṛhya the formula is still longer ‘This piṇḍa is thine, O father! and of those who follow thee and of those whom thou followest. ³³⁷ To thee, Svadha!’. The Bhāradvaja³³⁸ gr. II. 12 introduces slight changes.

Mantras at offering piṇḍas

It has been already noted above (n. 781) how the Sat. Br. disapproves of the usage of the Tai.s. in this matter, the reason being³³⁹ that when the son offers a piṇḍa to his father and employs the formula ’this is thine and of those that follow thee’, he would be included among those that follow the father and be thus offering a piṇḍa to himself, which is inauspicious. It is provided by Gobhila-gṛhya³⁴⁰ that if he does not know the names of his ancestors he should put down the first piṇḍa with the Formula ‘svadhā to the Fathers dwelling on the earth’, (he should put down) the 2nd piṇḍa with the formula ‘svadhā to the fathers dwelling in the air’, the third with the formula ‘svadha to the Fathers dwelling in heaven’ and should recite in a low voice the words ‘Here, O Fathers, gladden yourselves, show your vigour each according to his own part.’ Yama quoted by Kalpataru (on Sr. p. 203), following Gobhila provides generally (whether the ancestors be known or not) that the first piṇḍa should be offered to the father with the expression ‘pṛthivi’, the second to the grandfather in the aerial regions and the third to the paternal great-grandfather with the mantra ‘dyaur darvi’. The Viṣṇu Dh.S. (73.17-19) has similar provisions, the mantras respectively being ‘pṛthivi darvirakṣita’, ‘antarikṣam darvirakṣita,’ dyaur-darvirakṣita’. Medhatithi on Manu III. 194 says (following ASv. Sr. and others) that if the names of the ancestors are not known he should simply say “O Father, Grandfather’ &c. If the gotra be not known then he should employ the gotra name Kaśyapa³⁴¹.

Certain matters pertaining to piṇḍas must be stated in one place once for all. There is a good deal of discussion about the size of the piṇḍas. Marici (quoted by Aparārka p. 507) provides that in pārvaṇa-śrāddha the piṇḍa should be of the size of undried āmalaka fruit, of the size of a bilva fruit in Ekoddiṣṭa, - in navaśrāddhas the piṇḍa should be bigger than in any one of the preceding when offered every day during the days of impurity on death. The Skandapurāṇa says that piṇḍas should be of such a size as would enable a calf two years old to put it easily into its mouth³⁴². Angiras (q. by Sm. C. p. 475 and Hemādri, śrāddha p. 1429) prescribes that the piṇḍas may be of the size of kapittha or bilva fruit or of the size of a hen’s egg or of an āmalaka or badara fruit. In the Maitrāyaṇīya-sūtra³⁴³ it is said that the piṇḍa for the paternal grandfather should be bigger than that for the father and should be in the middle (of the three piṇḍas), that the piṇḍa for the great-grandfather should be the largest of all. The next point is from what materials the piṇḍas were to be made. If piṇḍas were offered before agnaukaraṇa they were to be made from the boiled rice (caru) prepared for agnaukaraṇa. If made after agnaukaraṇa, the piṇḍas were to be made from the cooked food (remaining after agnaukaraṇa) mixed with sesamum (vide Yāj. I. 242). If piṇḍas were to be offered after the brāhmaṇas took their dinner, the piṇḍas were to be made from the remainder of the food cooked for the brāhmaṇas which was to be mixed with the boiled rice for agnaukaraña as stated in Kātyāyana’s Śrāddhasūtra³⁴⁴. The piṇḍas were to be placed according to the Matsya³⁴⁵ on darbhas spread on the ground cleaned with water mixed with cow’s dung and urine. There were others such as Devala, the Brahmapurāṇa and Bhaviṣyapurāṇa that prescribed that an altar, either circular or square, of sand was to be raised on ground 4 fingers in height and one cubit in extent near the plates from which brāhmaṇas were to eat and thereon darbhas were to be placed and then piṇḍas.

Placing of piṇḍas

The Vāyupurāṇa provides that a line should be drawn on the altar or the ground with the root of a darbha to the accompaniment of the following mantras viz.³⁴⁶ ‘I destroy whatever is impure; I have killed all asuras, dānavas, rakṣasas, yakṣas, piśācas(goblins), guhyakas and yātudhānas’ and the mantra ‘struck down are the asuras and rakṣasas sitting on the Vedi)’. In Ap. Sr. I. 10.2, Manu III. 217, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 73.17-19, Yama (q. by Hemadri p. 1440), the Kalpataru ( on Sr. p. 203), Mahārṇavaprakāśa (q. by Hemādri), Hemādri ( Śr. pp. 1440-42 ) and Sr. P. pp. 266-267 reference is made to adoration of the six seasons and the obeisance (namaskāra) to the pitṛs in the words ’namo vah pitaro’ (Vaj. S. II. 32)³⁴⁷ and the repetition of three mantras when each of the three piṇḍas is offered, some holding that the seasons were to be deemed as identified with ‘rasa’, śoṣa’ and four other words (in Vaj. S. II. 32), while others held that the adoration of the seasons is quite distinct from the namaskāras to the pitṛs. In the śaunakātharvanaśrāddha-kalpa, the piṇḍas are offered in the reverse order i.e. first to the great-grand father, then to the grandfather and then to the father (Hemādri on śrāddha p. 1442). Ap. Sr. I. 9. 4 refers to this method in ‘pitāmahaprabhrtin vā’.

About the final disposal (pratipatti) of the piṇḍas several views were entertained. We have already seen (note 780 ) that the Vāj. S. and several sūtras provided that the middle one of the three piṇḍas for paternal ancestors was to be eaten by the wife of the performer of the śrāddha if she was desirous of a son. Manu (III. 262-263) provides that the dharmapatni (i.e, a wife of the same varṇa and married before any other wife ) should eat the middle piṇḍa with the mantra ‘ādhatta pitaro garbham’ (q. in n. 780) and then she gives birth to a son who lives long, secures fame, is intelligent and obtains wealth and progeny and who is of a good and righteous turn of mind. The same rule is provided for by the Laghu-Aśvalāyana 23.83, the Kūrma II. 2. 71, 76, Matsya 16,52, Vāyu 76,31, Viṣṇudharmottara I. 1718, 220, 149, Padma (sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 9.121) and other purāṇas. As regards piṇḍas in general, the Āśv. Sr. (11. 7. 14-17) says that the other two piṇḍas (except the middle one ) should be cast into water or in fire or they may be eaten by a brāhmaṇa who has suddenly developed a distaste for food or they may be partaken by one who has been suffering from a serious disease (such as tuberculosis or leprosy ) and that in the latter case the man either recovers or dies. The Gobhila-gr. (IV. 3, 31-34) provides that the piṇḍas should be thrown into water or in fire or should be given to a brāhmaṇa or a cow to eat. Manu (III. 260-261 ) says the same and adds that they may be given to a goat for eating and that some allow them to be devoured by birds. Yāj. I. 257, Matsya 16.52-53, and Padma³⁴⁸ mention the same five ways of disposal but the last adds one more viz. placing them near a mound of earth. The Varahapurāṇa³⁴⁹ (190.121 ) says that the performer may eat the first piṇḍa himself, he should give the middle to his wife and the third he should cast into water. The Anuśāsanaparva (125.25.26) provides that the first and the third should be thrown into water or fire and the middle piṇḍa should be eaten by the wife. It is provided by Bṛhaspati that if the wife is suffering from a disease or is already pregnant or is staying in some other place, then an old bull or a goat may eat the middle piṇḍa (quoted by Sm. C. on Sr. p. 486, Kalpataru on Śr. p. 224).

The Viṣṇudharmottara (I. 141, 8) prescribes that when a śrāddha is performed at a tirtha, the piṇḍas should be cast into the sacred water. The Anuśāsanaparva 125. 38-40 and some of the purāṇas such as Vāyu (76.32-34 ) and Brahma (220.150–152) provide that certain consequences follow from the disposal of piṇḍas in one way or another viz. the best worlds by giving piṇḍas to cows, intellect and fame from casting into water, long life from offering them to birds &c. Vide also Brahmāṇḍa (upodghāta, chap. 12. 31-35) which provides that if given to cows the result is best complexion, if to cocks then delicacy. long life if given crows. In this connection it should be noted that piṇḍas of rice or of flour were not to be offered in all śrāddhas. The Śrāddha-kalpalatā (pp. 86-89 ) has a long discussion about the śrāddhas in which the offering of piṇḍas of food is forbidden. For example, it quotes Pulastya to the effect that in śrāddhas performed on the two ayana days, on the two equinoctial days, on any sankrānti, no piṇḍas are to be offered, so also in śrāddhas on Ekādaśi, Trayodaśi, on Maghā and Kr̥ttikā nakṣatras, if a man desires to have sons and wealth.

On the question as to what is the principal item in the śrāddha there are three views. Some, like Govindaraja³⁵⁰, hold that feeding of brāhmaṇas is the principal thing and they rely on Manu III. 129 which says ‘One may feed even a single learned brāhmaṇa in a rite for gods and manes and not many who do not know vedic mantras; by doing so he reaps abundant reward’. Here the reward or fruit is associated with feeding a learned brāhmaṇa. There is a maxim³⁵¹ of the Pūrvamimāṁsā that whatever is mentioned in proximity with an action that has a reward or fruit but has no special reward of its own, is subsidiary (anga) to what is declared to have a reward.’ Besides, there is no piṇḍadāna in certain śrāddhas such as āmaśrāddha, śrāddha on the Yugādi days³⁵².

Others like Karka hold the view that piṇḍadāna is the principal item in śrāddha. They rely upon the fact that in the śrāddha at Gayā it is the offering of piṇḍas that is the most important matter and upon the fact that in the Viṣṇudharmasūtra (78. 52-53, and 85. 65-66) and in several Purāṇas such as the Varāha (13.50), Viṣṇu (III. 14.22-23), Brahma (220.31-32), Viṣṇudharmottara (I. 145.3-4) the pitṛs are stated to have expressed a deep yearning for a son who would offer them piṇḍas at Gayā and water on sacred rivers &c. (vide note 911). Further support is sought for this view in the fact that in the śrāddha on the birth of a son and in śrāddha offered even by a good Śūdra the feeding of brāhmaṇas is forbidden, A third view is that both the feeding of brāhmaṇas and the offering of piṇḍas are the principal matters in a śrāddha. The Gobhila-smṛti, after stating³⁵³ the other two views and some of the reasons therefor, tells us that the author of it is himself in favour of this third view. In cases where the word śrāddha is employed and there is neither brāhmaṇa feeding nor piṇḍadāna as in Daiva śrāddha, the word śrāddha is applied in a secondary sense (gauṇa). Vide Hemādri (śraddha) pp. 157-160. In the Dharmapradipa it is said that among the followers of the Yajurveda (i.e. Vājasaneyins) the offering of piṇḍas is principal, among the followers of the Ṛgveda the feeding of brāhmaṇas is principal, while among the followers of the Sāmaveda both are principal. In this way śrāddha partakes of two characters viz. it is a yāga (sacrifice) and also³⁵⁴ a gift (dāna). Haradatta, Hemādri, Kapardi and others appear to hold that all three (bhojaṇa piṇḍadāna and agnaukaraṇa) are principal. Vide Samskāraratnamālā p. 1003.

The Matsyapurāṇa says in a famous passage ‘ancestors from the fourth (i.e. the father, grand-father and great-grand father of the great-grandfather of performer ) are entitled only to the wipings of the articles of food (sticking to the hand of the performer of śrāddha);

Persons that are lepabhājaḥ

the father, (the grand-father and great-grandfather) are entitled to the piṇḍa; the offerer of the piṇḍa is the 7th; thus sapiṇḍa relationship extends to seven generations³⁵⁵. The Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa states that three ancestors beginning from the paternal grandfather of the paternal grandfather enjoy the wipings (of the hand of the performer when he offers piṇḍas)³⁵⁶. The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 84-86) has similar verses. Manu provided³⁵⁷ that the performer should place three piṇḍas on darbhas and then wipe off from his hand the particles of food and water sticking to it with the roots of the darbhas (on which the piṇḍas were placed) and that such wipings are meant for those who are called ’lepabhāgin’ (the three paternal ancestors after the paternal great-grand-father). Similar provisions are made by the Viṣṇu Dh. S. 73.22, Varāhapurāṇa 14,36, Garudapurāṇa (Acārakānda 218.24), Kūrma II. 22.52. Medhātithi on Manu III. 216 says that even if no food or water sticks to the hand still the performer rubs the hand against the roots of the darbhas on which the first piṇḍa was placed. A special rule was provided by Devala quoted in Śrāddhakalpalatā (p. 14) that if the father or mother became a mleccha (by forcible or voluntary conversion &c.) one should not observe any impurity for him or her and no śrāddha should be offered and when offering the three piṇḍas in place of the father the name of Viṣṇu should be uttered.

One question that exercised the minds of well-known writers was whether the daily Vaiśvadeva should be performed before starting the śrāddha ceremonies or after the latter were finished. We have to remember first that several works state that rites for pitṛs deserve pre-eminence over those for the gods³⁵⁸. Manu (III. 265 ) states³⁵⁹ that after the brāhmaṇas have been dismissed the performer of śrāddha shall offer the (daily) domestic bali offering and that this is the settled rule of dharma. Medhātithi explains that the word ‘bali’ is merely illustrative. The Matsyapurāṇa³⁶⁰ 17.61, the Varāhapurāṇa (14.43), Skanda VII. 1. 266. 101-102, Devala, Kārṣṇājini and others provide that after the rites for the fathers are finished Vaisvadeva should be performed. When Vaiśvadeva is performed after the completion of śrāddha rites, it is to be offered from the food that remains after being utilized for the śrāddha dinner. But Hemādri (pp. 1058-1065) holds a long discussion and arrives at the following conclusions. In the case of an āhitāgni (p. 1064), Vaiśvadeva is to be performed before śrāddha except in the case of the śrāddha on the 11th day after death. In the case of one who has not kept the sacred fires there are three optional times for Vaiśvadeva, viz. after agnau karaṇa or after the vikira (scattering of food on darbhas for those dying without the saṁskāras being performed for them), or after the brāhmaṇas are dismissed on the completion of the śrāddha (p. 1064). If Vaiśvadeva is to be performed before śrāddha or in the midst of it, then the cooking of food must be done separately for Vaiśvadeva and for śrāddha. In the case of all, whether sāgnika or anagnika, Vaiśvadeva must be performed with the remainder of the food left after use in śrāddha, if the former is performed after the latter. There were sages like Paithīnasi³⁶¹ that held that Vaiśvadeva should not be performed with the food cooked for śrāddha without first offering the food to the brāhmaṇas invited for srādda dinner i.e. Vaiśvadeva must be performed after śrāddha if the same food is to be used for the former.

The Nirṇayasindhu (III. p. 459 ) states that as most smṛtis place the performance of Vaiśvadeva after śrāddha and as many writers of commentaries and digests such as Medhātithi and Smṛtiratnāvali do the same all should perform Vaiśvadeva after finishing śrāddha.

Modern Pārvaṇaśrāddha

It is now necessary to illustrate how pārvaṇa śrāddha is performed in modern times. Here the greatest variety prevails. The details of the rite vary in the different parts of India. They vary also according as the performer belongs to a particular Veda or a particular recension of the Veda, they vary according to the particular eminent writer that is followed and further additions are made according as the performer is a Vaiṣṇava or a Śaiva. Such differences have to be passed over here, particularly because they are not material. We saw above that the Pārvaṇa-śrāddha was very simple in the days of the Brāhmaṇas and most of the sūtras. There was then no express mention of the worship of Viśvedevāḥ in Pārvaṇa śrāddha, or of the maternal ancestors or of the wives of any ancestors. Gradually these came to be added and by the time of the Yājñavalkyasmṛti there was special invocation of the Viśvedevāḥ. But these latter were probably not expressly divided into groups at the time of that work. During the smṛti period groups of Viśvedevāḥ came to be assigned to different kinds of śrāddhas (vide p. 457 note 1018). The Purāṇas prescribed several Paurānic mantras for being recited during the śrāddha rite, such as the verse ‘āgacchantu’ (note 984) and the verse ‘devatābhyaḥ pitṛbhyaśca’ (p. 458 note 1020). Then there arose the principle of the Pūrvamiṃāmsā that all rites described in the different śākhās and sūtras constitute but one rite, and that one may take over from another śākhā or sūtra details described therein, which are not opposed to one’s own śākhā or sutra (vide pp. 453-55 notes 1011-1013). This principle tended to make the śrāddha rites all inclusive and the whole procedure became swollen to an enormous extent. How even the slightest variation causes difference in the details may be illustrated by an example. In Mithilā villages even among poor men eleven brāhmaṇas are invited for pārvapa-śrāddha, but it is often difficult to secure a very learned man (who is called pātra or mahāpātra) to officiate. In such a case where a mahāpātra or a pātra brāhmaṇa is not available the śrāddha be called apātraka-pārvaṇaśrāddha (for which really there is no śastric authority) and is distinguished from the sapātraka pārvaṇa śrāddha in several matters, two of which in the case of the Vājasaneyins may be stated here. Though the Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana, which is of special authority among Vājasaneyins, declares (at the end of kaṇḍikā III) that the brāhmaṇas are to be dismissed at the end of the śrāddha with the verse ‘Vāje vāje’ (Vāj. S. 9.18) and the performer should circumambulate the brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘ā mā vājasya’ (Vaj. S. 9. 19), it is not the practice among the śiṣṭas in Mithilā according to the editor of the Śrāddharatna to observe these directions in what is called ‘apātraka-pārvaṇa-śrāddha’ in these days. In Rudradhara’s Śrāddhaviveka (pp. 138-146) the ‘apātraka pārvaṇa-śrāddha-prayoga’ is set out at length.

In medieval and modern times in the different provinces of India different manuals are followed by the followers of the several Vedas. For example, in Bengal the Sāmavedins, Yajurvedins and Ṛgvedins follow the procedure of pārvaṇa śrāddha laid down in the manuals (or paddhatis) of Bhavadeva, Paśupati and Kālesi respectively and there are many persons who follow the rules laid down by Raghunandana in his Śrāddhatattva and Yajurvediśrāddha-tattva In Mithilā, Śrīdatta wrote his Pitr̥bhakti for Yajurvedins and the Śrāddhakalpa for Sāmavedins and the Śrāddha-ratna of Mahāmahopādhyāya Laksmīpati (between 1500 to 1640 A. D.) which is printed at Darbhanga and claims to be the traditional manual for Maithilas (Maithila-sāmpradāyika-śrāddhapaddhati) in several places says that it follows the Sugatisopāna of Pratihastaka for Chandogas and also for Vājasaneyins. In the Madras State Vaiṣṇava brāhmaṇas follow special treatises on Pūrva and Apara kriyās of Vaidika-Sārvabhauma or Harita Venkatācārya or Tolappar and Smārta brāhmaṇas follow the Smr̥timuktāphala of Vaidyanātha, which does not much differ in major matters from the works of Vaidikasārvabhauma. Often the only differences are in the sankalpa and at the end. It is impossible to exhibit in this work the contents of all these manuals and to compare and contrast them. Therefore I shall set out here a model pārvaṇaśrāddha rite as performed by R̥gvedins in Western India and then a Śukla Yajurveda rite. The Pratisāṁvatsarika śrāddha³⁶² rite for Ṛgvedins in Western India may be set out as follows:-(From the references added in the text and notes it will be clear that this modern rite is all inclusive i.e. it follows the Āśv. Śr. often taking passages verbatim from it, the smṛtis and purāṇas). The performer wears white garments (lower and upper ) and sits on a seat of kuśas or of wool or deer skin and then sips water twice and wears a pavitra on the finger next to the small finger with Ṛg. IX. 83.1. He ties his top knot on the head and sacred thread with kuśas, and ties three kuśa blades with tilas on the left of the dhoti worn by him. Then he performs prāṇāyāma and declares the resolve (saṅkalpa)³⁶³ to perform (the Sāṁvatsarika) śrāddha after referring to the time and place and together with agnaukaraṇa, piṇḍadāna &c. The invited brāhmaṇas reply ‘do so’. Then the performer puts into a copper vessel water with the mantra ‘imam me Gange’ (Ṛg. X. 75.5), sandalwood paste with the mantra ‘Gandhadvārām’, yava grains with the mantra ’thou art yava, king of cereals, Varuṇa is thy patron, thou art endowed with sweetness, thou art the remover of all sins and art known by all sages as holy , betelnut (with Ṛg. X. 97,15), gold (or some coin) with the mantra ‘Hiraṇya rūpaḥ’ (Ṛg. II. 35.10 ), flowers and basil leaves. (Then he becomes prācīnāvīti )³⁶⁴ and puts sesamum grains in the water (in another vessel) with the mantra ‘Tilosi’ (quoted in note 966 ), Bhr̥ṅgarāja leaf with the mantra ‘mā kākam’ (Ṛg. VI. 48. 17), betelnut, gold (or coin). Then he repeats the Puruṣa-sūkta³⁶⁵ (Ṛg. X. 90), Ṛg. X. 128.1-9, IX, 58,1-4, Ṛg. X. 126.1-8, Ṛg. IV. 40.5, Ṛg. VII. 89.5, the sacred Gāyatri with om and the three Vyāhr̥tis, Ṛg. VII. 56. 12, Ṛg. VIII, 44.21, 17, Ṛg. VIII. 95. 7-9. Then after repeating the well-known verse ‘apavitraḥ pavitro vā’³⁶⁶ (whoever, whether pure or impure or being in any state whatever, remembers the name of Viṣṇu becomes pure externally as well as internally ), he requests ‘May everything such as the place and the materials be rendered pure’. The brāhmaṇas reply ’let it be so.’ Then placing some coin on the ground, the performer having in his hand sesamum grains, water and kūśas goes round (pradaksiṇā) the brāhmaṇas thrice, and repeats three verses (in classical sanskrit) in praise of the dust of the feet of brāhmaṇas and a Vedic passage from Tai. Ā. II. 15³⁶⁷ “All the devatās reside in a brāhmaṇa who knows the Veda; therefore every day one should perform obeisance to brāhmaṇas knowing the Veda. He should not utter anything derogatory or evil (either true or false) about them. (By doing so) he pleases all these devatās’. After making obeisance (to the brāhmaṇas) twice he should be prācīnāviti, repeat the verse ‘akrodhanaiḥ’ (note 913 p. 407 above) and request the brāhmaṇas ‘may you be pleased to say that I have complete adhikāra to perform the sāmvatsarikaśrāddha of my pitṛs this day’. The brāhmaṇas should reply ’let there be this adhikāra for the performance of śrāddha.’ Then being upavitin the performer requests ‘may you declare that this time is the proper time and that the food cooked is fit for being offered.’ The brāhmaṇas reply ’let it be so.’ Then he asks the permission to give invitation to the brāhmaṇas. They give it. Then he touches the right knee of one brāhmaṇa and says “you should find time to accept the invitation to act as representing the Viśve-devas named Purūrava and Ārdrava in this pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha of my pitr̥s’. The brāhmaṇa replies ‘yes, be it so.’ Then the performer addresses the second Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇa in the same way (if two brāhmaṇas have been invited for the purpose) and then wearing the sacred thread in the prācīnāvita way should touch the left knee of the brāhmaṇa (pitṛya) and say to him ‘you should accept the invitation to represent my father, grandfather and great-grandfather in this pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha,’ The brāhmaṇa should reply ‘so be it.’ He should request you should repair to my house. The brāhmaṇa replies ‘I shall do so.’ Then he should make maṇḍalas³⁶⁸ for the daiva and pitṛya brāhmaṇas. Then savyam. The performer should offer seat, sandalwood paste, flowers and say ‘may all the items (upacāras) of showing honour be complete by means of yava grains.’ Then apasavyam. He offers āsana (seat), sandalwood paste and flowers and declares ‘may all the upacāras be completed by means of sesamum grains.’ Then savyam. He offers welcome to the daiva brāhmaṇas, to which they respond by saying ‘susvāgatam’ (it is a good welcome). Then he should say ‘here is pādya for you, O Viśve devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava! Bhūr-bhuvaḥ-syaḥ to the (daiva) brāhmaṇa’; the response is ‘supādyam’. He should wash the feet of (the daiva ) brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘śan no devir’ (Ṛg.X. 9.4, vide n. 968). Then he wears the thread in the apasavya way and offers welcome to the pitṛya brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas representing the three male ancestors³⁶⁹ and offers to give pādya to them and they respond with the words ‘susvāgatam’ and ‘supādyam’. He also employs the verse ‘śan no devir’ as in the case of daiva brāhmaṇas.

Then the performer casts away the pavitra worn so far, washes his hands and feet, performs ācamana and wears two pavitras. Then savyam. He says ‘welcome to all.’ They respond with ‘susvāgatam’. Then holding the right hand (except the thumb) of the daiva brāhmaṇas he says “Ye gods, occupy seats ‘; they respond by saying ‘susamāsmahe’ (we have well occupied them). Then apasavyam. He addresses similar words to pitṛya brāhmaṇas who respond in a similar way. Then savyam. He seeks permission in the words ‘I shall perform the Pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha of my pitṛs that has been begun’. The brāhmaṇas say ‘do so’. Then the verse ‘śam no devir’ (Ṛg. X. 9.4) is repeated and also the words ’thou art yava, separate from us those who hate us and who are our enemies’. Then apasavyam. The following texts are repeated viz. Ṛg. X. 9.4, Ṛg. X. 15.1 and with the mantra ‘The asuras, rākṣasas, the piśācas, that dwell along the earth are struck down; may they go from this place elsewhere wherever their mind may be fixed’, he scatters sesamum grains everywhere and repeats the mantra, Ṛg. X, 87.1 There are eight Vasus, eleven Rudras and twelve Ādityas. Let there be protection given by Viṣṇu at the door where śrāddha is being performed and may this spot be Gayā. The brāhmaṇas reply ‘Let it be a good spot.’ Then savyam. He sprinkles drops of water with darbhas over the food that is cooked for the śrāddha dinner with the mantras viz. Ṛg. IX. 58, 1, IX. 67.26-28 and with the three Vyāhr̥tis and the Gāyatri. Then he requests ‘May there be purity of the cooking’ and ‘may the sprinkling of the cooked food be according to the rules prescribed,’ to which the response is ‘so be it.’ Then the verse ‘āgacchantu mahābhāgāḥ’ (vide note 984) is recited and the brāhmaṇas reply ‘we are careful (or attentive).’ Then apasavyam. He announces ‘contemplating upon this spot where śrāddha is being performed as Gayā and concentrating the mind on Gadādhara (Viṣṇu) and the pitṛs in the form of Vasus and the like, the śrāddha (rite) proceeds’. The brāhmaṇas say ‘do proceed.’ Then savyam. He gives water on the hand of the daiva brāhmaṇas, places on the right side of the seat occupied by them two darbhas together with yavas with his upturned right hand held by the left hand and says with the Vyāhr̥tis (Bhūr, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ) ’this is the seat for the brāhmaṇa representing the Viśve devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava’. The brāhmaṇa replies ‘svāsanam’. This is done also for the second daiva brāhmaṇa. He then says ‘Please sit down here, though art Dharma’ and seizing the brāhmaṇa’s hand (except the thumb) he says ‘accept the invitation for being daiva brāhmaṇa in the Pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha.’ The response is ‘so be it.’ Then reaching the arghya water, he sprinkles the ground in front of the (daiva) brāhmaṇas with water, spreads two darbhas (in front of each daiva brāhmaṇa) with their tops towards the east, places down two vessels with theit tout turned downwards, sprinkles water over them with the Gāyatri mantra, raises the vessels up (i.e. turns their tops upwards), again sprinkles water over them and places over them (the two Vessels) two kūrcas³⁷⁰ with the tips turned to the east, pours into them water and invokes the water once with the mantra, ‘śan no devir’ ( Ṛg. X. 9. 4). Then he puts yava grains into the two arghya vessels for daiva brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘Yavosi dhānyarājo vā’ (note 985 ) and also sandalwood paste, flowers, basil leaf and performs obeisance. He says “May all the upacāras be completed by means of yavas; the two arghya vessels for daiva brāhmaṇas are fully ready’. The response is ‘susampanne’. He says ‘svāhā, these are arghya waters’. The response is ’let there be arghya waters’. Placing his left hand in which he holds kuśas and yava grains on the right knee of the daiva brāhmaṇa and holding in his (right) hand yava grains he says ‘I shall invoke the Viśve devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava to be present in you’. They respond’ do invoke’. He invokes the Viśve-devas with the mantra ‘viśve devāsa’ (Ṛg. II. 47.13) separately repeated as regards each daiva brāhmaṇa. He says, ‘I invoke the Viśve devas with the mantra ‘visve devāḥ śr̥ṇutemām’ (Ṛg. VI. 52.13). Having invoked Viśve devas he casts the remaining yaya grains on the ground near the feet of the daiva brāhmaṇas. Then he gives water to them (daiva brāhmaṇas) and he puts in their hands the darbhas placed over the arghya vessels; he says ‘O Viśve devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava! this is arghya water for you; svāhā, adoration. They respond let there be arghya’. Repeating the mantra ‘yā divyā āpaḥ’ (vide āsv. Gr. IV.7.13 above in n. 966 ) he says ’this arghya has been offered, it is no longer mine.’ They respond ’let it be so offered’. The same process is followed as to the second daiva brāhmaṇa. Then he offers fragrant³⁷¹ substances (sandalwood paste etc.), flowers, basil leaves, incense, lamp, and cash according to his ability as substitute for garment, gopicandana for unguent, sacred chord and two kuśa blades for pavitra with the words ‘O Viśve devāḥ, called Purūraya and Ārdrava! these are fragrant substances for you according to your portions; svāhā, adoration’. When offering a garment or cash therefor he recites ‘yuvā suvāsāḥ’ (Ṛg. III. 8.4). Then he says ’these items viz. gandha, leaves, flowers, incense, lamp ending with covering (garment) be all of them complete. Let there be good worship in the rite of worship; May that which is wanting or is excessive be according to prescribed rules’. The brāhmaṇas respond ‘astu vidhivat’ and the performer recites the verse ‘I do obeisance to Acyuta by remembering whom or by uttering whose name whatever is wanting in tapas (observances) or sacrifices becomes at once perfect’.

Then he says to the pitṛya brāhmaṇas ‘with your permission I shall offer worship to the pitṛs’. They reply ‘do offer.’ Then apasavyam. After bending his right knee, the performer says ‘Bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ to Brahman, this is the seat for my father, grandfather and great-grandfather, named N, N., whose gotra is so and so and who are identical with Vasu, Rudra and Āditya’. So saying he offers double-folded darbhas with sesamum grains to the pitṛya brāhmaṇas who reply ‘svāsanam’. Then follows the same procedure as regards pitṛya brāhmaṇas which has been already set out as to daiva brāhmaṇas. The only difference is that instead of two darbhas three darbhas are spread on the ground with their tips towards the south, three vessels are placed towards south-east with faces down wards and three double-folded darbhas are placed on each of the three vessels, instead of ‘yavosi’ the mantra is ’tilosi somadevatyaḥ’ (vide note 966) and instead of ‘svāhā namaḥ’ the words “svadhā namaḥ’ are employed, and instead of tulasi leaf bhr̥ṅgarāja leaf is employed. In āvāhana the performer places his left hand holding kuśas and sesame on the left knee of the pitṛya brāhmaṇa and the verse repeated is ‘uśantas tvā’ (Ṛg. X. 16. 12) as to each pitṛya brāhmaṇa and he should honour the pitṛs by repeating one mantra ‘āyantu naḥ’ (Vāj. S. 19. 58). He offers arghya³⁷² water with the right hand supported by the left to the father and the other two paternal ancestors. Ho brings together the saṁsravas³⁷³ in the first pitṛya vessel and anoints his face with that water if he desires a son. The brāhmaṇas respond ‘may you have a son’.

He places the vessel containing saṁsravas with the top upside down on darbhas to the north of the daiva vessel, with the mantra ’thou art a place for the pitr̥s.’ Then gandha, flowers with tulasi and bhr̥ngarāja leaves, incense, lamp, garment or cash therefor, gopicandana, sacred chord, betelnut, kuśas for pavitra are offered to the pitṛs and he repeats the verse ‘idam pitr̥bhyaḥ’ (Ṛg. X. 15. 2). After repeating the verse ‘yat smr̥tyā’ (vide above ) there is ‘savyam’. The performer says ‘with your permission I shall prepare maṇḍalas and place the plates’. The response is ‘do so’. On the spot where the plates for daiva brāhmaṇas are to be placed a four-cornered maṇḍala beginning from the south-west to north-east and made with the right hand towards it and on the spot for the plates for pitṛya brāhmaṇas the maṇḍala is circular beginning from north-east to south-west made with the left hand towards it. Then the plates for the diners are to be placed inside those maṇḍalas. Then taking holy ashes (apasavyam) he draws a line round the plates for pitṛya brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘piśanga-bhr̥iṣṭim’ (Ṛg. I. 133. 5). Then savyam. Then round the plates of the daiva brāhmaṇas he draws lines with the mantras ‘rakṣā ṇo’ (Ṛg. IV. 3. 14 ) and ‘brahma ca’ (Ṛg. X. 4. 7) and two more verses ( probably Paurāṇic ) which pray that the mark made with ashes may guard all, just as Viṣṇu protects the worlds. Just as Viṣṇu renders ineffective the eyes of all men of evil sight, so one should make a maṇḍala with ashes and when this is done there is no blemish in sitting in the same row for dining. Then the purification of the hand (right) of the brāhmaṇas is done, beginning with the pitṛya brāhmaṇa first. Then the performer requests ’let me perform agnaukaraṇa with your permission in the hand³⁷⁴ of the (pitṛya ) brāhmaṇa.’ The reply is ‘do so’. Then apasavyam. Taking some cooked food and anointing it with clarified butter and dividing it into parts, having touched the two parts placed towards the south he says ’this for Soma accompanied by the Pitṛs, this for Agni, the carrier of kavya’ and having spread the left hand underneath the right hand, having cut off portions from the middle and the part to the east according to the rules for avadānas³⁷⁵ and having poured clarified butter on the food in the vessel and on the food cut off for oblations, he should offer the oblations with the words ‘To Soma accompanied by pitṛs, svadhā and adoration; this for Soma with the pitṛs and it is not (now) mine’ and ’to Agni the bearer of Kavya, svadhā and adoration; this is for Agni Kavyavāhana and not mine.’ This is the mode every where.

He touches water with the left hand and repeats the following (which is called ‘saṁstha-japa’ and occurs in ĀŚv. Śr. I. 11.15 ) ‘Om ca me…te namaḥ’. Obeisance to Agni. Svasti. Then he prays ‘O Kavyavāhana! bestow on me faith, memory, glory, intelligence, learning, intellect, wealth, strength, long life, brilliance, health.’ He says “offering has been made on the hand’. The response is ‘suhutam’. Then he pours ghee on the vessel containing the food and repeats ‘mūrdhānam divaḥ’ (Ṛg. VI. 7. 1). Then the brāhmaṇas should cast the food on their hands in the vessel over which ghee has been poured and then mutter Trisuparṇa³⁷⁶, the hymns to anna (Ṛg. I. 187. 1-11 and several others) and other hymns, Then certain pauraṇic verses should be repeated, viz. ‘Devatābhyaḥ’ (note 1020), the verse ‘one should always recite at a śrāddha these holy places viz Kurukṣetra, Gayā, Gangā Prabhāsa and Puṣkara’, the two verses³⁷⁷ ‘saptavyādhā’ (note 994a ) and three more verses, one speaking of adoration to pitṛs and the other two praying to Viṣṇu and Siva for favours. Then savyam. Then he sprinkles water ( prokṣana ) on the food with the Gāyatri mantra. Then bending his right knee he silently spills water. Then holding the plate with the right hand above and the left hand below he utters the mantra ’the earth is thy vessel³⁷⁸, the heaven is the lid, I sacrifice thee in the brāhmaṇa’s mouth. I sacrifice thee in the Prāṇa (breath) and Apāna (breath) of learned brāhmaṇas. Thou art imperishable. Do not perish for these (Fathers ) here and in the next world.’ Then he repeats ‘ato devā’ (Ṛg. I. 22. 16) and ‘O Viṣṇu, guard the sacrificial food’.

With the hand turned downwards he thrusts in the food (served in the plate) the root of the thumb of the brāhmaṇa turned downwards and should revolve it (in the food) from right to left. Then touching the plate with his left hand the performer should say ‘The Viśve devās called Purūrava and Ārdrava are the deity, this food is the sacrificial offering, this brāhmaṇa serves as āhavaniya fire, this place is Gayā, this brāhmaṇa diner is Gadādhara, this food is Brahma, the golden vessel is the shade of the Akṣayyavata (at Gayā). This food together with the flavouring dishes which is already served (in the plate) and which may be served therein (later), is the sacrificial food offered to the Vißve devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava till this brāhmaṇa is satisfied. Adoration. It is not mine. Om Tat Sat. May the food offered at the fourteen spots such as Viṣṇupada at Gayā be inexhaustible!’. So saying he should cast on the ground towards the left side of the plate water mixed with darbhas and yavas. He says ‘May Gadādhara (Viṣṇu) of Gayā be pleased’. The brāhmaṇas respond ‘May he be pleased’. Then he repeats ‘Ye devāso’ (Ṛg. I. 139.11). Then he says ‘with the permission of the daiva brāhmaṇas I shall present food to the Father and others’. They reply ‘do so’. Then apasavyam. Then silently sprinkling water round the plate, and touching the plate (of the pitṛya brāhmaṇa) with the left hand above and the right hand below it, he repeats the formula ‘pr̥thivi te pātram…loke’ (vide p. 444 note 992) and the verse ‘idam Viṣṇur’ (Ṛg. 1. 22. 17) and say ‘ o Viṣṇu! guard the kavya food,’ he should thrust the root of the thumb of the (pitṛya) brāhmaṇa in the food (served in the plate) and revolve it from right to left. Then touching the plate (of the pitṛya brāhmaṇa) with the left hand he should say the father, grand-father and great-grand father are devatā, this food is of the nature of kavya, the brāhmaṇa is in place of the āhavaniya fire, this place is Gayā, this dining brāhmaṇa is Gadādhara, this food is Brahma, this silver plate is the shade of the Akṣayyavața (at Gayā), svadhā to my father, grandfather and great-grandfather named so and so, of gotra so and so, that are Vasu, Rudra and Āditya respectively, this food with the side dishes that is already served in the plate and that may be served (later) is kavya up till this brāhmaṇa is satiated. Adoration. It is not mine. Tat Sat. May the food given at the 14 spots such as Rudrapada at Gayā be inexhaustible. May Gadādhara of Gayā be pleased. The brāhmaṇa replies ‘May he be pleased.’ He then repeats the verse ‘ye ceha pitaro’ (Ṛg. X. 15, 13) and says ‘May the food intended for the pitṛs please them’. Then savyam³⁷⁹. Then naivedya is offered with the verse ‘brahmārpaṇam’ (Gitā 4. 24) and with three more verses in which Hari is said to be giver and the enjoyer and the food as having both natures viz, those of pitṛs and devas and ultimately he winds up by saying ’tat sat brahmārpaṇamastu’. Then apasavyam. Then two verses are repeated in which adoration is offered to the feet of Siva, Viṣṇu, Brahmā and other gods, in which even remembrance of Gayā-kṣetra is highly eulogised. Adoration to Kāśi Viśveśvara! adoration to Viṣṇu and Gadādhara at Gayā! Then savyam. Then he says ‘I shall repeat in your hearing the madhumati verses beginning with ‘madhu vātā’ (Ṛg. I. 90. 6-8). Then he repeats the word ‘madhu’ thrice. The brāhmaṇas respond ‘sumadhu, all food is sweet.’ Then apasavyam. Then a verse in praise of Viṣṇu (eko Viṣṇur &c.) ’there is one great Being viz. Viṣṇu &c.’ is recited and the performer says ‘May Janārdana Viṣṇu who has assumed the form of my father, grandfather and great-grandfather be pleased by this feeding of brāhmaṇas at the pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha of my pitr̥s’. The response is ‘may he be so pleased’. Tat sat brahmārpaṇam-astu. Then having given water to the brāhmaṇas for apośana³⁸⁰ (then savyam) he says ‘partake of (the food) at your pleasure’ and ’though art the first layer of nectar’. Then he repeats the mantra³⁸¹ ‘fixing myself in faith and in Prāṇa I offer nectar; being beneficent enter me without burning me. Svāhā to Prāṇa’. This is repeated as to Apāna, Vyāna, Udāna, Samāna with the substitution of each of these four remaining life-breaths. Then he winds up ‘my soul is in Brahma for the sake of immortality’ and then ‘svāhā to Brahma’. Then the hands are purified (by washing them with water).

After muttering the Gāyatri verse ten times or three times, he repeats the hymn to Śraddhā (Ṛg.X. 151. 1-5). Then the performer requests ‘you should ask for what is wanted; seating yourself you should with minds at ease eat at your pleasure. You should take from the foods and vegetables that are cooked and are ready whatever pleases you and should discard what you do not like. You should eat at ease’. They respond ‘we partake (of the food)’. He says ‘I shall recite the hymns called Rākṣoghna³⁸² as far as I can.’ They respond ‘repeat’. Then towards the end of the dinner a little boiled rice with curds (should be served) and nectar-like Ganges water. He says ’everything is perfect. Ask for whatever you like out of the sacrificial food that is cooked’. They respond ‘we have had enough’. He says ‘I shall recite the Madhumati verses (Ṛg. I. 90.6-8) in your hearing’. They respond ‘recite them’ Then apasavyam. He recites Ṛg. 1.82.2³⁸³ and should say ‘The śrāddha called so and so is completed’. They “should respond ‘susampannam’. Then savyam. He asks ‘Ye Viśvedevāḥ! are you satisfied ?’ They reply ‘we are satisfied’. Then apasavyam. He asks ‘Ye (brāhmaṇas) representing my father, grandfather and great-grandfather! are you satisfied ?’. They reply ‘We are satisfied’. He asks ‘what is to be done with the food that remains ?’. They reply ‘it may be eaten in the company of your friends (and relatives)’. Then savyam.

Then the performer declares that he would perform in the Prati-sāṁvatsarika-śrāddha piṇḍapradāna (the offering of lumps of rice ) together with water and sesamum grains. They reply ‘do so’. ‘Let food be given to those who take as their share what remains outside the plates of the brāhmaṇa diners’. The performer says³⁸⁴ ‘May all the (deceased) men and women slaves that were born in the performer’s household obtain satisfaction by the food given by me on the ground’. (Then he offers water to the brāhmaṇas with the words ) ’thou art the nectarial lid’ (or covering). He says “May the water given to those who hanker for it, who dwell in Padma and Arbuda and Raurava (hells) full of pus reach them inexhaustibly’. Then apasavyam.

He repeats the mantra³⁸⁵ ‘The asuras and rākṣasas that sit on the altar are struck and driven away’ (Vāj. S. II. 29). Sprinkling the ground with water and strewing thereon darbhas cut with one stroke that have their tips turned towards the south-east he says³⁸⁶ ‘May the Fathers wash themselves, may the grandfathers wash themselves, may the great grandfathers wash themselves’. In the same way he should sprinkle on the kuśa grass water mixed with sesamum grains for the mothers and the rest. Then he says ‘This (food) is for thee, my father named so and so, of such and such gotra, who is (to be contemplated) as Vasu and for those who come here after thee; this is the piṇḍa for thee³⁸⁷, svāhā! This piṇḍa occupying the position of a piṇḍa offered at Gayā is presented to my father named so and so and of such and such gotra and who is in the place of Vasu, it is (now ) not mine’. Similar formulas are repeated for the piṇḍa offered to the grandfather (who is styled ‘Rudrarūpa’ instead of ‘Vasurūpa’) and to the great-grandfather (who is styled ‘Ādityarūpa’). Then he utters ‘Tat sat.’ ‘May whatever is offered in Gayā at the fourteen spots such as Viṣṇupada be inexhaustible’. Then he wipes off on the roots of³⁸⁸ the darbhas on which the piṇḍas are placed the particles (of rice, ghee and water ) sticking to his hand for the, gratification of those that are entitled to the wipings. Having uttered³⁸⁹ once over the piṇḍas the mantra ‘O fathers; regale yourselves here, come as bulls each to his share’, he should turn towards the north with the left side of his body, and having held his breath according to his ability he should return to the original position and utter the words ’the Fathers regaled themselves and came like bulls, each to his share’ and having smelt the remains of the boiled rice from which piṇḍas are made from the left side (to the right ) he should cast the piṇḍas (on the darbhas ) and should partake of the boiled rice by taking in as much steam and flavour out of it as he can by smelling it.

He should say ‘my father! N. N. by name, so and so by gotra, apply unctuous substance’; with these words he should anoint the piṇḍas by means of darbhas with ghee or sesamum oil. And he should apply collyrium to the piṇḍas with the words ‘O father! N. N. by name and so and so by gotra apply collyrium’. He should put on the piṇḍas unctuous substance, collyrium and garment³⁹⁰, the last being the fringe of a garment or a tuft of wool with the words ‘O fathers ! this is the garment for you, do not take up any other (garment ) than this’. Then savyam. He then says ‘I shall offer worship to the piṇḍas for the prosperity of my family’. He then offers to the pitṛs present in the piṇḍas pādya, arghya, water for ācamana, bath, gandha, flowers, bhrngarāja leaf, incense, lamp and naivedya of apūpa (cakes) and pāyasa (rice cooked in milk), tāmbūla and dakṣiṇā, using the word ‘svadhā’ after each of them. Then he should worship³⁹¹ them with the mantra ‘Fathers! obeisance to you for the sake of food, for strength, for susma, for the non-terrible (aghora), for jīva, for rasa; svadhā to you, O pitṛs, obeisance to you; these are yours, O pitṛs ! these are ours; we are your living (descendants), may we be alive here’! He then recites the verses³⁹² Ṛg. X. 54. 3-5. Having thus worshipped them he then (apasavyam) with the palm of the hand turned upwards moves the piṇḍas with the mantra³⁹³ ‘paretana’ which means ‘O fathers who love soma drink! Go away by the sombre ancient paths, after bestowing on us wealth and endow us here with auspicious prosperity and all valiant sons’.

He should repeat thrice the prayer ‘O fathers! bestow on us a valiant son ‘³⁹⁴.Then savyam. On the ground near the plates of the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas he scatters food together with yavas and water with the verse ‘I shall offer food scattered (vikira) near the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas to those gods to whom no soma drink is offered and who are bereft of a share in sacrifices; this scattered food is offered to Viśvedevas who do not partake of the soma drink; it is not (now) mine’. Then apasavyam. He says ‘I shall offer food scattered near pitṛya brāhmaṇas on the ground covered with darbhas to those who died without the saṁskāras being performed for them and to those women of my family who left the family (for bad deeds); this scattered food is presented to those boys and girls that came out of the womb; it is not mine’. So saying he strews food with water and sesamum seeds and then says after reciting Ṛg. X. 15.14 ’this piṇḍa made from the remainder of the food and occupying the position that a piṇḍa given at Gayā occupies, has been offered to those persons who were born in my family and died and who were cremated or were not cremated; this is not mine’. So saying he offers near the pitṛya brāhmaṇas a ball of rice and water mixed with sesamum grains.

Then he washes his hands and feet, sips water twice and puts on his finger a pavitra with the mantra ‘pavitravantaḥ’ (Ṛg. IX. 73. 3). He then requests that the water in the hands of the daiva brāhmaṇas be auspicious (or beneficial). The brāhmaṇas reply ‘may the waters be auspicious.’ In the same way there are requests for goodwill, for protection due to yavas, for long life, welfare, peace, prosperity, contentment and responses by the daiva brāhmaṇas giving blessings as to these. Then apasavyam. Then the same request for auspiciousness of waters, goodwill. protection by sesamum grains &c. and blessings about them by pitṛya brāhmaṇas. Then the performer requests ‘may my family increase (or prosper) and may the procedure of worshipping the piṇḍas be good,’ to which the pitṛya brāhmaṇas respond ‘may it be so.’ Then raising the pranitā³⁹⁵ vessel the performer requests ‘May you say that the water and food and the like offered in the Pratisāṁvatsarikaśrāddha to pitṛ, pitāmaha and prapitāmaha, so and so by name and gotra, be inexhaustible.’ The pitṛya brāhmaṇas reply ‘so be it.’ Then savyam.

The same request is made to the daiva brāhmaṇas and the reply is the same. Then gold is given to the daiva brāhmaṇas and silver to pitṛya brāhmaṇas and the performer says ‘may the daksiṇās (fees) given to the brāhmaṇas that ate the śrāddha dinner protect (me).’ They reply ‘may they do so.’ Then he says ‘I shall request you to utter the word svadhā!’ They reply ‘do so.’ Then apasavyam. Then he says “May (the brāhmaṇas representing) father, grandfather and great-grandfather utter the word svadhā,’ They reply let there be svadhā.’ Then he should place over the piṇḍas sesamum grains and water. Then he says ‘May you declare that svadhā be accomplished.’ They reply ‘may svadhā be accomplished.’ Then savyam. Then he says ‘may you say that the gods led by Agni be pleased.’ They reply ‘may the Viśvedevāḥ be pleased.’ Then apasavyam. Then he requests ‘May you declare that the pitṛs led by the Vasus be pleased’. They reply ‘may the pitṛs be pleased.’ Savyam. He says ‘May you declare that there is accomplishment of the sankalpa’ (made at the beginning of the rite). They reply ‘May there be accomplishment of the sankalpa’. He asks were the vegetables and cooked food liked by the pitṛs’. They reply they were most excellent’. Then the performer decks himself by applying sandal paste to his forehead. After doing obeisance to the piṇḍas he requests for blessings for his family (which are the same as those set out above from the Padmapurāṇa on p.452 above) and one more blessing ‘May persons beg of us but may we not beg of any one’ (vide n. 998). The brāhmaṇas reply in the same words only employing the words ‘you’ or ‘your’ for ‘us’ or ‘our ‘.

He says “I shall remove the piṇḍas’. They reply ‘do remove’. Then he repeats the verses ‘Tad Viṣṇoḥ’ (Ṛg. I. 22.20 ), ‘Tad viprāso’ (Ṛg. I. 22.21 ) and two more verses and then a Paurānic verse enumerating the seven holy cities of Ayodhyā, Mathurā, Māyā, Kaśi, Kāñci, Avantika and Dvārakā. He says “May there be peace, prosperity and contentment on the spot where the piṇḍas are’. They reply ’these (peace &c.) dwell in their own places’. He says ‘I shall remove the plates in which the brāhmaṇas had their dinner.’ Then he lays aside the kūrca. He then recites the verse ‘Vāje vāje’ (Ṛg. VII, 38,8). Then savyam. Then he says ‘O pitṛs, get up together with the devas’ and repeats the verses ‘ā mā vājasya’ (Vāj. S. 9. 19), ‘svādusansadah’ (Ṛg. VI. 75. 9), ‘brāhmanāsah pitarah’ (Ṛg. VI, 75. 10), ‘ihaiva stam’ (Ṛg. X. 85. 42). Then he recites ‘may the grand fathers being pleased grant to men (their descendants ) long life, progeny, wealth, learning, heaven, mokṣa, happiness and kingdom’ (Yāj. I. 270, but reads ‘prayacchantu’ for ‘prayacchanti’). Then he prays ‘May these blessings turn out to be true, may my family prosper, may this Pratisāinvatsarikaśrāddha have the same fruits as that of a śrāddha performed at Gayā! May the pitṛs secure inexhaustible gratification.’ Then he proceeds ‘Today my birth has had its reward by bowing to your feet &c.’ (vide n. 999 for the two verses repeated here ). The brāhmaṇas reply ‘we forget the trouble and excuse you.’ Then he says ‘Today this tithi is like a day sacred to the sun; the brāhmaṇas invited are like Vyāsa, Vasiṣṭha and Vāmadeva; may you declare that whatever is lacking as regards seats, dinner, mantras, procedure, materials and fees in this pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha of my pitṛs performed by me today become all perfect at the words of brāhmaṇas’. They reply ‘May all be perfect’. Then he recites the two verses “Vasiṣṭhāsaḥ pitr̥vad’ and ‘devān vasiṣṭho’ (Ṛg. X. 66. 14-15) and then at the end he repeats the verse containing a salutation (the word ’namaḥ’) viz. ‘idam pitr̥bhyo namo astvadya’ (Ṛg. X. 15. 2). Therefore at the end (of a śrāddha rite) one does obeisance to the pitṛs (in the words ’namo vaḥ pitaro &c.’). Therefore they say “should one repeat the pitṛyā verses with āhāva mantra specially recited with each verse or without repeating the āhāva mantra separately with each verse; for it is better not to finish Pitṛyajña quickly. He who separately recites the āhāva with each verse makes the pitṛyajña that is imperfect, complete and therefore one must recite specially employing the āhāva with each verse.”³⁹⁶.

The conclusion is one should repeat each verse with āhāva separately uttered. The performer should follow the brāhmaṇas up to the boundary (of the village). He says ‘whatever blemish there may be in japa, tapas or śrāddha rite–may all that become free from blemish by the favour of brāhmaṇas. I do adoration to that Acyuta (Viṣṇu) by remembering whom &c. O best of brāhmaṇas! may this śrāddha, even if devoid of mantras, or of some rite or of faith, become perfect by your favour’. Then he concludes ‘May Janārdana Vāsudeva who assumes the forms of father, grand-father and great-grand father be pleased by this sacrifice, viz. the pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha of the pitṛs. This is a sacrifice to the manes. Tat sat. May it be dedicated to Brahma.’ Then he repeats the verse ‘Vaṣat te’ (Ṛg. VII. 99.7) and then says ‘adoration to Viṣṇu (Viṣṇave namah) thrice and sips water twice. The fruit of offering piṇḍas is stated by Bṛhaspati and Vṛddha-Parāśara as follows: If the pitṛs are in the world of gods they are gratified by the food offered in fire, if they are in the world of pitṛs they are gratified by the dinner to brāhmaṇas and if in hell they are gratified by the balls offered on the ground³⁹⁷.

Comparing the above rather elaborate and exhaustive procedure with the procedure of pratisāmvatsarikaśrāddha as practised in Madras in these days only a few points of differences in detail emerge. In the Madras procedure the numerous mantras as set out above (p. 448) do not occur nor does the Tai. Ā passage occur therein, but the verses in praise of the dust of brāhmaṇa’s feet do occur. Most of the mantras both Vedic and Paurāṇic are the same. The blessings (āśirvādas) in the Madras manual are more elaborate and include even the performer’s cattle in the blessing of health and long life. In the Madras manual several mantras are set out as ‘annasūkta’ mantras in the procedure itself. The Madras paddhati adds at the end the well known verse ‘kāyena vācā manasendriyairvā’.

The procedure for Yajurvedins of the Mādhyandina Śākhā in Bengal as set out by Raghunandana in his Yajurvedi-śrāddhatattva is entirely based on the 2nd and 3rd kaṇḍikās of the Śrāddha-sūtra of Katyāyana. The Pāryaṇaśrāddha-prayoga in Halāyudha’s Brāhmaṇasarvasva closely follows Kātyāyana and I am assured by a careful student of Dharmaśāstra that the procedure of pārvaṇaśrāddha followed by Madhyandinas at Bhatpara in Western Bengal is in strict conformity with the procedure laid down by Raghunandana. The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana is translated here with some explanations and additions made by Halāyudha and Raghunandana and the whole text, being not very extensive, is given in the note below³⁹⁸.

The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana

“The pārvaṇa-śrāddha is preceded by the rite for Viśvedevas. The procedure follows that of Piṇḍapitṛyajña³⁹⁹. In the rites for the pitṛs double-folded darbhas are to be used (while in Vaiśvadevika rite straight darbhas are used). Whenever any thing is to be gifted, the performer (in all daiva as well as pitṛya rites ) wears a pavitra and makes the gift sitting. (When questions are to be asked the performer puts the question to the most eminent in the row of diners (to the best daiva brāhmaṇa in daiva rites and to the best pitṛya brāhmaṇa in pitṛya rites) or he may put the question to all (and the reply is given by one or by all). Spreading darbhas on the seats (he makes the brāhmaṇas occupy them), he puts the question ‘shall I invoke the Viśvedevas (to the daiva brāhmaṇa)’. Being permitted (by the daiva brāhmaṇas) in the words ‘do invoke’, he invokes the Viśvedevas with the mantra⁴⁰⁰ ‘Visve devāsa āgata’ (Vāj. S. 7. 34 ‘Ye All Gods, come, listen to this my call and sit down on this darbha grass’). Then he scatters yavas (in front of the brāhmaṇas), mutters a mantra ‘Viśvedevāḥ śruṇutemam’ (Vaj. S. 33. 53, ‘Ye All Gods, hear this call of mine’). After this japa he asks (the pitṛya brāhmaṇas) ‘I shall invoke the pitṛs’. When permitted (by the pitṛya brahmanas) in the words ‘do invoke’, he invokes them with the mantra ‘uśantas tvā’ (Vaj. S. 19, 70, ‘O Agni! we longing for our fathers place you down’ &c.).

Then he scatters (sesamum grains in front of the pitṛya brāhmaṇas) and mutters the mantra ‘ā yantu naḥ pitaraḥ’ (Vāj. S. 19. 58, ‘May the soma loving pitṛs come to us’ &c.). Then he pours water in each of the cups made of a sacrificial tree (such as palāśa, udumbara &c.), in which a pavitra is dipped with the mantra ‘śan no devir’ (Vāj. S. 36. 12, ‘May the divine waters be for our happiness’ &c.). (He puts yavas in the vessel for daiva rite). He puts in each of the cups sesamum grains with the mantra ‘Thou art Tila⁴⁰¹ &c.’. He offers on the hands of each of the brāhmaṇas (first daiva and then pitṛya) that wear a pavitra water in a vessel made of gold, silver, copper, rhinoceros horn or precious stone or in whatever vessels may be available or in vessels made of bunches of leaves with the mantra ‘yā divyā⁴⁰² āpah &c.’. The water is offered in the words ‘O father’ N. N. by name, this is arghya for you’ (and then to other ancestors ). Having mixed together in the first vessel (meant for the father) the drops of water remaining in the other vessels⁴⁰³ for other ancestors, he puts down on the ground the first vessel face downwards with the words ’thou art a place for the pitṛs’. Then (at this stage) gandha⁴⁰⁴ (sandalwood paste), flowers, incense, lamp and garment are offered to the brāhmaṇas representing the ancestors).

Having taken out in another vessel some food from out of the food already cooked for śrāddha and having anointed it with ghee he (the performer) asks ‘I shall perform agnaukaraṇa’. Being permitted by the brāhmaṇas in the words ‘do so’, he offers into (gr̥hya) fire oblations⁴⁰⁵ as in Piṇḍapitṛyajña, having served (into all the plates for all the brāhmaṇas invited) the food that remains after being offered in fire, he touches with his hands (above and below each plate) and repeats the mantra ‘The earth is thy vessel &c.’ (notes 992, 1108a). (He keeps some food aside for making piṇḍas later on).

Then (having served the food in the plates ) he plunges the thumb of the brāhmaṇas in the food with a r̥k (Ṛg. I. 22. 17, ‘idam Viṣṇur vicakrame’) addressed to Viṣṇu or with a Yajus so addressed (‘Viṣṇo kavyamidam rakṣasva’). Then he scatters about (yavas before daiva brāhmaṇas silently and) sesamum grains with the mantra ‘apahatā asurā rakṣānsi vediṣadaḥ’ (Vāj. S. 2. 29). Then he should serve hot food very much liked (by diners or by the departed) or he may serve such food as he can afford. While the brāhmaṇas are engaged in eating (the dinner) he should perform japa of the following⁴⁰⁶, viz, the sacred Gāyatri once or thrice preceded by om and the vyāhrtis, the verses called Rākṣoghni (note 1111 ), mantras addressed to the pitr̥s (Ṛg. X, 15. 1-13 beginning with ‘udiratām-avara ut parāṣaḥ)’, Puruṣasūkta (Ṛg. X. 90. 1-16), Apratiratha hymn (Ṛg. X. 103, 1-13 ) beginning with ‘āśuḥ śiśānaḥ’) and other holy texts. Then finding that the brāhmaṇas are satiated with food, he should scatter some food in front of the dining brāhmaṇas, he should give to each brāhmaṇa water once (for apośana at the end of dinner). Then he should mutter as before the Gāyatri, the (three) Madhumati verses (Ṛg. I. 90. 6-8) and the word ‘madhu’ (thrice). Then he asks ‘are you satiated’. Being permitted by them in the words ‘we are satiated’, he makes them give their consent as to the rest of the food, collects together all food in one vessel (in order to make piṇḍas from it); he offers (two sets of three piṇḍas, three for paternal ancestors and three for maternal ancestors) on darbhas near the spot where⁴⁰⁷ the brāhmaṇas dined and left uneaten food in plates and pours water over the piṇḍas for ablution⁴⁰⁸.

Some authors say that piṇḍas are to be offered after the brāhmaṇas perform ācamana at the end of the dinner. After they perform ācamana he gives to the brāhmaṇas water, flowers, akṣatas and akṣayyodaka⁴⁰⁹. Then he prays for the following blessings. He prays ‘may the pitṛs be not terrible (i.e. be kind) to us’. The brāhmaṇas reply ‘may they be so’. He prays ‘May our family prosper’. They reply “may it be so’. He prays ‘May donors increase in our family’. They reply ’let it be so’. He prays ‘May Vedas and our pro geny prosper’. The reply is ‘May they do so’. He says ‘May faith not depart from me’; they say “May it not depart’. He says ‘May we possess many things that we can donate’. They reply ‘so be it’. After receiving these blessings he spreads kuśas called svadhāvācaniya⁴¹⁰ together with pavitras (on the ground near the piṇḍas or, on the piṇḍas themselves according to Devayājñika and others); he asks (all the brāhmaṇas or the most eminent one) ‘shall I request you to utter the word svadhā’. Being permitted by them in the words ‘May svadhā be recited’ he prays “May there be svadhā to the pitṛs, to the grandfathers, to the great-grand-fathers, to the maternal grandfather, maternal great-grandfather and maternal great great-grandfather’. When the brāhmaṇas reply ‘May there be svadhā’ he sprinkles water over the svadhāvācaniya darbhas with the mantra ‘ūrjam vahantir’ (Vāj. S. II. 34). Then he turns the vessel top upwards (which had been placed with top downwards) and he should give to the brāhmaṇas dakṣiṇā according to his ability. He should make the daiva brāhmaṇas repeat ‘May all the gods be pleased’. He should then dismiss the brāhmaṇas with the mantra “Vāja vāje’ (Vāj. S. 9. 18), he should follow the brāhmaṇas (up to the village boundary ) with the mantra ‘ā mā vājasya’ (Vāj. S. 9. 19), circumambulate them and then enter his own house.

Pārvaṇaśrāddha in Bengal

It is to be noted that in the Bengal Manual of Pārvaṇaśrāddha based on the Brāhmaṇasarvasva of Halāyudha and also on Raghunandana’s Yajurvedi-śrāddhatattva the following details are added after the piṇḍas are placed on the darbhas and before the dismissal of the brāhmaṇas. He turns towards the north and says ‘O pitṛs, regale yourselves here and come like bulls each to his portion.’ Then he turns round to his former position and says ’the pitṛs regaled themselves and came like bulls each to his own share.’ Then he loosens⁴¹¹ the side of his dhoti which has been tucked up and then folds up his hands (i.e. offers six namaskāras) with the mantra⁴¹² ‘Namo vaḥ pitaro rasāya’ (Vāj. S. I. 32). He smells⁴¹³ the piṇḍas and gives the middle one to his wife, if she desires a son, with the mantra ‘ādhatta’ (Vaj. S. II. 33).

From considerations of space the procedure of pārvaṇa śrāddha among Hiraṇyakeśins in modern times is passed over here. Moreover, it closely resembles the procedure in Āśv. Gr. set out above, the principal difference being that some of the mantras are different. The Saṁskāraratnamālā of Gopinātha deals with this from p. 985 onwards. But one noticeable feature of this last work is that of making hair-splitting distinctions. On p. 985 it refers to two śrāddhas (other than piṇḍa-pitṛyajña) to be performed on amāvāsyā, viz. māsi-śrāddha and māsika-śrāddha, the first being described by the Dharmasutra of Hiraṇyakesin and the second by the Gr̥hyasūtra. Gopinātha further says that māsikaśraddha is the model of the other śrāddhas described in the Gṛhyasūtra and māsiśrāddha is the model of śrāddhas described in the Dharmaśāstras, such as Mahālayaśrāddha or Sāṁvatsarika-śrāddha, that Darśaśrāddha itself is māsi-śrāddha (p. 988) and that māsika-śrāddha may be performed on each darśa or on any one darśa day in a year and that māsi-śrāddha follows immediately after Piṇḍapitṛyajña as laid down by Manu (III. 122) and māsikaśrāddha may be performed after māsi-śrāddha.

In modern times no one performs māsiśrāddha or māsika-śrāddha strictly in accordance with the ancient rules. Śrāddha is supposed to be performed by feeding a brāhmaṇa and giving him a dakṣiṇā of a few annas. The Śrāddhatattva (Jiv., part 1 p. 254) provides, after quoting Matsya and Bhaviṣya, that, if a person is unable to perform a pārvaṇaśrāddha every month, he should perform one at least thrice a year when the sun is in the zodiacal signs of Kanyā, Kumbha and Vr̥ṣabha and that if he is unable to perform even thrice then he should perform at least once when the sun is in the sign of Kanyā.

The Dayabhāga theory of spiritual benefit

The two meanings of sapiṇḍa given by the Mit, and the Dāyabhāga have already been explained at great length in H. of Dh. vol. II, pp. 452-458 and pp. 472-477. The Dāyabhāga propounded the theory that whoever conferred greater spiritual benefit on the deceased by the performance of śrāddhas and the offering of piṇḍas was entitled to be preferred as an heir to the deceased’s wealth. The Mit. said that heirship depended on blood relationship and the nearest in blood to the deceased was the preferential heir. But even under the Mit. whoever took the wealth of the deceased was bound to pay his debts (Yaj. II, 51 ) and to offer śrāddha and piṇḍa to him. This subject and the several propositions deduced from the texts have been dealt with in H. of Dh. vol. III, pp. 734-745.

One thing to be remembered is that in determining the preferential right regard is to be had to the capacity of a person and the efficacy of the piṇḍas when offered. After a person takes the wealth of the deceased, there is no legal machinery to enforce his duty to offer piṇḍas⁴¹⁴. It was argued in Nalinaksha v. Rajani Kanto 35 C. W. N. 726 that, if an heir does not offer piṇḍas or refuses to offer them to his ancestor. he was not entitled under Hindu Law to succeed to him. This argument was repelled by the judges with the remark that there was no authority for such a proposition and that the right to inheritance is based under the Dāyabhāga not on offering piṇḍa but on the capacity to offer it (p. 729). Vide Gooroo Gobinda Saha v. Anand Lal 5 Beng. L. R. 15 (F. B.) and Digamber v. Motilal 9 Cal. 563 (F. B.) for the statement that the principle of spiritual benefit is the sole foundation of the theory of inheritance propounded in the Dāyabhāga.

But in certain later cases such as Akshayachandra v. Hari Das 35 Cal, 721 it was rightly pointed out that spiritual benefit is not always the guiding principle under the Bengal school of law, that the principle of spiritual efficacy as the guiding principle fails in all classes of female relations such as the wife, the daughter and the mother whose rights are really based on special texts and that the reason for inheritance by a re-united coparcener was not spiritual benefit but was based on a quasi contract and affection.

The question about how śrāddha was to be performed if one or more of the three paternal ancestors were alive engaged the thoughts of writers from very ancient times. The Āśv.⁴¹⁵ Śr. S. (II. 6. 16-23) first sets out the views of Gāṇagāri, Taulvali and Gautama and then refutes them. Gāṇagāri held that out of the three paternal ancestors piṇḍas should be offered to those that were dead and those that were alive should be honoured in person, since the śrāddha rite is meant for pleasing the ancestors; Taulvali opined that piṇḍas should be offered to all the three ancestors, whether living or dead, since in the rite of śrāddha they are only a secondary matter (a detail). Gautama thought that piṇḍas should be offered to dead ancestors, upto three from the father if the latter was living, from the grandfather if he was alive and from the great-grandfather if all the three be living. Āśv. replies; one cannot offer piṇḍas to three ancestors 1110 beyond the father, grand-father or great grandfather, since one has no adhikāra to do so; one cannot offer piṇḍas to an ancestor after whom there is an ancestor (within three degrees) living. One may offer homa into fire to those that are alive. (If all three ancestors are alive ) all the three piṇḍas must be cast into fire or he may not begin the rite at all. The Katyāyana śr.⁴¹⁶ sūtra provides that piṇḍas are offered only to deceased ancestors; therefore if a person’s father be alive or if there is a deceased ancestor between whom and the performer there is an ancestor that is alive, then one whose father is alive can only perform homa (into fire, but no piṇḍadāna) or he should not undertake at all (the rite of piṇḍa-pitṛyajña or pārvaṇaśrāddha); that Jātākarṇya prescribes that no piṇḍadāna is possible when a living ancestor (father) intervenes between the performer and a deceased ancestor, since a śruti text says ‘one does not offer piṇḍas to ancestors that are beyond a living ancestor.’ Manu (III. 220-222 ) deals with this question as follows: If the performer’s father be alive he should offer piṇḍas to three ancestors beginning from the paternal grand-father or he may request the father to dinner as he would do to a stranger brāhmaṇa and offer piṇḍas to the deceased grand-father and great-grand-father, If the father be dead and the grandfather be alive, he may offer a piṇḍa only to the father and the great-grandfather (i.e. only two piṇḍas) or the grand-father who is alive may be invited to dinner as if he were the stranger brāhmaṇa invited to represent a deceased grand-father or if permitted by the grandfather who is alive he may offer piṇḍas to father, great-grandfather and great great-grandfather.

The Viṣṇudharmasūtra (chap. 75) has several rules of a similar character. Some of the Purāṇas such as Skanda VI 225.24-25, Agni 117,58-59 deal with this matter. Gobhilasmṛti (II. 93 ff) has a long passage on this question, one verse of which is quoted below⁴¹⁷. Many of the commentaries and digests hold divergent views on this subject, viz. the Mit. on Yāj. I. 254, Kalpataru (śr. pp. 240 ff), Śr. K. K. pp. 552-556 and Nirṇayasindhu (III, pp. 499-503 ). It is impossible to reconcile all the views.The Kalpataru (on śr. p. 240) states that there are three alternative courses for him whose father is alive; (1) he should pass over the father that is alive and offer piṇḍas to those three ancestors to whom his father offers piṇḍas: (Manu. III, 220, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 75.1); (2) he should simply offer homa into fire as stated in Aśv. Sr. S. quoted above: (3) he should not engage in the rite of piṇḍapitṛyajña or pārvaṇaśrāddha at all (Gobhila-smṛti II. 93). The Nirṇayasindhu says that there are numerous alternatives mentioned by different writers, that they are forbidden in the Kali age and that one view is that a man whose father is alive cannot engage in a pārvaṇaśrāddha and that the real conclusion is that śrāddha may be offered to those to whom the father (of the performer) who is living offers piṇḍas.

About Pārvaṇaśrāddha by jivatpitṛka

It is clear that one whose father is living should have nothing to do with piṇḍadāna for deceased ancestors. Manu (in latter half of III. 220) allowed an alternative viz. one should feed one’s father at a dinner (and honour him with the details of worship such as gandha, dhūpa, dipa) and offer piṇḍas to the deceased grandfather and great-grandfather. When any one or two out of the three paternal ancestors are alive and śrāddha is permitted to a descendant several alternatives become possible by permutation and combination, which are passed over here from considerations of space and utility. But the various views held by different writers as described above show clearly what a firm grip the theory of the supreme benefits to be derived from śrāddhas had on the minds not only of common people but of learned men, who, in spite of the fact that the father was alive and was there to offer piṇḍas to his three ancestors, allowed even the son (whose father was living) to offer piṇḍas to the same three ancestors. The Viṣṇu Dh. S. extends the procedure about ‘jivatpitṛka’ to one’s mother’s paternal ancestors ( changing the mantra where necessary )⁴¹⁸. Similar rules apply where the performer’s mother is alive (Agnipurāṇa 117.60 ’evam mātrādikasyāpi tathā mātāmahādike’).

It is provided by Gobhilasmṛti (III. 157) that a śruti injunction should be made effective by means of anukalpa (of some substituted procedure) if the primary procedure cannot be carried out⁴¹⁹. If a person cannot secure several brāhmaṇas but can secure only one, he should perform Pārvaṇa-śrāddha in which six piṇḍas are to be offered with a single brāhmaṇa, provided he is pankti-pāvana⁴²⁰ (sanctifier of a row of diners) and in such a case, naivedya should be offered in place of the dinner to the daiva brāhmaṇas and the food should be thrown into fire; so says Śaṇkha 14.10.

If even a single brāhmaṇa cannot be had for a pārvaṇaśrāddha, then one should prepare with kuśas the effigy of brāhmaṇa students (baṭu) and the performer should himself ask the questions and give the answers required in pārvaṇaśrāddha⁴²¹.

When one cannot secure a brāhmaṇa nor materials, or when one is on a journey, or on the birth of a son, or when one’s wife is in her monthly illness, one may perform āmaśrāddha (Śrāddha with uncooked grains)⁴²². This is stated by the Skandapurāṇa VII.1.206.52. Katyayana and Saurapurāṇa. 19.32 have similar verses “a twice-born person should perform āmaśrāddha when he is on a journey or is in distress, or if he has no fire for cooking and those who are weak may always perform it.” The Madanapārijāta (p. 483) states that one who has the adhikāra for pārvaṇaśrāddha can alone offer āmaśrāddha. Hārīta says that when there is an obstacle in performing a śrāddha, āmaśrāddha is prescribed except in the case of māsika and sāmvatsarika śrāddhas⁴²³. Āmaśrāddha is always prescribed for śūdras. It was further provided that the grains offered in śrāddha should be utilized by the brāhmaṇas for eating the cooked food for themselves and were to be applied for no other purpose (Hemādri, Śr. p. 1527). Vyāsa provides⁴²⁴ that the quantity of grains should be at least two or three or four times as much as the grains required for offering cooked food. Some words employed in the various items such as āvāhana⁴²⁵ svadhākāra and dismissal of the brāhmaṇas had to be changed e.g. in āvāhana the verse employed is ‘uśantastvā’ (Vāj. S. 19.70) which ends with the words ‘haviṣe attave’ (which means ‘in order to eat the havis’) the words ‘haviṣe svikartave’ would have to be substituted.

Āmaśrāddha and Hemaśrāddha

Āmaśrāddha is to be performed in the first part of the day, ekoddiṣṭa in the noon, the pārvaṇaśrāddha in the afternoon and vr̥ddhiśrāddha in the first part of the day (divided into five )⁴²⁶.

If even uncooked food grains cannot be offered the performer should perform hemaśrāddha (śrāddha with money ). When the sun passes from one sign of the zodiac into another, in default of food and brāhmaṇas, on a journey, on the birth of a son, in an eclipse, in the case of women and śūdras hemaśrāddha is allowed or when one’s wife is in her monthly illness. In āmaśrāddha twice the quantity of grains required in offering cooked food and in hemaśrāddha four times (the price of the grains required for cooked food) has to be offered. If no money can be had the digests prescribe several modes which have already been set out above ( vide p. 425, n. 955).