28 Sannyāsa

CHAPTER XXVIII

SANNYĀSA

Sannyāsa.( the order of ascetics ). That the Chān. Up. was well aware of the three asramas of student-hood, house holder and forest hermit has been shown above (p. 420 ). It is somewhat doubtful whether the Chan. Up. regarded sannyaga as the fourth and the last stage in a man’s life when ideally planned. It merely states that one that holds fast by the realization of brahman attains immortality’. But it appears that a stage of the abandonment of worldly riches, & life of begging and contemplation of the Absolute and its reali zation had been known to the earliest Upanisads like the Bphadāraṇyaka. Whether it was the fourth stage or whether it could be reached even in the stage of brabmacarya or of a house-holder is left in doubt so far as the older Upaniṣads are concerned. The Jabalopaniṣad (4) has been quoted above (p. 421 ) to show that it gave an option either to regard sannyaga as the 4th stage in a man’s life or to resort to it immediately after any of the first two āśramas.

In the Bṛ, Up. (II. 4.1) we see that Yajñavalkya 2146 when about to become a parivrājaka (a wandering ascetic) tells his wife Maitreyi that he was going to leave home and that he wanted to divide whatever wealth he had between her and her co-wife Katyayani. This shows that & parivrājaka had even then to leave home and wife and to give up all belongings. The same Upaniṣad in another place (III.5.1) states those who realize Atman give up the hankering after progeny, possessions and heavenly worlds and practise the beggar’s mode of life ; therefore the brāhmaṇa, having completely mastered (and so risen beyond) mere learning, should seek to be like a child (i. e. should not make a parade of his latent capacities or know. ledge ) and having completed ( gone beyond ) knowledge and

  1. Areia e TF*TUFYPYT DISKREYTTET FRA asmat euroaspat irrefragt. 3. II. 4. 1 ; pri ATATU Parku बामणाः पुषणायाश्च विषणायाच लोकैषणायाम ग्युस्थायाप भिक्षापर्य परन्ति । …… तस्माएमाणापाण्डित्य निर्षिय पाल्येन तिहासदाबाहयच पाण्डित्यसनिविद्याथ हनि rātt ott fogo TT.TT: 1 T. 7. III. 5. 1. Vide Vedāntasutra III. 4. 47-49 and 50 for a discussion of this last passage.

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balya ( child-like behaviour ) he should attain to the position of & muni, and having risen beyond the stage of a muni or non muni, should become a real brāhmaṇa (one who has realized brahman). Vide also Bļ. Up. IV. 4. 22 for similar words and sentiments. The Jābālopaniṣad (5)2147 declares that the ascetic (parivrāt) wears discoloured (not white ) garments, has & tonsured head, has no possessions, is pure, hates (or injures ) no one, begs for alms and thereby tends to attain non-difference from brahmah In the Paramahamsa, the Brahma, the Nārada parivrājaka, and the Sannyasa Upanigads numerous rules are laid down about sannyāsa. But the antiquity and the authenticity of these Upaniṣads is extremely doubtful and therefore passing them over attention will be confined to the dharmasutras and other ancient smrtis.

Gaut. III. 10-24, Ap. Dh. S. II. 9. 21, 7-20, Baud. Dh, S. II. 6. 21-27 and II. 10, Vas. Dh. S. X, Manu VI. 33-86, Yāj. III. 56-66, Vaik. IX. 9, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 96, Śāntiparva chap. 246 and 279, Adiparya chap. 119. 7-21 and Asvamedhika 46. 18-46, Saṅkha smști (VII. in verse), Dakss VII. 28-38, Kūrmapurāṇa (Uttarārdha, chap. 28 ), Agnipurāṇa 161 and many other smśtis and purāṇas dilate upon the characteristios and duties of ascetics ( yalidharma ). Some of the most salient features are set out below with a few references.

(1) In order to qualify himself for sannyāsa, a person had to perform a sacrifice to Prajapati in which whatever he had he distributed to priests and the poor and the helpless (Manu VI, 38, Yāj. III. 56, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 96. 1, Saṅkba VII. 1)."#48 The Yatidharmasangraha ( p. 13 ) prescribes that the Prājāpatyești should be performed by him who had kept the three vedic fires and the iṣṭi to Agni should be performed by others who kept only the gṛhya fire. The Jābalopaniṣad 4 adds that the sacrifice should be for Agni (and not for Prajapati as some hold). The

  1. अथ परिवार विवर्णवासा मुण्डोऽपरिग्रहः शुचिरतोही भैक्षणो महाभूपाय भव तीति। जाबालोपनिषद 6, quoted by शङ्कराचार्य in his भाप on पह, उ. III. 5.1 as druti.

. 2148. panta u na prataputat Fitt: 1 Puhallet migrant me

Il TTTU 58. 86. Frag. (ort ) . 173 quotes it as of # and reads seतानि, and करा for गिरा, अपरार्क p. 961 quotes this from सिंह पुराण but reads सतानि and शिरा पौधायमायुक्त पुरश्चरणादिकचहरवा तथाधी ववेदो जपपरायणो जातपुत्रो दीनान्धकपणापिताओं यथाशक्त्यसदध भूत्वा …… चनर्धा W sfaturTUTI FATTE OD TT. III, 56–57.

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Nṛsimhapuripa ( 60. 2-4) requires that before entering upon this order one should perform eight sraddbas. The Nṛsimba puriṇa 58. 36 allows every one who is & vedio student to become an ascetic if his tongue, his sexual emotions, his appe tite for food and his speech are pure ( i. e, under striot control ). The eight srāddhas are daiva (to Vasus, Rudras, Adityas), arsa ( to the ten sages viz. Marici and others), divya (to Hiraṇya. garbha and Vairaja), mānuṣya (to Sanaka, Sanandana and five others), bhautika (to five bhūtas, prthvi &c.) paitska (to Kavyavād fire, Soma, Aryaman, pitss called Agniṣvātts &c.), mātṛsraddha (to ten mātrs such as Gauri, Padma), atmasrāddha (to Paramātman). Vide Yati-dh. p. 9 and Sm, M. p. 177. Manu is careful to point out (VI. 35-37) that a man should fix his mind on mokṣa after studying the Veda, procreatiog sons, performing sacrifices i. e. after discharging his debts to the sages, the pitrs and gods. Baud. Dh. 8. II. 10. 3-6 and Vaik. IX. 6 state that an householder who has no children or whose wife is dead or who has established his children in the path of dharma or who is over 70 may become an ascetic. Kautilya (II. 1 ) prescribes that if a person embraces the order of ascetics without making proper provision for his wife and Bons he shall be punished with the first ammercement. 249 He has to deposit his fires in himself and leave home (Manu VI. 38).

(2) After leaving home, wife, children and possessions, he should dwell outside the villages, should be homeless and stay under a tree or in an un-inhabited bouse wherever he may be when the sun sets and should always wander from place to place; but he may remain in one place only in the rainy sea Bon 3150 (Manu VI. 41, 43-44, Vas. Dh, 8. X. 12-15, Saṅkba VII. 6). Saṅkha (quoted by the Mit. on Yāj, III. 58 ) allows him to stay in one place only for two months in the rains, while Kanya says that he may stay one night in a village and five in a town (except in the rains). When he follows the rule of staying four or two months in one place, he should do so from the full moon of Aṣāḍha or an ascetio may always stay on the banks of the Ganges.

  1. चहारममतिषिधाय प्रजातः पूर्वःसाहसदनिय वाजयतः कौटिल्प II. 1.

  2. अनित्या वसति धसे । मामान्ते देवराहे शुग्यागारे पा पक्षमूले पा। अरण्य farpus I ATT X. 12–18, 18 ; Trome : parhrer gla: 1 ST VII. 6; the words that are occur in gaf 12.11 algo.

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(3) He should always wander alone without a com panior, as by so doing he will be free from attachments and the pangs of separation. Daksa (VII, 34-38) emphasizes this is point very well the real ascetio always stays alone; if two stay together, they form a pair; if three stay together they are like a village and if more (than three stay together ) then it becomes like a town. An ascetio should not form a pair or & village or a town; by so doing ho swerves from his dharma, sinos (if two or more stay together, they begin to exchange news about the ruling prince, about the alms obtained and by olose contact sentiments of affection, jealousy or wickedness arise between them. Bad ascetios engage in many activities viz. expounding (texts) for seouring money or honour and also gathering pupils round them. There are only four proper actions for an ascetic and no fifth viz. contemplation, purity, begging, always staying alone’. Nārada says ’there are six acts which ascetios must do as if ordered by the king under the threat of a penalty viz. begging, japa, contemplation, bath (thrice daily), purity and worship of Śiva or Viṣṇu ( quoted in Yati-dh. p. 62 and Sm. M. p. 188). “1512

(4) He should be celibate, should always be devoted to contemplation and spiritual knowledge and should be un attached to all objects of sense and pleasure (Manu VI. 41 and 49, Gaut. III. 11).

(5) He should move about avoiding all trouble or injury to creatures, should make all creatures safe with him, should bear with indifference all disrespect, should entertain no anger towards him who is furious with him, should utter benedictions over him also who runs him down, should never utter an untruth (Menu VI. 40, 47-48, Yāj. III. 61, Gaut. III. 23).

(6) He should neither kindle srauta fires nor gphy& fire nor even ordinary fire for cooking food and should subsist on

  1. rent fagotta et fra faga TUTTA: WATEYTT Frita मगरायते । नगरं हि न कर्तन्य ग्रामो वा मिथुन तथा एतत्वयं प्रकुर्वाण: स्वधर्माच्यते यतिः । राजवासा वतस्तेषां भिक्षावार्ता परस्परम् । स्नेहपैशुन्यमात्सर्य संनिकर्षान संशयः ॥ लाभपूजा fitfired a vpregrat PETHAT: 1 or TT Tou: afate o Trofile TOT fra forritara i formacionitor 1990an TH VII. 34-38 quoted by strane p. 952 and FET. on TT. III. 58.

  2. &

I FONT ut mori T

agra cm watat arra # quoted in that p. 62, as Hurtaru’s in free

p. 188.

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food obtained by begging (Manu VI. 38 and 43, Ap. Dh. S. I. 9. 21. 10, Adiparva 91. 12).

(7) He may enter a village for begging food only once a day, he should not ordinarily stay in a village at night (except in the rains) but if he stays at all he should do so only for one night (Gaut. III. 13 and 20, Manu VI. 43,55 ).

(8) He should beg alms from seven houses without seleoting them beforehand (Vas. Dh. S. X. 7, Saṅkba VII. 3, Adi. 119. 12 ‘five or ten houses’). Baud. Db. S. ( II, 10. 57-58 ) presoribes that he should visit for alms the houses of brābmaṇa householders of the Sālina and Yayāyara types and should only wait for as much time as would be required for milking a cow. Baud. Dh. 8. II, 10. 69 quotes the view of others that an ascetic may take alms from persons of all varpas or food from only one among dvijātis; Vas. X. 24 also says that he should beg of brāhmaṇas only. The Vāyupurāṇa I. 13. 17 prescribes that Ascetics should not eat food belonging to one man (but should eat food collected from several houses ), or flesh or honey should not accept āmasraddha (i. e. sraddha with uncooked food ), should not use salt directly or by itself ( i. e. they may eat vegetables in cooking which salt has been used ). According to Usanas ( quoted in Sm. M. p. 200 and Yati-dh. pp. 74-75 ) food obtained by begging is of five kinda viz. madhukara (collecting food from any three, ive or seven houses at random just as bees collect honey from any flowers ), prākpranita (when a request is made by devotees to take food at their houses even before the ascetic gets up from his bed), ayācita (when invitation to take food at his house is given by a man before the ascetic starts on his begging round ), tātkālika ( the food that is announced by a brahmana the moment the ascetic approaches ), upapanna ( cooked food brought to the matha by devoted disciples or other people ). Vas. Dh. S. X. 31 says that & brābmaṇa ascetio should avoid food at sūdra houses and A parārka p. 963 explains this as implying that in the absence of brahmana houses an ascetio may beg for food from ksatriyas and raibyas. In later times begging alms from persons of all castes was forbidden, being included among kalivarjya actions (yates tu sarva-varnosu na bhikṣāosranam kalau ‘). Vide Sm. M. p. 201. It was stated by Parāsara and Kratu that no fault attaches to an ascetio if he being very old or very ill took food from a single person on a certain day or for several days or begged for food at the house of his sons,

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friends, teacher or brothers or wife (vide Sm. M. p. 201, Yati dh. p. 75). Acoording to Paragara I. 51 and the Sūtasaṁbitā (Jñana-yoga-khanda 4. 15-16 ) the first claim on the food cooked in the house is that of an asoetic and a brabmacārin and one has to perform the Cāndrayana penance for taking one’s meals without giving alma to them. In giving food to an asoetio first water is poured on his hand, then food is given and then again water is poured on his hand (Parāśara I. 53 quoted by Haradatta on Gaut. V. 16). Vide Ap. Db. S. II. 2. 4. 10 and Yaj. I. 107.

(9) He should go out for begging when the smoke from kitchens has ceased to rise and when the noise of pestles has died down and the live coals (in the kitchen) have been extinguished and the plates used for the dining (by the house holders) have been kept aside i. e. he should beg food in the evening (Manu VI.56, Yāj. III. 59, Vas. X. 8, Saṅkha VII.2). He should not take as alms honey or flesh (Vas. X. 24). He should not endeavour to secure alms by the practice of predicting, interpreting portents and omens or by the practice of descri bing the consequences indicated by them, nor by astrology nor by expounding the principles of a loro nor by casuistry (or discussion) nor should be approach a house that is already besieged by hermits, brāhmaṇas, birds and dogs, beggars or others ( Manu VI. 50-51 ).

(10) He should not eat food to satiety, but should eat only as much as is necessary to keep body and soul together and should not feel delight when he gets substantial alms nor feel dejected when he gets little or nothing (Manu VI. 57 and 59, Vas. X. 21,22 and 25, Yāj. III. 59). There is a famous verse’ an asostic should take only eight morsels of food, a forest hermit 16, a householder 32 and a vedio student an unli. mited number (Ap. Dh. S. II. 4. 9. 13, Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 68 ).

(11) He should hoard nothing and he should own or possess nothing except his tattered garments, his water jar, begging bowl (Manu VI. 43-44, Gaut. III. 10, Vas. X. 6). Devala quoted by the Mit. on Yuj. III. 58 deolares that the Ascetic should possess only & water-jar, a pavitra ( oloth for straining water ), pādukas, an dgana and & kantha ( wallet for proteotion from extreme cold). The Mahābhārata states that wearing oohre-coloured garments, shaving the head, and keeping & water jar and three staffs–these are only outward signs meant

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to secure food and do not lead to moksa #1316 ( dialogue of Janaka and Sulabha). The Mahabhagya (vol. I. p. 365 ) also deolares that a man is known to be a parivrājaka on seeing his three staffs. The Vayupurāṇa I. 8 ( quoted by Apararka pp. 949-950 ) lays down what he should possess. He should take & staff of bamboo the outward surface of which is intaot, which is not formidable and which has the parvans (the parts between the joints ) of equal length, which is surrounded by a rope of oow’s tail hair four angulas in length and has three knots and which he holds in his right hand; he should have a sikya (loop on which to carry his jar or other things ) made of kusa or cotton or hemp threads or strings and of the form of a lotus and six mustis ( fists ) in length; he should also have & water jar and a pātra ( Teasel or bowl for begging ); he may bave a seat ( asana ) of wood square or round in size for sitting on or for washing his feet; he should have a loin-cloth to cover his private parts and a kantha (patched garment or wallet ) for protection against cold and he may have two padukās (sandals). He should have only these and should not accumulate any. thing else.

(12) He should wear garments only for covering his pri vate parts and may wear such garments as were worn by others and are used by him after washing (Gaut. IIL 17-18), wbile Ap. Dh. 8. (II. 9. 21. 11-12 ) states that he should wear clothes thrown away by others and that some say that he may be naked. Vas. (X. 9-11 ) says that be should cover his body with a piece of cloth ( sat1 ) or with deer skin or with grass cut down for cows. Baud. Dh. S. II. 6. 24 requires that his garments should be ocbre-coloured ( quoted by Aparārka p. 962 ).

(13) The begging bowl and the plate from which the dscetic eats should be made of olay or wood or of a gourd, or of bamboo which should be without holes and he should not use metal vessels; and these Vessels are to be cleaned, with water and scoured with cow’s hair (Manu VI. 53–54, Yaj. III. 60 and Laghu-Viṣṇu IV. 29-30).

(14) He should pare his pails, out all his hair and beard (Manu VI. 52, Vas. Dh. S. X. 6); but Gaut. III. 21 appears to

2161 b. TYTUTTOf Atorni feu FEET I Porrowroom op मोक्षापेलि मे मतिः॥ quoted from the महाभारत in the वेदान्तकल्पतरपरिमल P. 689 on it III. 4. 18; fiftatu* TT TT 1 AETHTTg vol. I. p. 365 (on 17. II. 1.1).

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allow him an option viz. he may tonsure the wbole head or keep only a top-knot.

(15) He should sleep on raised ground (sthandila ), should feel no concern if he suffers from an illness, he should neither welcome death nor should be feel joy for continuing to live, but he should patiently wait till the time of death, as & servant waits till the time he is hired expires (Manu VI, 43 and 46).

(16) He should generally observe silence except when be repeate the Vedic texts learnt by him (Manu VI. 43, Gaut. III. 16, Baud. Dh. 9. II. 10. 79, Ap. Db. S. II. 9. 21. 10 ).*15

(17) He should be tridandi (carrying three staffs ) according to Yaj. III. 58, while Manu VI. 5% simply says he should be dandi ( i. e. oarrying a staff). The word danda is used in two senses, a staff of bamboo or restraint. Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 53 gives an option that he may be ekadandi or a tridandi and also says that he should not cause harm to creatures by speech, actions and mind (II. 6. 25). Manu XII. 10, which is the same as Dakṣa (VII. 30), declares that that man is called tridandi who has restraint over his speech, mind and body. Daksa makes certain apt remarks ‘Even gods who pre-eminently possess the sattvaguna are carried away by pleasures of senge ; what of men? Therefore he who has given up his taste for pleasures should resort to danda; others cannot do it as they will be carried away by pleasures. An ascetio is not called tridandi by carrying bamboo staffs ; he is trilundi who has the spiritual danda in him. Many people make their livelihood under the guise of (carrying) three dapdas’ (VII. 27-31, quoted by Aparārka p. 953). Restraint of speech requires that he should observe silence, restraint of sotion that be should cause injury to no oreature and restraint of mind that he should engage in prāṇāyām& and other yogio practices. Dakṣa bim self says (I, 12-13) that the three staffs are the special out. ward sign of a yati as the girdle, deer-skin and staff are the out ward signs of the vedio student or long nails and beard are indicia of the forest hermit. Laghu.Viṣṇu IV.1% says he may be ekadandi or tridandi. The Jivanamuktiviveka (p. 154)

  1. wwfftram fara HITCOTT BOT: IFUTETTY Quasarat Torno sortateTSET IT ang. p. II. 9. 21. 10; the words FTTY … … p ara quoted by Sumkara in bis bhagya on By. Up. III. 8. 1.

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quotes verses to the effect he who wields the staff of the know ledge of Reality is called ekadandi, while he who merely holds & stick in his hand without knowledge and eats everything (or has all sorts of desires ) reaches terrible hells’.

(18) He should recite the vedic texts referring to yajñas or gods or texts of a metaphysioal character found in the Vedanta (suoh as ‘satyam jāānam-anantam brahma’ in Tai. Up. %. 1). Vide Manu VI. 83.

(19) He should walk after ascertaining with his eye that the ground he treads is pure, should drink water after passing it through a piece of cloth (in order to prevent ants &o. being taken in by him ), he should utter words purified by truth and should do what his conscience ( inner voice ) decides to be right or proper (Manu VI. 46, Saṅkha VII. 7, Viṣṇu Dh. 8. 96. 14-17).

(20) In order to generate the feeling of vairāgya ( desire. lessness ) and to curb his senges he should make his mind dwell upon the body as liable to disease and old age and as packed full of impurities; and should revolve in his mind the transitory nature of all mundane things, the trouble one has to undergo in body and mind from conception to death, the incessant round of births and deaths (Manu VI. 76-77, Yaj. III. 63-64, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 96. 25-42).

(21) Truthfulness, not depriving another of his posses sions or his duo, absence of wrath (even against one who harms ), humility, purity ( of body and food &c. ), discrimina tion, steadiness of mind ( in sorrow ), quiescence (or restraint) of mind, restraint of senses, knowledge of the self), these are the dharma of all varpas (or these constitute the essence of dharma). And these have to be acquired most of all by the ascetio, since the outward signs, viz. the scanty olothing, the water jar &c. are not the real means of discharging the real dutios of sannyāsa, us anyone oan possess these outward signs. Vide Manu VI. 66, 92-94, Yaj. III. 65-66, Vas. X, 30, Baud. Dh. S. II. 10 55-56, Santi, 111. 13-14, Vāyupurāṇa vol. I. 8. 176-178 ( ten characteristios, five called vratas and five upavratas ).

(22) He should endeavour lo purify his mind by prāpi yama and other practices of yoga and thereby enable himself gradually to realize the Absolute and secure final release (Manu VI. 70-75, 81, YAJ. III. 62, 64).

In many works ascetics are divided into four classes, The Mahabharata ( Anugasana 141, 89) says that ascetios are

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of four sorts, kuṭioaka, bahūdaka, hamsa and paramahamsa, each later one being superior to each preceding one. 31$2a Vaik. VIII. 9, Laghu-Viṣṇu IV. 14-23, Sūtasambitā (Mānayoga khanda chap. 6), Bhikṣukopaniṣad, Prajāpati (quoted by Aparārka p. 952) define these four. They do not all agree. The kuticaka, as the name itself implies, is one who resorts to sannyāga in his own house or in a but erected by his sons, begs food of his sons and relatives, wears the top-knot, the sacred thread, has the three staffs, carries a water-jar and stays in the same hut. The description of these four contained in Vaik.,8153 being probably among the oldest available, is set out here. The kuṭioakas stay in the hermitages of sages like Gautama, Bharadyāja, Yājñavalkya and Harita, take eight morsels of food every day, know the essence of the path of Yoga and hanker only after moksa (release). The bahūdakas have three staffs, the water-jar and wear garments dyed with ochre, beg for food at seven houses of sage-like brāhmaṇas or other well-conducted men but avoid taking flesh, salt and stale food. The baṁsas stay not more than one night in a village and not more than five nights in a town for alms or subsist on cow’s urine or dung, or fast for a month or always perform the cāndrayana penance. Pitamaba quoted in Sm, M. ( varnāśrama p. 184) states that the hassas carry only one danda, enter a village only for alms and otherwise stay under & tree or in a cave or on a river bank.

The Paramahamsas always stay under a tree or in an unia habited house or in a burial place and either wear a garment or are naked; they are beyond the pairs of dharms and adharms, truth and falsehood, purity and impurity. Thoy treat all alike, they regard all as the Self, to them a clod of earth or gold is the same and they beg slms from persons of all varṇ39. The des. cription in the Bhikṣukopaniṣad is almost in the same words

2152.. चतुर्विधा भिक्षवस्ते कुटीचकबहदको । हंसः परमहंसश्च यो यः पश्वास उत्तमः ॥‘अनुशासनपर्ष 141. 89 quoted by अपरार्क p. 95 and कुल्लक on मनु VI. 86. TOT 161. 18 and Laghu-Viṣnn 4. 11 are the same.

  1. mgr AHRETAT Easyftar RETET: Tratat रन्दो पोगमार्गतत्वज्ञा मोक्षमेव मार्थयन्ते । बहदकानिवडकमण्डलुकापायधातुवनग्रहणष. धारिणो मह्मर्षिग्रहेषु चान्येषु साधुत्तेषु मांसलवणपर्युषितासं वर्जयन्तः सत्तागारेषु भेक्ष करवा मोक्षमेष प्रार्थयन्ते । ईसा माम मामे चैकरा नगरे पारा वसन्तस्तदुपरि म सन्तो गोधगोमपाहारिणोपामासोपवासिनोवानित्यान्द्रायणतिनो मिस्पमुत्थाममेव प्रार्थयन्ते। परमहंसा नाम प्रक्षेकमूले म्यागारे श्मशाने वा वासिनः साम्बरा वा दिगम्बरावा न तेषां धर्माधो सरपारपराधादिदैतम् । सर्पसमा सस्मिानः समलोटकाशमा सवर्णेषु * Trasera EU VIII, 9.

940

and also contains the words of the Jābālopaniṣad as to Parama hamsas. It appears that long before the Ap. Dh. 8. (II. 9. 21. 13-17) i. e, at least five or six centuries before Obrist there were people who thought that an ascetic was beyond all vidhi ( injunctions to do a thing) and niṣedba ( prohibition), that he was above the ordinary rules about truthfulness or falsehood, that he should not care for pleasure or pain or for the study of the Vedas, or for this world or the next, he should simply seek to realize the Self, that when he realizes the Self all his sins, if any, would be liquidated thereby. Ap. combats these ideas by saying that such sentiments were opposed to the fastras laying down rules about ascetics, that by realizing the Self, he cannot be free from the effects of what he does or the consequences of having a body. The sentiments which Āp. controverts arose from such passages as the one ls4 in the Bṛ. Up. IV. 4. 23 This is the eternal greatness of the man who realizes brahma that by the actions he does, he does not add to it or detract from it. Therefore one should only know the real nature of that great ness; he on knowing brahma is not affected by an evil action.’ In the Kauṣitaki Bṛ. Up. III. 1 it is stated $156 ‘whoever realizes One ( the Supreme Spirit), his worlds (i. e. his position) are not destroyed by any action of his, not even if he kills his parents, not even by theft nor by the murder of a learned brāhmapa.’ These words are not to be taken literally, they are merely a boastful utterance (& praudbivāda ), they are really laudatory statements emphasizing the supreme value of the realization of brahman. Similarly the Chan. Up. IV. 14. 3 Bays just as water does not stick to & lotus-leaf, so sinful actions do not cling to him who knows this’. In the same Upaniṣad (V.2.1) we read ’to him who knows this, nothing becomes unfit as food.’ The Upanigads, however, generally lay great stress on moral virtues and emphasize that a high moral life is absolutely necessary for the seeker after spiritual truth. Vide Bṛ. Up. IV. 4. 23, Chān. Up. III. 14. 1, Katha Up.

2164, format AEAT WIE FOTIET * mutatomafoto 7 min AE FATOTT free free to POCÊ FÁTT OTTI RITE. 3. IV. 4. 23, quoted in n. . B. II. 6. 36 and I1. 10. 7-9.

  1. put a ferraruru f ort Tua #igra # FIAT TUKEUTTIST. 39. III.1, TOT PEITTOTIT STUT Pagrama grada 91¢ **Page 131. 7. IV. 14. 3; we are film wita UT. 79. V. 2. 1; un foratorias que I T ime

TE THAT TITTY FIVEHEIME on a II. 3. 48.

Ch. XXVIII 1

Sannyasins-kinds of

941

I. 2. 23, I. 3. 8-9 and 1%. The position of the Vedantasūtra (in III. 4.27-31 ) is that the seeker after eternal truth must be endowed with restraint of senses and quiescence of mind and he cannot act just as he pleases (Sabdaścātoskāmakare ) and spurn all rules of morality. Saṁkarācārya on Vedānta-sūtra II. 3. 48 and other places makes this position perfectly olear. Viśva rūpa on Yāj. III. 66 states that even ascetios of the parama hamsa type are not allowed ( by Yāj. and other gages ) to behave as they please. The Par. M. (I. part 2, pp. 172-176) says that the paramabamsa should have only one dapda and argues that paramahamsas are of two kinds viz. vidvat (those who have already realized brahman) and vividi ṣu ( those who are eager seekers after realization ) and relies on Bṛ. Up. III. 5.1 for the former and Br. Up. IV. 4. 22 and Jabalopaniṣad for the latter, Yājñavalkya is an example of vidvat-sannyāsa, whioh leads to jivanmukti (i.e. release even when the body still persists ), while the latter ( vividiṣ-sannyāsa ) leads to release after the body is no more (i. e. videha-mukti). Vide Jivan-muktivi. veka p. 4 ff.

The Jābālopaniṣad 8156 (6) describes the state of parama hamsas at great length. Tbey are sages like Samvartaka, Aru pi, Svetaketu, Durvāsas, Rohu, Nid&gha, Jadabharata, Dattatreya, Raivataka; they do not exbibit any visible signs of their order or any visible rules of conduct; though they are really not mad they behave like one mad; they go out for alms only for keeping body and soul together; they are unaffected by aoquisition or absence (of alms), they have no house but wander about and stay in a temple or on a heap of grass, on an ant-hill, or at the foot of a tree or on a river bank or in a cave, they have attachment for nothing, they are centred in contemplation of the One Spirit. According to Sūtasmhita

W

  1. तत्र परमईसा नाम संवर्तकाराणिश्वेतकेतुर्वास-शनिदायजउभरतदत्तात्रेय T urismo SpoTTEIT HEATIFTTTTTT: … … … Arreur oprit autres formt TUTE … … M uut FH ar pamatur तणकूटवल्मीकाक्षमूल …… स्थाखिलेषु ध्वनिकेतपास्यप्रयत्नो निर्ममः शुलण्यानपरायणो…

a r: Tarant la # Ā i rudarany 6. The story of the wbo was a great Yogin and wandered about naked is found in 9 oba p. 6 and Śhaṅkara on V. S. III. 4. 37 also refors to that story. The words e THUHT ATH … … traumas aro quoted by proof on 8. . IL. 11 and spirit … … TPATER are almost like

THE X. 18-19.

94%

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ch. XXVIII

(II. 6. 3-10) it is only hamsa and paranaharsa that give up gik ba and the sacred thread.

The Sapnyāsopaniṣad (13) adds two more varieties to the four enumerated above viz.turlyātita’ and ‘avadhūta’ and defines them as follows: ’turlyātita’ (one who is beyond the 4th stage viz. of paramahamsa ) eats only fruits in the way cows take food ( i. e. he does not hold them in his hands ), if he takes cooked food then only from three houses, he wears no cloth, his body only continues to live ( but he is not conscious of that fact), he deals with his body as if it were dead. The svadbūta is beyond all restrictions, he takes food from all varṇas except those who are charged with mortal sins or are palita (outcasts ) and eats like an ajagara (a boa constrictor) i. e. lying down and opening only his mouth without any effort and is solely absorbed in the contemplation of the real nature of the Spirit. Medhātithi *17 ( on Manu VI. 32 ) is quite emphatio that sannyāsa does not consist in defying all the rules of sāstra, but in giving up the sentiment of egoism and of possossiveness and that it is not true to say that for the sanny.. sin all rules (even of morality ) are non-existent.

One important question on wbioh opinion was sharply divided is whether sanngāsa was allowed to all the three varṇas or only to brāhmaṇas. Those who held that it was allowed only to brābmaṇas argued as follows: In the Br.8168 Up. IV. 4. 22 we find the words ’this Self brāhmaṇas seek to know by the study of the Veda’; similarly Bp. Up. III. 5. 1 states after knowing this Self, brāhmaṇas give up the hankering after progeny, wealth and heavenly worlds and practise begging’ and Mundaka I. 2. 12’ closely examining the worlds that are the rewards of actions, a brāhmaṇa should come to be disgusted &o.’. Here, the word ‘brahmana’ being used, sruti indicates that brāhmaṇas alone can be sannyāsins. Manu (VI. 38)

  1. Harry the farurat fapararfarufunt r areoranava: सन्तीति । मापं शावार्थ: आईकारममकारत्याग एव संम्पासो वक्ष्यते नाशेषशानार्थत्यामः । मेधा on म VI. 32.

  2. attraction for it. 5. IV. 4. 22 ; photo para permany TEPOTTE .. … grorero fare rimi 4. 5. III. 6. 1; परीक्ष्य लोकान कर्मथिताम् जामणो मिदमायामास्यकता कतेन । मुण्डकोप. I.2.12. Front. T. III. 8. 1 saya m ara tu art igruten mit COTT and on IV. 5. 16 ( at end) says racori TT T T I FRAT Povrait aitara I TOT *** destraat Parti’

ret’ Fararsta afirgin PETI’.

Ch. XXVIII]

Sannyāsa and Ksatriyas

943

begins bis description of the 4th stage with the words ‘a brāhmaṇa should leave bis house and go into the world as a wanderer’ and winds up the chapter (VI. 97 ) by saying ‘I have declared this fourfold procedure in relation to brābmanas’. Laghu-Viṣṇu V, 13 emphatically states that the ascetio order is meant only for brābmapas and the other three aśramas are meant for all dvijas. Those who assert that all the regenerate classes can resort to sanngāsa hold that the word ‘brāhmaṇa’ in the upaniṣads is used only as illustrative (upalaksana) and not in an exclusive sense and that a Sūtrakāra (Katyāyana ) expressly gays 2159 ’the three varṇas after studying the Veda can pass through four āśramas’. The Jābālopaniṣad (4) ordains ’ whether a man has fulblled his vratas or not, whether he bas performed samāvartana ( the ceremonial bath after studying Veda ) or not, whether his fires (Vedic ) have ceased or not be should resort to the wandering ascetic’s life the very day on which he feels disgust with mundane affairs :. 4180 It thus allows even & brahmacāri to become an ascetic; a kṣatriya and vaisya could be a brahmacari. Yāj. III. 32 states that sannyāsa is a means of purification ( of the mind ) in the case of twice-born olasses, Besides the only condition precedent mentioned by the Jāba lopaniṣad for resorting to pravrajya ( ascetic life ) is vairagya and whoever feels the latter is authorized to betake himself to that stage. Yaj. III. 61 while laying down the observances of asceticos employs the word ‘dvijah’ and not brāhmaṇaḥ’. The Kūrma-purāṇg also says (Uttarārdha 28,2) that a dvija should become an ascetic.

Both these opposing views are supported by the most famous authors. The first view that only brāhmaṇas can be sannyāsins is affirmed by the great Samkarācārya in his bhāṣya on Bf. Up. III. 5, 1 and IV.5. 15, It is most interesting and also very refreshing that Sureśvara 2161 in bis Vārtika on Samkara’s

2:59. ign Turfa tại San Mai Lṛ Huaw HT THIg ATTFUTTERATTATES I FT. OD 1. I. 56-57. The hero I. p. 66 states that the fir is 7691TT.

  1. gwae T art farat TSRT Theresia Teu fort

I ruta. 4. 2161. TIARO Forfat gut nyang ingor #PETR a TV Rruga T. J. 99 p. 758, v. 1661; Trafastaror **T: Hati पदोपलक्षणार्थ स्थान पामणग्रहणं तदा कर्माधिकारविच्छेवि ज्ञान चेदम्युपेयते । कत्तो Renata gora oud TTT I PROTIVETURATTATOREM I TOP FFY YEU FARWF grurohemi p

on TV. J.‘1164 (III. 6. I); on tbe verse grona, Sport remarks ‘T HATTUTT FOTATO TFT

EVETIUATU

944

(Ch. XXVIII

then enteirish cogent Bredhatithi on

bhāṣya on Bf. Up. III. 5. 1 first explains the views of his guru, then enters the lists against his great master and combats his views with cogent arguments. Most of the medieval writers and works such as Medhātithi on Manu ( VI. 97 ), the Mit., the Madanapārijata (pp. 365-373), the Smṛtimuktāpbala ( Varṇā. grams p. 176 ) uphold the view that only brāhmaṇas can resort to the 4th asrama, while a few works like the Smrtioandrikā ( 1. p. 65 ) support the second view. The position of Viśva. rūpx 8168 (on Yaj. III. 61 ) that only brāhmaṇas oan resort to sannyasa causes great perplexity. Sureśvara and Viśvarūpa are generally regarded as identioal (vide H. D. vol. I. pp. 261-263 and Journal of the Andhra Historical Society for 1931, vol. V, p. 187). But Sureśvara holds the view that the word brāhmaṇa in the relevant texts is only illustrative. Therefore it follows that either Sureśvara changes his views or that Sureśvara and Viśvarūpā are not identical. Ananda giri in bis commentary on Sureśvara’s Vārtika (p. 759 ) cites passages from the Mahabharata ( Adi. 119) to establish that kṣatriyas could resort to sannyāsa. 2163 śāntiparva ( 63. 16-21) allows sannyāsa to kings when their life is about to end. But the general words of Santi 62.2 appear to be in confliot with this.3164 Kalidasa states that Raghu became a yuti wben he grew old, installed his son on the throne and stayed in a cottage outside the capital and draws a very poetio and striking picture of the contrast between the old king turned ascetic and the prince become king (Raghu-varsa VIII. 14 and 16 ).

So far as the smrti texts and the medieval works are con cerned a sūdra could not become a sannyāsin. The Santiparva ( 63.11-14) is quite clear that a sūdra cannot be a bhikṣu. It also ( 18. 32 )*105 informs us that in its day many (probably

2162, fagot prou dare aratanterias on 11. III. 61.

  1. feq 119. 6-9, 12, 25 (or, ed. 110. 6-9 and 12, 24) ATHE ज्यवस्थामि पन्धो हिम्पसनं महत् । …… तस्मादेकोहमेकाकी एकेकरिमन्नमस्पती । घरभक्ष हनिमुवरिष्याम्यापमानिमान । पासुमा समवच्छ शून्यागारकतालयः । वृक्षमूलनिकेतो पा त्यक्तसर्वपियामियः ॥ नकोचन महण्यश्च तुल्यनिन्दात्मसंतुतिः । निराशीनिनमस्कारो fae at opret… … * Hai Sa s7 TI A T **** घरजमशनाम्यपि 12…… पौरपदाच येतत्र निवसम्मयस्मदाश्रयाः मसाप सर्षे धक्तम्या: groga aratat en 25. braaint (p. 759 ) quotes three of theso.

  2. nu a PRAHAT RETT TI Potter TTT YTT ## # nf 62. 2.

  3. परिवजन्ति दाना मुण्डा कापायवाससः । सिता बहुविधः पाशेधिन्वन्सो TUTTATE

I N 18. 32.

Ch. XXVIII)

Sannyasa and Sudras

945

including sūdras) assumed the outward signs of the 4th &grama, got their heads tonsured and moved about in oohre-coloured garments ( kaṣaya ) for seouring alms and gifts. But there are olear indications that sūdras did assume even in the times of ancient smrtis the ascetic’s garb and mode of life. The Viṣṇu Dh. 8, V. 115 and Yāj. II. 241 ( as read by Viśvarūpa ) presoribe the fine of one hundred panas for one who gave a dinner to sūdra ascetics in rites for gods and the manes. When the Asramam vāsika-parva 26. 33 states that Vidura was buried as an ascetic, the commentator Nilakantha remarks that this indicates that even sūdras can follow the mode of the ascetic life.21684

It appears that even women could in rare cases adopt the ascetio’s life in ancient brahmanio times. The Mit. on Yāj. III. 58 quotes & sutra of Baud. ( striṇām caike ) to the effect that according to some icāryas even women could adopt the ascetic mode of life. Patañjali in his Mahābhāṣya (vol. II. p. 100) speaks of a woman ascetic ( parivrājikā ) named Saṅkarā. Yama quoted in the Sm. C. (on vyavahāra p. 254 ) declares ’neither in the Vedas nor in the dharmasastras is prevrajy, enjoined for women; ( procreation and care of) progeny froin & male of the same varṇa as herself is her proper dharma, this is the establish od rule.” 3186 The Sm. C. gives in a far-fetched way absence of sexual intercourse as the meaning of pravrajyā hero. Atri (136 137) lays down that six actions by women and sūdras lead to sinfulness viz. japa, tapas (austerities ), pravrajyā (ascetic’s life ), pilgrimages, endeavour to secure miraculous power by repeating spells, sole devotion to the worship of a goddess.2107 In the drama called Malavikāgnimitra Kalidasa describes the Pandita Kausiki as wearing the garb of an ascetio (in I. 14). It must be said that the general trend of Hinduism is against women adopting the homeless or ascetic life. The Jātakas (e.g. IV. 392) rarely speak of cāndalas as adopting the homeless condition.

2165.& i wt TTT CÀRRETHI TTAT A G F# *: # लोकाः सान्तानिका नाम भविष्यम्यस्य भारत । यतिधर्ममवाप्तोसौ नेष शोच्यः परंतप । 31WATT 26. 32-33; War Warhi Taalala arata i preguy.

  1. TT TA#16 fun griestrear agt at fault FTI PE PETI: ut wifi g ara srport II … … 40391 wureau: Fa (UTETT P. 254 ).

  2. art ya 72ana virutura 49 YAN IKUTITTER

ata 136-137. 8. D. 119

946

(Ch. XXVIII

When the question is asked whether sūdras or women could resort to gannyasa there is likely to be some confusion. The word ‘sannyāsa ‘conveys two ideas : abandonment of all actions (kāmya karma) that spring from the desire to secure some object or other and secondly, following a certain mode of life ( asrama) the outward signs of whioh are carrying a staff and the like and the entrance into which is preceded by the utterande of the praiṣa. The JIvan-muktiviveka?188 (p. 3) states that mokaa (amptatva ) depends upon tyāga ( abandonment) as stated in the Kaivalyopaniṣad (2) ’ not by actions, nor by progeny nor by wealth, but by tyāga some attained mokṣa’ (release ). For such abandonment even women and sādras are eligible, the best example of a woman giving up everything being tbat of Maitreyi, the wife of Yajāavalkya, who plainly told the sage (Br. Up. IV, 5. 3-4), ‘what have I to do with that which will not make me immortal ( will not release me from saṁsāra )?’ The Bhagavad-gitā ( 18. 2 ) also declares that sannyāsa means the giving up of actions springing from desires (to secure certain objects). The Jivan-muktiviveka further states that by resorting to the asrama of sandy.se the mother and the wife of & sannyāsin are supposed not to be born again as women (but they may be born as men). So women and sūdras may abandon all notions, though they could not adopt the peculiar ascetio mode of life with its out ward symbols. According to Srikara’s bhāṣya on Vedāntasūtra I. 3. 34 the order of sannyāga, the peculiar rules of which are recommended by Vedic texts, is only for the three varpas, while mere nyaga (abandonment of worldly pleasures and desires ) can be resorted to by women, sūdras and mixed castes. 9169

Some espoused the view that sannyāsa was meant only for the blind, the cripple and the impotent, that is, for persons who possessed no eligibility ( adhikāra ) for the performance of

fremst wordt

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  1. अयं च वेदनहेतः संन्यास: विविधः । जन्मापादककाम्यकर्मादिस्यागमात्रका HouTCOITOTTT*** a i F# Hrar att de Saint नि: शीलभ ज्ञानी चैतत्मभावतः त्यागश्च तेत्तिरीयादो श्यतेमकर्मणाम प्रजया धनेन स्पोंगे के अमृतत्वमानg: भरिमच त्यागे नियोप्यधिक्रियन्ते । जीवन्मुक्तिषिवेक (Adyer od. 1936 ) p. 3, OTT … … Fragt is true ___2169. ब्रह्माक्षत्रियवैश्यानां मोतसंन्यास इण्यते । शवशीसहराणां च म्यासमोत संशिकम् । शिखासत्रैकसंयुक्तं दण्डकापायलाञ्छनम् । श्रौतसंम्पास इत्युक्त ग्यासस्य बरनं यथा । भौतामोतविभेदेन संम्पास विविध स्मृतम् । कन्धाकापायदजैकशिमात्रा.

#gati WHETHTHYERTETTHET I quoted by night in on THEY III, 4. 22 ( TUTTI ).

ed, 1935 ) p. 3.

Ch. XXVIII ) Sannyāsa-whether only for such as the cripple 947

Vedic rites. Samkarācārya in his bhagya on V.S. III. 4. 20 refutes the view that the passage of the Jābālopaniṣad (4) cited above relates to those who are not eligible for performing Vedic rites and establishes that that passage has in view the general prescription that there is a stage of life called pārivrājya (sannyāsa ) meant for all that seek release from sansāra. Sureśvara in his Vārtika on Samkara’s Bs. Up. bhāsya (p. 1908 v. 1144) also refutes the view.1170 Medhātithi on Manu VI. 36 rejects this view (of some ) by saying that the blind or cripple cannot follow the rules and practices (such as not staying in one village for more than one night ) just as they cannot perform Vedic rites and hence it could not have been intended by the smṛti writers that sannyās& was only for the blind and the cripple, nor can the impotent take to sannyasa as no upanayana is performed in their case. The Mit. on Yāj. III. 56 follows Medhātithi. The Sm. Mu. (p. 173 ) and Yati-dh. (pp. 5-67 ) quote verses to the effect that the son of an apostate from sannyāsa, one having bad nails or black teeth, one emaciated by phthisis, one devoid of a limb these do not deserve to resort to sannyāba. Similarly those who are guilty of mortal sins or are suspected of them or are vrālyas, those who have left the path of truth, purity, sacrifices, vratas, tapas, charity, study of the Veda and homa should not be allowed to take up the ascetic life.

One of the principal rules for a yati was that he was to leave wife and home and never to think of sexual matters or to revert to the life of a house-holder. Atri 8171 (VIII. 16 and 18) declaros’ I see no penance (expiation) for that twice-born man, who, after having resorted to the duties of & celibate (sandyāsin ), falls off from that stage; he is neither a dvija nor a fādra, his children become cāṇḍālas called Vidūra’. Samkara on V.S. (III. 4. 42 ) explains that these words are only intended to emphasize the great effort required to remain celi. bate as a sannyāsin and that expiations are as a matter of fact prescribed for a bhikṣu having sexual intercourse. Dakṣa VII. 33 requires the king to brand on the forehead with the mark of

  1. Forsvaretara erametara i mart magwael **8711 TF. 3. pro p. 1908 vorse 1144.

  2. आल्टो नैष्ठिक धर्म यस्त मध्यवते हिजा । प्रायश्चित्तं न पश्यामि पेन पुण्येस भारमहा …… ये च प्रवजितापल्या या चैषां बीजसन्ततिः । विठूरा नाम पाणाला from TY TNT I VIII. 16 and 18. The first is quoted by me on tom III. 4. 41.948

Hislory of Dharmasastra

(Ch. XXVIII

dog’s foot and banish from the kingdom a person who after becoming a sannyāsin does not abide by its rules (of celibacy &o.). It has been seen above that a man who falls away from the order of gannyāsins became a slave of the king for life (p. 185 ). Atri requires & sanngāsin not to stay even for a day in the place where live his father and mother, brother and sister, wife or son or daughter-in-law, his agnates or cognates or

friends, or his daughter or her sons (Sm. Mu. p. 206 ).

Originally these injunctions about complete restraint and abandonment of sexual life and total lack of property were faithfully followed by ascetics. The great hoārya Samkara was & celibate all his life, but he is said to have established four mathas as stated above (p. 907) for the propagation of his doctrines and philosophy at Sṭngapura (modern Sśngeri) and other places. Pious devotees bestowed considerable donations on these mathas. In course of time these mathas went on increasing and huge properties came to be under the control of the pontiffs of these several mathas. There arose ten orders of advaita sannyāsins blone 2178 viz. tirtha, āsrama, vana, aranya, giri, parvata, sāgara, sarasvati, bhārati and puri, These ten orders are said to be the pupils in succession of the four disciples of Samkara i. e. the first two of Padmapada, the next two of Hastāmalaka, the next three of Trotaka (or Totaka) and the last three of Sures vara. The several mathas at Sșögeri, Kāñci, Kumbbakonam, Kudalgi, Saṅkeśvara, Śivagangā have been quarrelling among themselves as to their jurisdictions 2173 and their rights to claim monetary payments from the people and to exercise spiritual authority in matters of expiations, excommunication &o. To support the claims of the various mathas pedigrees of

  1. 1798 rarea agrautaa: ariaat The Ecu FURTHE per il TuizawarrafatirMen I preft reft a r ekari saree

TTF (1841) FH 54 Turave ! survy T 478 era hari rrusha greet: f67e Face orneta i quoted in E. (mm) p. 182 and feu. #. p. 103. Vide Wilson’s Religious Sects of the Hindus’ in Works Tol, I. (1861) p. 20%, Dr. Farquhar’s ‘Outlines of the Religious Literature of India’ (1920) p. 174 for the dasnamis (the ten appellations of advaita orders).

  1. Vide Rajvade, Khanda 21 (in Marathi) lettor No. 190 at p. 240, dated sako 1763 where tho claim is made by the Karavīra matha that its jurisdiction oxtends from the river Malapabārī towards the north and that the singers inatha bas no jurisdiction in that area,

Ch. XXVIII] Sannyāsa-mathas and their disputes

949

teaoberg 6174 and pupils appear to have been fabricated, no two of which agree in toto and in some of them Sureśvara is said to have lived for 700 or 800 years. The disciples of Ramānuja and Madhva also have many mathas of their own. Vallabha cārya ( one of the great ācāryas that interpreted the Vedanta sutras ) and his disciples do not accept the order of sannyāsa, According to them in the Kali age gannyāsa is forbidden for the seeker as it leads on to regret and worry 1716 ( if its rules are to be strictly observed) and that the parityāga (abandonment) that is the essence of sannyāsa does not consist in resorting to the 4th asrama but in behaving in the way in which bhaktas ( devotees ) like Uddhave acted ( vide Bhāgavata III. 4). Most of these mathas have large endowments or incomes which are spent in pomp and show (e. g. keeping golden images and paraphernalia ). Very few of the heads are really learned even in ancient Sanskrit Literature in all its branches, they are impervious to modern tendencies and requirements, are obscu. rantists and generally oppose all ideas of reform. Only a very few mathas are presided over by persons who have been celibate throughout their lives. Most of them originally were house holders and then took to sannyasa. Besides the succession to the gādi is often a hole and corner affair. When the incumbent is about to die the influential and intriguing persons round him catch hold of some aspiring householder, make him a disciple of the dying sannyāsin and afterwards he is installed as the pontiff.

  1. Wilson’s Religious Sects of the Hindus’ vol. I, p. 201 (for 29 ac&ryas of Brogers from Govinda, the teacher of Śhaṅkara, to the present day; J. B. B. R. A. S. vol. X. pp. 373-74 for 56 occupants of the Srageri gadi from Samkara; and Sbankaracharya and his school’ ( 1923 ) by the late Mr. M. R. Bodas, which last (in Marathi) is a very valuable work, containing lists of pontifical succession of five matlas (pp. 91–103) and also the Mathūmnyösetu (in Sanskrit) montioning the soveral mathas, their traditions, mottoes &c.

2174 a. mer in his farfar, (published by M.T. Telivala in 1918 with eight commentarios ) states sa: # FETH: ATTO मान्यथा। पापणिहत्वं भवेश्चापि तस्माज्ज्ञानेन संन्यसेत् ।। 163; तस्माइक्तप्रकारेण परित्यागो fawigangi HTUT PET feruifen A AFANT HET 11 21’. Toen in his oom. (oalled for ) on verse 16 remarks that bhaktas ( thoso who follow the patb of bhakti, devotion to Krona ) sbould resort to renunciation (parjo tyðga ) in the way which Lord Krśna ordered his great dovotee Uddhave to follow ( vide Bhagavata III. 4. 20-21 ) and not by way of 3anpy.sa taught by tbobo who follow tbe path of knowledge . पिदिषासंन्यासस्य कलौ खेदादिजनकत्वं विद्वत्संन्यासस्य चासम्भपस्तस्मात् ज्ञानमा

950

( Ch. XXVJII

He retains his attachment to his former family and uses & good deal of the income for his relatives and friends. Real reform of the mathas cannot come unless great improvements are made in selecting a suocessor. There must be several disciples, the selection must not be made on the incumbent’s death-bed, representative bodies must have a voice in the selection. The heads of ascetic mathas bave often come to the courts on ques tions about dignity, jurisdiction and properties. For example, in 3 Moore’s Indian Appeals p. 198 the Sṛngeri Pontiff claimed a declaration that he alone was entitled to proceed on the public road in & palanquin crosswise and for an injunction restraining the Swami of the Lingayats from doing so; in Madhusudan Parvat v. Shree Madhav Teertha, 33 Bom, 278, the Samkaricārya of the Saradā matha at Dwarka sued for a declaration that the defendant was not entitled to the title and dignities of a Samkarācārya and that he was not entitled to call for or receive any offerings from people at Ahmedabad or other places in Gujarat either in his assumed capacity of a Samkarāoārya or as a Samkarāoārya of the Jyotir-matha (this claim was also rejected on the grounds that the suit was not of a civil nature and that the offerings were voluntary ).

In Vidya Shankara v. Vidya Narsimha, 51 Bom. 442 (P.O.) the Privy Council had to deal with a pretty tangle of claims between four persons, the plaintiff and the defendant each claiming to be the lawful Samkarācārya of Saṅkeshwar and Karvir matha and both having selected & disciple to succeed them. These illustrations indicate how the world-renounoing ideal of conduct set forth by the great Śamkarācārya is honoured in modern times by those who swear by his name. They should lay to heart the words of the Jivanmuktiviveka and the quote tion in it from Medbātithi (pp. 158-159 ) #175 viz." if an ascetic secures a matha as a fixed place of residence and thereon & sentiment of ownership arises in him bis mind will be disturbed when logs or expansion of the matha takes place; therefore an ascetio should not possess a matha nor should he have vessels of gold or silver for his use nor should he gather pupils round

F

  1. पदि नियतवासार्थ कचिम्म संपादयेशदानी तस्मिन्ममत्वे सति तदीपहा निपरपोधि विक्षिप्त । … … यथा मठो न परिणहीतग्यस्तथा सौवर्णराजतादीना

A QTETTONA TATU * from … … Hurafera I SAT imtare संपमः शिष्यसंग्रहा। दिवास्वापो थालापो पन्धकराणि पर। …… पखालाभपूजा पशाबा परिमहा शिव्याणा नकारपासशेष: शिष्यसंग्रहः ॥ जीवन्मुक्तिरिक PP. 188-189.

Ob, XXVIII)

Sannyasa

951

himself for securing service from them or in order that they may honour him, spread his fame, or bring money to him, but he may gather disciples only for removing their ignoranoe.’

In J. R. A. S. for 1925 pp. 479-486 Dr. J. N. Farquhar contributes & very learned article on the organization of the sannyāsins of the Vedānta. Therein he shows how Moslem armed fakirs molested and even killed Hindu ascetics, how Madhusudana Sarasvati approached the Emperor Akbar, how failing to get complete redress he initiated ksatriyas and vaisyas into seven out of the ten orders of sannyāsins and armed them, how these sannyāsins fought against the moslem fakirs and also among themselves, how even non-brahmin women are initiated into the giri and puri orders and how in Northern India the pure monastic orders are those of tirtha, asrama and sarasvati. This innovation later on led to serious consequences. The sannyāsins and fakirs infested the province of Bengal and their inoursions and depredations caused great alarm in the first days of the British rule (latter half of the 18th century 2178 ). This shows how the rule of ahimsa enjoined upon ascetios became perverted. Various estimates have been made about the number of persons in India professing to lead the ascetio life. They could easily have been 10 per cent of the population, partioularly in Northern India. They generally led very indolent, parasitic and dissolute lives. There are however, reasons to believe that in recent times the number of 80-called Bannyāsins is being substantially reduced owing to several causes. There have been swarms of monks and nuns in Christian countries also. Before the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII in England about 400 years ago, the number of monks, nuns and persons dependent on them was enormously large. Vide’English monks’ by Geoffrey Basker ville, p. 285, (f. n. 2) where the figures of monks and nuns in England, France and Spain at various periods are given.

According to both anoient and modern Hindu Law, when a man became & sannyāsin, he became cut off from his family and lost all his rights to property, partition and inheritance in that family. Vas. Dh. 8. 17. 52 lays down that those who resort to another aśrama ( i. e. vānaprastha or sannyāsa ) are excluded

  1. Vide ‘Sapnyasi and Fakir raiders in Bengal’ by Bai Sabob Jamini Moban Ghosh ( 1930 ) for a detailed and interesting account.

. 95%

from their share (in the family property ).8177 This result, however, does not follow by merely wearing the garments of a sannyāsin, but in order that this result may follow & person must have performed the necessary ceremonies for entering the order of sannyāsins. On the other hand whatever belongs to & sannyāsin such as his clothes, his sandals, his books would not devolve on bis blood relations as heirs but will go to his spiritual heir ( viz. his pupil). Vide Yaj. II. 137 and the Mit. thereon. These rules, however, do not apply to a sūdra turning an ascetio. He does not become severed from his family by entering the order of asceticism, unless a usage to that effect is established. Vide Somasundaram v. Vaithilinga, 40 Mad. 846 (at p. 869 ), Harishchandra v. Atir Muhmud, 40 Cal. 545,

The most serious inroad, however, on the ideal of sannyāsa was made when people professing to be ascetics were allowed to have wives or concubines. The Vāyupurāṇa (quoted in the Yati-dbarmasangraha p. 108 ) invokes dire consequences on him who after becoming & sannyāsin has sexual intercourse, viz. he becomes a worm in ordure for 60,000 years, passes through the lives of a rat, a vulture, a dog, a donkey, a pig, a tree without flowers and fruit, a goblin and then he is born AB & oandala, The Rājatarangini (III. 12 ) records 178 that when the queen of Meghavābana built a monastery she established in a portion of it ascetics who followed the rules of conduct laid down for their order and in the other portion ascetics, who were condemn able because of their acting like householders, together with their wives, sons, cattle and wealth. In the Presidenoy of Bombay several cases have come before the courts about the rights of succession to Gharbhari Gosavig8178 ( i. e, ascetios who have a house and family ). Vide Gosain Rambharti v. Mahant Surajbharti, 5 Bom. 68% ( where it was held that a Gosavi who succeeded as & disciple to a mohunt did not forfeit his rights by subsequent marriage ), Balgir v. Dhondgir, 5 Bom. L. R. 114, Gitabai v. Shivbakas, 5 Bom. L. R. 318, Hirabharthi v. Bai Javer, 30 Bom. L. R. 1555.

  1. WHIRT ATT FIATTI i eres 17. 52, quoted by the Mit. On T. II. 137; op Tafutant autant ma i mare farat i un to og i ruta VII. 259.

  2. sre : PayTIFTNICARETAT I S TIM Haitgag. fora: 11 gr u ft III. 12.

  3. Vide Steele’s · Law and customs of Hindu castos, ‘Appendix B on pp. 444-446Gharba ree Gouvies’ by Mr. Warden.

Ch. XXVIII)

Sannyasa

933

In the Gupta Inscriptions we have several records of a line of kings who were the feudatories of the imperial Guptas and who bear the appellation ’nȚpati-parivrājaka’ (kingly ascetios). Fleet thinks (p. 95 n. 1) that the word means no more than what is conveyed by such words as ‘rājarṣi’, but this is unconvincing. Their gotra was Bharadvāja and the founder is said to have been an inoarnation of Kapila (p. 115 ). It is likely that the founder, after being a king, ultimately became a sapnyasin and his descendants (in the fashion poetically described by Kalidasa ) also became ascetios after adorning the throne for some time. Hence they probably came to be called nrpati-pari vrājakas. It is interesting to note that Vyāsa quoted in Sm. M. (p. 176 ) and Yati-dh. (pp 2-3) forbade sannyāsa in the Kali age, though he made an exception to this extent that as long as the division of society into varpas existed and as long as the Veda was studied so long sannyāsa could be resorted to in the Kali age. 3180 Nāgesa in his Vrātyatāprāya citta-nirṇaya (p. 46) makes the curious statement that according to the Sannyāse paddhati of Vyasa a wise brāhmaṇa should not resort to sannyāsa when 4400 years of the Kali age will have expired (i. e, after 1299 A. D.). 4181 This dictum was probably due not only to the difficulties of observing to the letter the code of life sketched for sanngāsins, but also to the fact that about 1299, the whole of India was being harassed by Moslem iove ders and adventurers who made the helpless gennyāsins the first target for their fanatio zeal and persecution. The Nirnaya sindhu (III, pūrvārdha, end) quotes the above verse of Vyāsa and remarks that this probibition of sannyāga is meant to apply to sangyāsa with three dandas.

The Baud. Dh. S. II. 10. 11-30, the Baud. gr. seṣasūtra IV. 16, the Vaik. IX. 6-8 contain the procedure of becoming a sannyāsin. That of the Baud. Dh. S. being probably the most

  1. FUT: 1 starudi a #TeamUnior wts for outra विवर्जयेत् ॥ इति । तस्यापवादमाह स एव । यावद्वर्णविभागोऽस्ति याषवेद: प्रवर्वते । तापन्या Filtration got ut I ferrata. p. 176 (TTT), vitrus pp. 2–3.

  2. pertama puretat i at natate pe raft UT: 1 TFT Tout regretar feaT I THYER of rare quoted in গণও আয়নাযায়নাব p. 46; also in লিখবি iii. মুখ end.

A. D. 190

954

(Ch. XXVIII

ancient among extant works is briefly set out below : 8188 After having out the hair on the head, the beard, the hair on the body, the nails, he makes ready three sticks, a loop of strings, (a piece of cloth as ) a water strainer, a jar and a bowl. Having taken these he should go to the end of his village, or to the extremity of the boundary of his village, or the fire hall; he should partake of clarified butter, milk and ourds (mixed together) and should fast or drink water. Then he should recite the vyābstis separately preceded by ‘om’ and followed by the words ‘I enter the Sāvitri’ and by one pāda of the sacred Gayatri and then all together. 3188 Before sunget, he heaps fuel on the gārhapatya fire ( if he has maintained Vedic fires ), brings the anvāhāryapacana (daksiṇāgni) to the spot, takes the flaming ahavaniye fire out of the gārhapatya, melts clarified butter on the garbapatya, cleanses it (with blades of kuśa), takes four portions of the butter in the spoon called ‘sruc’ and offers in the chavaniya fire on which fuel-stioks have been heaped & full oblation (i. e. whole spoonful) four times saying ‘om svāha’. This is oalled Brahmānvādhāna (putting fuel-sticks on fire for securing knowledge of brahman). Then in the evening after agnihotra has been offered, he strews grass to the north of the garbapatys fire, places on the grass sacrifolal vessels in pairs with the upper parts turned downwards, spreads darbha grass to the south of the āhavaniya fire on the Beat meant for the brabmi priest, covers it with black antelope skin and remains awake the whole of that night. Then he riges at the time (muhūrta ) sacred to Brahmā and offers agnihotra in the early morning at the proper time. Then after covering the part of the altar called prsty and bringing water he prepares an offering for Agni Vaiśvānara cooked on twelve pot sherds. That well-known iṣti will be the last he will perform, Afterwards, he throws in the ahavaniya fire those sacrificial vessels which are not made of stone or earth. And throwing the two araṇis (the wooden logs by the friction of which fire was

  1. The contral ideas of the ceremony are the ronunciation of all worldly ties, contempt of the world and all earthly riobes, & life of ahimst and contemplation on and realization of the Absolute Brahman. The summary is close to the original, only omitting a few quotations, # tew repetitions and some matters that have already been dealt with.

  2. He will say Anaft arma refer tous, Antti semnat *… … Aria T: AT … … fæst … … TIC and lastly want a Fi raff i MH … … 97. Vide et. . . II. 13. 14-17. This is onlled Tite.

Oh. XXVIII

Sannyāsa-procedure of

955

produced for vedio rites ) into the gārhapatya fire with the words “may you two be of one mind with us’ he ( mentally ) deposits the three fires in himself. Repeating the mantra ‘ya te agne yajñiya tanar’ (Tai. S. III. 4. 10.5) he inhales the smell of the smoke of each of the three fires thrice. Then standing within the sacrificial enclosure he says thrice in a low voice and thrice aloud the words ‘om bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ svah. I have entered the order of sannyasa ( lit. I have abandoned ), I have entered the order of sannyasa, I have entered the order of sannyasa’. Lastly he pours out as much water as will fill his joined hands saying ‘I promise that no injury will proceed from me to any creature’. He must henceforward restrain his speech. He holds his staff saying ’thou art my friend, protect me’. He takes the sikya (loop of strings) with the words ‘yadasya pāre rajasah (Tai. S. IV. 2.5.2); he takes the cloth for straining water with the text’ yene devaḥ pavitropa’ (Tai. Br. I. 4.8 and Nirukta V.6); he takes the water jar reciting ‘yons deva jyotiṣordhyam’ (Tai. S. V. 7. %. 2); he takes the bowl after reciting the seven vyāhṭtis. Taking with him the staffs, the loop of strings, the cloth as a water strainer, the water-pot and the bowl he goes to a place where water can be had, bathes, sips water and sprinkles bimself ( performs mārjana ) with the Surabhimati 2184 verse ( dadhi-krāvạo, Rg. IV. 39. 6), with Ablingā verses, Vāruṇi verses, Hiranyavarpā verses ( Tai. S. V. 6. 1.1= Atharvaveda I. 33. 1-4) and Pāva. māni verses (Rg. IX. 1 &e.). While still in the water be performs sixteen prāṇāyāmas after ( mentally going over ) the Aghamarṣaṇa verses (Rg. X. 190. 1-3), comes out of the water on the bank, wrings his garments, puts on another pure ( washed ) garment, sips water, takes the cloth for straining water with the words om bhūr bhuvaḥ svah’ and performs tarpana to the seven 1185 vyābṛtis. He then fills his joined hands with water and performs tarpaṇa to the Manes just in the same way as he did to the gods, then he worships the sun with the two versos * udu tyam’ ( Rg. 1. 50.1 ) and ‘oitram ( Rg. I 115, 1). He then offers tarpana to the Atinan (self) with ’the syllable om is brahma; this light (the sun) that diffuses warmth is indeed

  1. Vido noto 756 for Surabbimati, Abling X and Võrupi versos. The Tai. Br. III. 9.7 calls Rg. IV. 39. 6 Surabhimati.

  2. The arbor will be in the form wi perform and so on for you, *, ri, ni, ani, fpes. This is furta. The Ardor will be mi v FTU, HY ITI TU and so on.

956

(Ch. XXVIII

brabma; this which gives warmth is indeed the Veda ; this indeed that sheds warmth is the (proper ) object of knowledge’; then he worships the Atman with the words ’the Self is brahman, it is light’. Let him repeat the Gayatri verse one thousand times or an unlimited number of times. Repeating

om bhurbhuvah svah’he takes up the water strainer (cloth ) and fetches water. Let him not thereafter perform acamana with water that has not been drawn up (from a well), wbiob has not been strained &186 and which has not been completely oleansed. Let him not wear thereafter whitegarments. He may carry one staff or three. He has to keep the following Vows: abimsā ( abstaining from injury to any creature), truth fulness, not depriving others of any property of theirs, continence, and liberality. There are five minor vratas ( vows) viz. absence of anger, waiting upon the guru, avoidance of care lessness ( or rashness ), cleanliness, purity in food. Then follow rules as to begging for alms ( some of them are at pp. 933-934 above). When he returns from begging, he places the alms in a pure spot, washes his hands and feet and announces (the alms ) first to the sun with the verses ’ udu tyam’ (Rg. 1. 50. 1) and’ oitram ‘(Rg. I. 115.1); he also announces the alms to brahman with the text’ brahma jajñānam’ (Tai. S. IV. . 8. 2

Atharvaveda IV. 1.1). It is declared ( in Vedic texts) that after the brahmadhāna the sacred fires are contained in the sacrificer himself; bis prapa, apāna, vyāna, udāna and sanāna represent the five fires gārbapatya, anvāhāryapacana (dakṣi pāgni), ābavaniya, sabhya and dvasathya. These five fires indeed abide in the Atman; he, therefore, offers (the oblations) in the Atman only. This sacrifice offered in the soul, which is centred in and based on the Atman, leads the soul to bliss. Giving compassionately portions of the alms to creatures and sprinkling the remainder with water, he should partake of it as if it were some medicine. After he has eaten and taken &camana he worships the sun with the Jyotiṣmati *187 verse viz.‘ud vayam’ ( Rg. I. 50. 10) after inaudibly muttering the

  1. Vide Manu VI. 46 for straining water. Liberality the asootio has ex hypothesi po property, but his tyāga may consistio imparting knowledge and giving his 268. or books to the needy.

  2. Rg. I. 60. 10 in Ahreft Futuna II. It contains the word sallati and is therefore styled Teat. Bahler is inacourate in holding the verge udvayam’ as difforont from Jyotigmati (vido 8. B. E. vol. 14 p. 281). The words @ W WII frate are also s tay 19. 60. 1.

Ch. XXVIII)

Sannyāsa-procedure of

937

two texts vāo me asan’(Tai. S. V. 5. 9.%) and nasoḥ prāpah’ (Tai. Ar. X. 72). Let bim eat food given without asking, regarding which nothing has been settled beforehand and which comes to him by chance and so much only as is neces sary to support life.

Now they quote the following rules for the case where the teachers explain the Upaniṣad ‘standing ( in the day ), keeping silence, sitting (at night) in the postureista of crossed legs, bathing thrice a day, he shall subsist entirely on rice grains, oil-cake, food from barley, sour milk and milk’. It is declared in Vedic texts on that occasion be shall keep strict silence and converse as much as is necessary with the teaobers deeply versed in the three vedas, with ascetios or other learned persons in the several asramas, after pressing the teeth together, all the while contemplating on wbat he hears, but not in such & way as would cause a breach of his vow. He may keep only one of the rules out of the three viz, standing (in the day), rigid silence and sitting with crossed legs (at night) and not all together. Eight things do not cause him who is intent on vows as above to break his own vow viz. water, roots, clarified butter, milk, sacri. ficial food, the wish of a brābmapa, an order of his guru, and medicine. Let him mutter the mantras in the evening and morning that are repeated in the Agnihotra. He should perform his evening sandhyā adoration with mantras addressed to Varu pa 5188 and in the morning with those addressed to Mitra (Rg. III. 59). It is declared in the Veda ’limited in number are the rk verses, the sāmans and the yajus formulæ, but there is no limit to this that is brahma.’ In this way (i. e. repeating om ) the ascetio may give up the rest of the Veda, but should stand firm by the root of the Veda (viz. om). The Veda is the tree and its root is pranaya (om). He should meditate on ‘om’. Prajapati has declared that prapava leads on to union with brahman. Let him cleanse the vessel of brahman with seven vyāhftis. 2189

2187 a. ficrra is defined as’ PER TERUSTEHT forgrunt a FFUNT I Forfatter ATAHOTTTTH.’ meer in T 13. 52 rofors to this posture in योग.

  1. The Vāruni verses meant here are the throe verses aff oocurring in Tai. 8. III. 4. 11. 6 and the Maitri versos are the threo versos para fortynt, 191 , # fe in Tai. S. III. 4. 11. 5.

  2. T ro may moaa the bowl for alms or the body of the ascetio. This shows that besides om’ he should also frequently rocito the soven vyābftis,958

(Ch. XXVITI

Among medieval works the Smrtyarthasāra (pp. 96-97), the Sm. M. (pp. 177-182 ), the Yati-dh. (pp. 10-22 ), the Nirnaya-sindhu (III. Uttarardha pp. 628-632), the Dharma sindhu give various detailed procedures. Many of the medie val works and manuals (paddhatis) on sannyāsa frequently refer to a work called Brahmanandi, which I have not been able to secure. The procedure in the Dharmasindhu contains the following elements, Sannyasa is to be resorted to in the northward passage of the sun and for a man who is about to die even in the southward passage. He should find out a teacher possessed of the virtues of quiescence and note for three months the duties of ascetios in his company, should purify himself with japa of the sacred Gayatri, Rudra mantras and by Kuṣmapda homa (for which see Tai. Ār. II. 7). He should then make a saṅkalpa 1190 after reciting the place and time on & riktā tithi and should perform the prayascitta of catuḥkȚcchra by giving a cow or money for each as stated above (pp. 199-200). Then he should begin to perform on the 11th or 12th day 16 srāddhas of himself and sapiṇdikarana. Then be is to perform eight śrāddhas (vide above p. 932 ) and tarpana as a subordinate part (anga ) of these sight srāddhas. On the day these eight brāddbas are performed or on the next day he should shave off the whole head after keeping six hairs out of his top-knot, pare bis nails, then take his bath, then he is to donate to brāh maṇas and his sons all his wealth except his wearing apparel and the materials for homa. The garments he is to wear should be dyed with red obalk; he should secure a bamboo staff as high as his head &o. and as thick as his finger and brought by a brāhmaṇa; that staff should be sprinkled over with water from a conoh to the accompaniment of ‘om’, the purusa bymn (Rg. X. 90) and such names (of Viṣṇu) as Keśava. He should also keep ready a water jar, a strip for his loins and a garment to cover his body and a wallet and pādukās (sandals). He should declare bis resolve (saṅkalpa) to become a parama. hamsa and perform the worship of Ganesa, puṇyāhavācana, worship of mother goddesses and Nāndi-brāddha. He should then perform japa by saying “namah’ to Brabma ( in the dative), Viṣṇu, Rudra, Sūrya, Soma, Atman, Antarktman, Paramatman and also repeat the first pādas of each of the four

  1. Vido p. 267 above for imara. The Fir will be haft संन्याधिकारार्थ पाधारमर्क प्रापति मतिकार तपस्यामापकैकगानिष्कपटारा हमाचरित्याग्नापगेनियम बिपोपाहहत्यणे।

Ch. XXVIII 1

Sannyasa-procedure of

959

Vedas. He should then eat three handfuls of barley flour with ‘om’ and touch his navel. He should then sip thrice clarified butter or water mixed with milk and curds repeating the mantras ’trivrd-asi’, ‘pravṣd-asi’, ‘vivrd-asi’ (all three in Vāj. S. 15. 9) and then drink water with the mantra ‘may the waters purify’ (Tai. Ār. 10. 23), then perform acamana and declare his resolve to fast. Then comes Sāvitripravesa (as in Baud. above); then he should kindle his grhya fire or if he has no gphya fire then he should bring domestio fire with the mantra ‘prsto divi’ (Rg. VII. 5. 27) and kindle it with the three mantras tat savitu}’, ’tām savituh’ and ‘yisyāni deva’ (Rg. III. 62. 10, Vāj. S. 17. 74, Rg. V. 82.5). Then comes brahmanvādhana before sunset (see above p. 954). He should thereafter perform evening sandhya adoration, homa and vaiśvadava and keep awake the whole night near the fire. Then the next morning after the daily homa and Vaiśvadeva he should offer a mese of cooked food to Agni or Vais vānara and perform the home to prāpa and others, the puruṣasūkta boma and Viraja homa. The Viraja homa is a lengthy performance and the principal elements in it are : the offering of 40 oblations of each out of the three viz. fuel-sticks, boiled rice and clarified butter after repeating certain formulas such as ‘may my five prāṇas be purified, may I be light (Illumination ) free from rajıs (the principle of activity or obstruction) and from evil, svābā ; this is for the prāșa and the rest, it is not mine.’ In this way oblations are offered to five senses, the mind, buddhi, seed, thought and saṅkalpa, to the constituents of the body, to the several limbs of the body ( head, hands and feet &o.), to puruṣa and otbors, to the five elements, to the five guṇas of the elements, to the five kośas (sheaths) and several others. Then an oblation of ajya is made to Prajāpati. Then he should recite the Puruṣa hymn (Rg. X. 90 ) and the first sentences of the four Vedas, offer oblations to Agni Sviṣtakrt, distribute gifts to students and others, he should burn his wooden utensils in his gļhya fire if he has kept one and donate the metal vessels to his guru, then he should deposit the fire in himself by reciting’ ayam te yoniṇ’( Rg. III. 29. 10 ) and ‘yā te agne yajñiya’ (Tai. 8. III. 4. 10, 5) thrice and should face and take in the blaze and warmth of his grhya fire, should take a black antelope skin and leave his house. He should give blessings to his song and other near relatives and bid good-bye to them with the words to me belongs no one nor do I belong to any one.’ Then he should go to a reservoir of water, take in his folded hands water and offer it

960

.

(Ch. XXVIII

to all gods with the hymn Rg. X. 103 (1-13). He should deolare 8 resolve to resort to sannyāsa for the realization of brahman and offer three handfuls of water in the reservoir. He should then discharge water into the reservoir from his joined hands saying ‘I have given up the bankering for song, wealth, worlds and for everything, may there be safety to all creatures from me, svāba.’ Then he should again declare that he has abandoned everything, all pleasures, all sentiments of anger &o., all joys of flowers, scents, dancing and music, all duties of varṇa and asramas &c.; he should also declare ‘I shall not cause any injury to any creature in thought, word or by the body; may all creatures have no fear of me.’ He should think of the sun and other gods as witnesses to this declaration and standing in navel-deep water should again perform the Savitripraveśa and offer water in declaring ‘I have risen beyond the desire for song, worlds and wealth and shall practise begging.’

After this comes the utterance of the praisa (the call or direction). In a low, moderate and loud voice the entrant should declare ‘om, bhūḥ I have given up everything, om bhuvah, I have ………, om svaḥ, I have………, om bhūr bhuvab svaḥ, I have given up everything and should discharge water in the reservoir of water with the words ‘may there be no injury to all creatures from me, svāhā.’ He should pluok out the top knot, take out his sacred thread and hold them in his hand and offer them in water with water with the words ‘water is indeed all deities, I sacrifice ( the top-knot and sacred thread) to all gods, svāha’ and then he should send up a prayer to Vasudeva. Then he should remove his wearing apparel and walk five steps with his face to the north. Then the doārya should bow to the entrant and should hand over to the latter a piece of loin oloth and upper garment and a staff. The entrant should wear them and hold the staff with appropriate mantras and also a water jar and an asana (& soat). He should then hold a fuel-stick in his hand, bow to his guru, sit down in the eagle posture and make a request to the guru in the words ‘Oh teacher, who are like the Lord of the Universe to me, save me who am scorched by the fire of samsāra and who am bitten by Death; I have thrown myself on your meroy’ and also repeat the verse’ yo brahmanam’ (Svetasvatara Up. VI. 18 quoted in note 856 above ).9151 Having

  1. The vorne om… is very appropriate to the occasion,

T CUTATE TO # (

TTTTT. VI. 18)

Ch. XXVIII)

Sarnyāsa-procedure of

961

waited upon the guru with these words and placing bis right knee on the ground, he should clasp the feet of his guru and should say teach, Sir, brahma to me.’ The guru should contemplate on bis soul as brahman, should recite over a conch full of water the sacred syllable ‘om’ twelve times, should pour the water from the conch on bis disciple, should recite the propitiatory verse som no mitraḥ’ ( Rg. I. 90, 9 ), then lay his hand on the head of the disciple, should recite the Puruṣa hymn (Rg. X. 90), should place his hand on the heart of the disciple and mutter the mantra 8192 ‘I place thy heart in disciplined obedience to me,’ the guru should then mutter in the rigbt ear of the disciple the syllable’om’ and should enlighten him about the signi. ficance of ‘om’ and of pañcikarana;2183 he should then impart to the disciple one of the four great Vedānta sentences ( mahavākya) * prajñānam brahma’ (Ait. Up. III.3), ‘ayam-ātmā brahma’ (Bļ. Up. II. 5. 19), ’tat tvain-asi’ (Chin. Up. VI. 8. 7), ‘aham brahmāsmi’ (Bṭ. Up. I. 4. 10) in accordance with the tradition of his school and enlighten him about the meaning thereof. Then he should give to the disciple a name ending in tirtha, asrama &o. according to the tradition of bis order. Then the guru may bring about what is called paryankaśauca and give to the disciple the yogapatta.

The paryanka-sauca ( purification by being seated on a stool &c. ) may be briefly described. On an auspicious day a house bolder seats the ascetic in front of himn on a wooden stool or seat, places five heaps of earth to his left and also to his right and also pure water on both sides. Then the householder simultaneously washes the two knees of the ascetio with water and earth from the first heap of earth on the left. Then he should wash his own left hand with earth and water taken from the half of the first heap on the right and with the remain

  1. मम व्रते हदयं ते वधामि मम चित्तमनुचित ते अस्तु । मम पाचमेकवतो जपथ

Pag Payat Arala This occurs in 34144. T. I. 21. 7 and on. T. II. 2 in where the teacher addresses the boy in those words. The same words are addressed in the marriage rites by the bridegroom to the bride, as e.g. in Par. gf. I. 8 (where farfa is substituted for prara).

  1. f or is a Vedanta doctrino analogous to Flyfitur (which occurs in the Chan. Up. VI. 3 and 4 and V. 8. III, 4. 20). Vide the

TATT for it and the work called Torino by Sathkaraokrya (in Benares Sanskrit series ).

#1, D. 181

962

(Ch. XXVIII

ing half of the first heap on the right he should wash both his hands seven times with the same water. With the second heap on the left he should wash simultaneously the two thighs (jangha ) of the ascetio four times and with one half of the second heap on the right he should wash his own left hand geven times and with the other half of the second heap (on the right ) he should wash both his hands four times. The ankle, the upper part of the foot and the lower part ( sole ) of the foot of the ascetic are respectively washed with the third, fourth and fifth heap on the left and his own left hand and both hands are washed a certain varying number of times with 3rd, 4th, 5th heaps on the right.

The yogapatta (lit. the cloth of yoga, union with Spirit) is given in the following way: After the ascetic bas under gone paryankaśauoa, he should cleanse bis waist, wear & string round his waist and his loin cloth and cover his waist with a piece of cloth. He should then sit with his guru’s permission on a high seat and should propound some Vedanta topio in the presence of the persons assembled. The ascetic guru should sprinkle on the head of his ascetio disciple water from a conch to the accompaniment of the Puruṣa hymn (Rg. X. 90 ), should honour him by offering clothes, sandalwood paste, flowers, incense, lamp and naivedya. He (the guru ) should hold a piece of cloth over the head of the disciple, recite along with the other patis the chapter called Viśvarūpa (11th chapter of the Bhagavadgita ) from the 15th verse to the 33rd Verse. He should then give the name already determined upon to the disciple and say to him ‘Henceforward you may admit to Barnpyāsa one who is eligible for it, initiate him and give him the yogapatta.’ Then the disciple bows to the yatis older than himself. Then the guru gives to the disciple & waist-thread and a staff marked with five mudrās and should offer his own salutation to the disciple aocording to the tradition of his order. Other ascetics and house-holders also should bow to the disoiple, who should only repeat the word ‘Narayana,’ should leave the high seat and seat his guru thereon, should bow to the guru according to the rules of the order and to the other ascetios. Bish

  1. Vide Dhurmasindho III ( uttarardha ), Yati-db. pp. 102-103 for yoga patta.

Ĉh. IXVIIDI

Samnyāsa-for the dying

963

The Jābalopaniṣad (5) 8185 allows samnyāsa to those even who are suffering from disease and are about to die, all that is required being that they should declare in words and resolve in their mind to enter the order of samnyāga. No exten. sive ceremonial is required. Angiras and Sumantu quoted in 8m. M. (pp. 174 and 182 ) state ‘when a man is shattered by old age or harassed by his enemies or is suffering from ( an incurable) disease he may resort to saṁngāsa by merely uttering the praiṣa (vide above p. 960 ) and no further rites would be absolutely necessary. He should recite thrice in the morning, at noon and in the evening, ‘I have given up everything (or entered upon samnyāsa ) and further say ‘I forswear whatever action I may have done through ignorance, indolence or carelessness; I shall cause no barm to creatures with my hands or feet, with my speech, body or mind; may all creatures have no fear from me.’ The Dharmasindhu ( III, uttarārdha ) says that in this samnyāsa for those at the door of death the absolutely essential elements are the resolve ( sam. kalpa ), the uttering of the praiṣa and the giving of the promise of non-injury and the rest of the rites may or may not be performed according to circumstances. Even now such a gamnyāsa ( called āturasamnyāsa ) is sometimes resorted to by religious-minded men in extremis, the only essentials gone through being saṅkalpa (declaration of resolve), kṣaura (tonsure of the head), sāvitripraveś& ( described above at p. 954 ) and praiṣocoara ( utterance of praisa ).

One question on which controversies have raged from very ancient times is whether an ascetic should give up his top koot and sacred thread also. The Jābālopaniṣad 3186 (5) states

  1. qurat: 4*#771 a Thai eroi 5; starrat e संन्यासे मविधिनष च क्रिया। प्रैषमात्र समुच्चार्य संन्यास तत्र पूरयेत् । संन्यस्सोहामिति

hig ing part i startta Amah gugugi vienlarge कर्म समज्ञानतो मया प्रमादालस्यदोषापत्तरसर्व संत्यजाम्यहम् ॥ एवं संधिस्य तेम्यो वावभयदक्षिणाम् ।पन्यां कराग्यांविरलाई (विहरताही) पालायमानः करिष्ये माणिना ftat erforat: Fra fawar: 11 gan quoted in Fyfae. p. 174; vide grau. #. p. 2 for a similar quotation from Angiras. The 41. Ar. I. 2. p. 149 quotes the verse strop ROTÊTag from HETTICH.

  1. TUHATHI TV3 74 GODITA ET T * seminaarit ru मामण इति । स होवाच याज्ञवल्क्यः । इदमेवास्प तयज्ञोपवीतं प भाला। जापालोपनिषद 5; 9 Ochrat … … FOTO fai art or forent where rdecat VIETCE after TARATUT 1 rint. 6. This is referred to in M T TTH P. 641.

964

(Ch. XXVIII

that Atri asked Yajśavalkya how a man who did not wear & yajñopavita (when he became an ascetic) could still be a brāh maṇa and that the great søge replied that in the case of the ascetic the Self was bis yajāopa vita and the same Upaniṣad (6) states that the paramahamsa is to abandon in water the three dapdas, the water-jar, the śikya, the begging bowl, the water strainer, the topknot and yajñopa vita and should be a geeker after the Self. In the Aruṇika Up. (2) it is said *197 that he should discharge bis yajñopavita on the earth or in water and that he should give up his sikha and the sacred thread. Samkara in his bhāṣya on Br. Up. III. 5. 1 sets out at some length the arguments and the authorities on both sides and ultimately gives it as his own view that the sacred thread and sikha should be given up by the ascetio. Viśvarūpa on Yāj. III. 66 also discusses this matter and propounds the same view. On the other hand Vṛddha-Harita8198 VIII. 57 deolares ‘if an ascetio gives up the acts peculiar to brāhmaṇas, viz. keeping & topknot and wearing a sacred thread, he becomes & cāndāls wbile alive and is born a dog after death.’ The Jivanmukti viveka (p. 6 ff.) and Par. M. I. part 2, p. 164 ff. discuss this point and arrive at the same conclusion as Samkara. The Mit. on Yāj. III. 58 gives an option. In modern times saṁnyisips give up these two.

Some special rules are laid down about the āhnika ( daily rites ) of ascetics.8199 They have to perform sauca, brusbing the teeth, bath, just as house-holders have to do. Manu V. 137 (=Vas. Dh. S. VI. 19, Viṣṇu Db. S. 60.26, Saṅkba 16. 23-24) says that forest hermits and ascetios have respectively to per form three and four times as much sauoa ( bodily purification) 88 house-holders. As to food, it has already been seen (p. 935) that they are to eat only once and only eight morsels. Ascetics have to worship Puruṣottama (i, e. Vasudeva with his four forms ), Vyasa ( with his four pupils, Sumantu, Jaimini, Vaisampayapa, Paila ), the Bhāṣyakāra Samkara ( with his four pupils ) and so on. Certain rules are laid down for an ascetio as regards

  1. Bare retete R

e i, pret af FTR पायं ……ह्माण्डं च विजेत् । …… ग्रहस्थो ब्रह्मचारी वा वानप्रस्थो वा उपवीतं HTTCSTATT I fortunateer 1-%.

  1. Prer ratia Transforreusita e qui ai serta rrua 1 TTCH VIII.57.

  2. Vide Yati-db. p. 45 for details of the daily worship by ascetios.

Mh. XXVIIII

Samnyāsa-rules of conduct on

965

giving and receiving honour or salutation. An ascetio should bow to gods and to older ascetics who act according to the rules of their order, but should not offer namaskāra to an house-holder even if the latter be well-conducted. If another person bows to an ascetic, the latter should not pronounce any benediction but should only utter the word8200 Nārāyaṇa.’ When an ascetio (even one who has taken samnyāsa on his death-bed) dies, he is to be buried and not cremated. No mourning is to be observed for a yati when he dies (Atri 97 ) and no śrāddhas are to be offered on his death except the pārvana on tbe 11th day after death (vide Apararka p. 538). If an asoetio hears of the death of his son or any other relative, he does not become impure and has not to bathe but on hearing of his mother’s or father’s death he has to bathe, though he observes no mourning #2002

According to the theory of Dharmaśāstra, the king is not only the head of the civil administration and the fountain of justice, but he is also the final controlling authority in presery ing religious and spiritual institutions, he is to see that people follow the dharma, to punish them for breaches of the religious and spiritual codes and to see to the administration to them of appropriate penances. In short, he is also the Defender of the Faith. Vide Gaut. XI. 9-11, Viṣṇu Dh. S. III. 2-3, Narada ( prakirṇaka ) verses 5-7, Yāj. I. 337 and 359, Atri 17-20, Manu VII. 13. But he regulated spiritual and religious matters not by his arbitrary authority but on the advice of his purohita and ministers and after taking the opinion of the assemblies (pariṣad) of learned men. Whenever difficult questions arose about the validity of anytbing from the religious point of view or about penances for lapses, or about excommunicating or outcasting a man the opinion of the assembly of learned men was sought. Therefore, detailed rules are laid down in the Dharmasutras and smrtis about the constitution of pari ṣads. In modern times, the British Government being neutral in matters religious or ecolesiastical, the ascetio hoads of the various mathas have been in the habit of assuming to themselves jurisdiction

  1. regimuiat Ta onarea Soua: 1 APUAT Put for at मपित नमेत् । अपि शानसमायुक्तं सदाचारसमन्वितम् । सारसं गृहस्थाचं म नमस्पेत् कचियतिः॥ हारीत, प्रणत न पति यादाशिष यासशासनात् । नारायणेति बभूपात्मणताय विदये। अत्रि, both quoted in मतिह. p. 206.

2200 a. Vide parent of pret er (extracted from his work called garraf, D. O. No. 119 of 1882-83) folio 61 a’ F ANT जिचा पुमादिनिधने ते । पितमातुक्षयं त्वा स्मामायापति साम्बर।।’.

986

(Ch. XXVIII

over persons professing to follow their dogmas in ecclesiastical matters such as presoribing penances for lapses, settling disputes between castes, and deciding upon questions of outcasting. A few words must be said about the pariṣads and about the claims of the Samkarācāryas ( the modern heads of mathas ) to regulate religious matters affecting their followers.

Among the oldest texts on this point is the one contained in the Tai. Up. I. 11. viz. the exhortation of the teacher on the eve of the student’s departure at the close of his studies.2201 ‘If you have hereafter a doubt about any rite or about a course of conduct, you should behave in the way in which the brahmanas of your place, who are thoughtful, intent(upon doing their duties), aot spontaneously ( without being urged by any one), are not hard-hearted and have an eye only to dharma (and not to kāma or artha) will behave. The same holds good about your conduct towards persons obarged (generally falsely) with sins or lapses’.

The words ‘sabb&’( Rs. X. 34. 6 ) and ‘samiti’ (Rg. X. 97.6) ooour even in the Rigveda but their exact significance is doubt ful and the former word at least seems to bear the sense of

gambling hall’ in some passages. In the Upaniṣads, however, the words samiti and pariṣad assume & more definite sense, meaning an assembly of learned men in a particular locality’. The Chan. Up. V.3. 1 states that Sretaketu Ārupeya 2803 repaired to the assembly (samili) of the Pancalas ( where Prayābana Jaivali put him five questions of a metaphysical and esoteric nature ). The Bṛ. Up. VI. 2. 1 when narrating the same episode employs the word ’ pariṣad’. These passages establish that in the times of the Upaniṣads there were assemblies of learned mon where intricate questions were discussed. Gaut. 28, 46 prescribes just as the Tai. Up. I. 11 does that in matters about which there is no certain rule ( or there is doubt ) one should do what is commended by respectable persons not less than ten in number, who are clever in discussion and are above covetous noss.4203 The Ap. Dh. 8. I. 3. 11. 34 declares that holidays other

  1. Safa afnerHT ET Tefararen TT TT FYRIR WIT: समशिनः । पुक्ता आयुक्ताः । अलूक्षा धर्मकामा स्युः । पथा ते तत्र वरन तथा तत्र वर्तथा । maratograyi NOTT: …… TUT: 18. 7. I. 11. errorang may mond about tlose matters on which there aro positive Vedic texts’.

  2. htige gramot afera or surat TI OT. TT. V. 3.1; mrora: Tutorat afarar i TT. 74. VI. 2. 1.

  3. Arratsutagut: meni n. 28. 46; tu #FETTI CHE I HR. U., I. 8. 11, 84.

Cb. XXVIII )

Sanyāsins and pari sad

967

than those stated by him may be observed as settled by pariṣads. The Baud. Dh, S. II. 1. 44-45 prescribes “the relatives of a brahmacārl who is guilty of sexual intercourse should empty a water pot in the pariṣad and the offender should confess ‘I, 80 and so by name, am guilty of such and such a misdeed’ and that after the erring person has performed penance and when he bas touched water, milk, gbee, honey and salt, the brāhmaṇas should ask him “have you performed tho penance ?’ The other shall then reply yes’; then they shall admit him who has performed penance to all sacrificial rites making no difference between him and others.“2204 This clearly establishes that at least five centuries before the Christian ere it was the privilege of the assembly of the learned brābmaṇas to administer penance to a sinner and then restore him to all rights of interdining and otber social intercourse. Vas. Db. S. I. 16 declares there is no doubt that whatever persons who have studied dharmaśāstra and the three Vedas expound as purifying themgelves and others is tbe proper dharma.’ Ap. Db. S. I. 1. 1. % declares tbat the conventions of those that know dharma are the authoritative standard (of conduct for ordinary men). When the smṛtis declare that Veda, smrti and the usages of gistas are the three sources of dharma (e. g. Vas. Dh. S. I. 4-5) they convey that siṣtas can and should determine from time to time what is religious conduct. When Bphaspati enjoins that doubts about dharma should not be settled by blindly following the letter of śāstras, but that logic and reasoning should be employed, be strikes the true note of the spirit of the ancient sages. 8804x Vide also Manu XII. 106 and Gaut. XI. 23-24 for the importance of tarka in settling matters of dharma. Madu XII. 108 states if one were to ask how one should act in matters of dharma on which no express rule is declared in this work, the reply is that in such cases what is declared to be a proper rule of conduct by respectable (sista) brābmanas would undoubtedly be the dharms. Yāj. III. 300 requires that a person guilty of a sin or lapse should declare it to an assem bly of learned brahmaṇas and undergo such vrata ( penance and

  1. Funky TUT: ofrutta fragtrio farti hati ufitarrat पपोत मालपणमित्यारणपन्त बामणं युवरितं त्वत्योमितीतर मत्पादचरितनिश

mit yg: ait. . . II. 1. 44-46.

2204 a. * TIWATI wondering Populasi grimstant for startott

  • Trafo quoted in Frag. (TTER . 14.)968

( Oh. XXVIII

observanoes) as is approved of by the pariṣad. Samkarāoārya in his bhagya on Bṛ. Up. IV. 3. 2 makes the very significant £205 remark” it is therefore that in coming to a decision on a subtle point of dharma, it is desirable to have a pariṣad working and & specially distinguished person is wanted ( to give the lead) as stated in the rule’a pariṣad should consist of not less than ten persons or of three or of one ( specially distinguished )’.” These several authorities establish that for over 1500 years before the great Samkarācārya the pariṣad of learned brāhmaṇas was the acknowledged authority for settling doubtful points of dharma and administering penances on lapses from proper conduct, and that Samkarācārya himself acknowledged this pri vilege of the pariṣad. .

The next question is: what is the number of persons required to constitute & pariṣad for deciding on doubtful points of dharma and what their qualifications should be. According to Gaut. 28. 46-47 a pariṣad should consist of at least ten 2206 persons viz. four, each of whom has mastered one Veda, three members who are respectively a perpetual ) student, & house-holder and a samnyāsin and three more each of whom has studied distinct dharmasastras. Vag. Dh. S. III, 20, Baud. I. 1.8, Parāśara VIII. 27 and Angiras declare that four persons each of whom has mastered one of the four Vedas, one who knows the Mimānsā, one who has studied the six subsidiary lores of the Veda, one who has studied dharmaśāstra and three persons who are a house-bolder, & forest hermit and a saṁnyasin constitute a pariṣad of ten. Manu XII.111 defines the ten as con sisting of three masters of each of the three Vedas (excluding the Atharvaveda), one who has studied Logic, a student of Mimarnsa, & student of Nirukta, a master of dharmaśāstras and three members in each of the first three asramas. Bphaspati 2207 quoted in Par. M. II. 1 p. 218 declares that a pariṣad may be constituted by seven or five persons sitting together who have studied the Vedas, their six subsidiary lores and dbarmaśāstra and that such & pariṣad resembles a solemn

E a

  1. Hage V ale TuETTI OLI 99 fapte rad - of retention t074 on Tư. 34. IV. 3. 2.

  2. argitu raamat si r I TWARUTH ®T: plaat TT # TFS III. 20= 1. v. c. . 1. 8=Q7T9YT VIII. 27-*free quoted by r p. 22, where be sets out the definitions of these given by Angira..

  3. लोकदार्मज्ञाः सप्त पायोपियानोपपिटा विमा स्युः सा यज्ञसरशी FOTW Tra quoted by YUT. #T. II. 1. p. 218.

Ch. XXVIII)

Samnyāsins and pariṣad

969

sacrifice. Vide also Angiras quoted by Aparārka p. 23 for seven or ive men as constituting a parizad. Vas. Dh. 8. III. 7, Yaj. I. 9, Manu XII.112, Parāśara VIII. 11 state that at least four or three men should constitute a pariṣad, but they should be students of each of the four Vedas, should be agnihotrips and should have also studied dharmaśāstra. If even three cannot be found then even a single man oan declare the dharma in case of doubt (Gaut. 28.48), but he must possess special qualifications. Gaut. 28. 48, Manu XII. 113( = Atri 143) require that he must be the best of brāhmaṇas, & śiṣṭa and a deep student of the Vede. Yaj. I. 9, Parāśara VIII. 13, Angirasa208 say that a single person who is the best among ascetics possessing know ledge of the Self may form & pariṣad and declare what the pro. per rule is on a point of doubt. Though the texts permit in extreme cases a single man to declare dharma in case of doubt they give emphatio warning that this should not be done as far as possible. Baud. Dh, S. 1 1.13 observe89209 ’the way of dharma is very subtle and diffioult to follow and it has many entrances (i. e. it appears different in different oircumstances); therefore 8 person though knowing much should not undertake single handed to propound the proper course of conduct in case of doubt.’ The texts also emphasize that doubtful points of dharma are not to be decided by the votes of ignorant people, even if they muster in thousande. Manu XII. 114-115 ( =Baud. Dh. S. I. 1. 17 and 12=Vas. Dh. S. III. 5-6=Parāśara VIII. 6 and 15 ) state Even if thousands of brāhmapas who have observed no vrata and who have studied no Vedic mantras and who make their living merely by virtue of their caste come together they do not constitute a pariṣad. When suoh foolish persona deluded by ignorance and ignorant of dharma declare (a penance for a sin) the sin is multiplied a hundred-fold and reaches the propounders.’

The Mit, on Yaj. III. 300 remarks that the number mention ed an constituting a pariṣıd is not material, that all that is meant is that for lesser sing a small number of learned men can

  1. मुनीनामात्मविद्यानां द्विजाना यज्ञयाजिनाम् । पेदवतेषु स्नातामामेकोपि परि tique VIII. 18; votant FTTH M AT I fortiada Wrear Harta offerta mere quoted by my p. 23 and TTT. AT, II. part I. p.217. The gotron III. 2. 10 tatos that thoso alone who have performed Sirovrata aro oligible for being taught brahmavidya.

  2. बहहारस्य धर्मस्य सुबमा रक्षणा गतिः । तस्माजवाच्यो धेकेन पानापि un. #. I. 1. 13 414 143. 27 (which transposon the halvos )

Tu 07. 112. u, D. 188

970

(Ch. XXVIII

declare the penance, but in the case of serious sins, the number of persons who constitute the pariṣad should be large. Devala8810 quoted in the Mit. on Yāj. III. 300 says that when the sin is not grave, brahmanas may declare the penance without reference to the king ( and restore the sinner to his privileges ) but when the sin is grave, then the king and brahmanas must carefully examine the matter and then declare the penance. Parasara (VIII. 28-29) ordainseeni ‘brābmaṇas should deolare penance for sing with the king’s congent, that they should not declare the expiation of sins by penance of their own motion and that if the king decides to give prāyagoitta without reference to brahmanas, the sin becomes increased a hundred-fold.’ It is the duty of the pariṣad to declare an appropriate penance when a man comes to it, declares his lapse and seeks to be freed from the taint and if the pariṣad knowing what the appropriate penanoe is refuses to administer it, they inour the same sin as that committed by the man who approaches them.4818 Paragara VIII, 2 prescribes that one should on being convinced of his having committed & sin at once repair to the assembly of learned men, should prostrate himself on the ground before them and request them to administer prāyaścitta ( expiation). The Mit. on Yāj. III. 300 quotes Parāśars that the sinner should announce his sin after offering the present of a cow or a bull or the like to the pariṣad.

It will be shown immediately below that these rules of the emptis were observed to the letter by Hindu kings and learned brahmanas in medieval times. When the successors of Samkara cārya began to interest themselves in the work done by the parigads for centuries before the advent of the first acārya cannot be ascertained. A large part of Northern India was under Moslem rule for about 500 years from about 1200 A, D. and a portion of the Deocan and a part of South India also were under Moslem rule for about three hundred years. Numerous documents have been published by the late Mr. Vishvanath K, Rajwade (a scholar

  1. Forest Au proglag i I T & BOTT AUTE परीक्षितम् ॥ षल quoted in मिता. on या. III. 300.

  2. राज्ञां चामते स्थित्वा प्रायश्चित विनिर्दिशत् । स्वयमेव न कर्तव्ये कपा स्वल्पनिष्कतिः बामणांस्तानतिक्रम्य राजा कर्ड पदिति । तत्पापं शतधा त्या राजा. WARTORG 11 YTT*T VIII. 28-29.

  3. Hafan Anlamnat arafarma tri prowa ra khatod: Nara quoted by the faut. on TT III. 300 ; TUTE ATINTI पार्प विल्यापपेत्पापीहरा घेई तथा पम् । इति । पायोपपातकाषिपर महाका

o r far. on . III 800.

f

Oh. XXVIII)

Sarunyāsins and parigad

971

who made unique contributions to the elucidation of Maratha History, Marathi Philology and Marathi Literature) and his friends. From these it appears that during the time of the Maratba domination learned brahmanas of holy places like Paithan, Nasik and Karad were consulted in religious matters by the king or his minister, that the holders of the ‘gadi’ of Samkarācārya at Saṅkaśvara and Karavira and other seats were also rarely consulted in these matters and that it is only after the advent of the British rule that 8818 the Samkarācargas have begun to claim almost exclusive jurisdiotion in ecolesiastic matters and in restoring men to their castes or excommunicato ing them for lapses. It will be seen from passages quoted below that both the learned brāhmapas at holy places like Karad and the Samkarācāryas claim the exclusive right in these matters by reason of immemorial usage,

In several works it is said that the pariṣad must be consti. tuted by sistas ( vide Gaut. 28. 46). Sista is variously defined by some smṛti works. The Baud. 2814 Db. S.(1. 1. 5-6) says *Sistas are those who are free from onvy and pride, who keep only as much oorn as is measured by kumbhi ( vide p. 111 f. n. 235 ), who are free from greed and from hypocrisy, arrogance, covetousness, delusions and anger. Those are giṣtas who have studied the Veda acoording to the prescribed method, together with its appendages ( viz. Itibāsa and Puranas ), who know how to draw inferences from that and who tend to make people realiza the teaching of the Veda.’ The Mahābhāṣya defines śiṣṭas in almost the same words as Baud. Dh. S. I. 1.5. Vas. Dh. 8. 1. 6 defines śiṣṭs as one whose mind is free from desires.

  1. Vide Rajwade’s Khanda 21 published by the Bharata-itihasa Banshodbako Mandalo at Poona, letter No. 205 at pp. 256-58 dated sake 1778 (1856 A. D.) for the olaim of the Sarkaracarya of Karavīra ‘ADT धिकारी घमेरे याची वहिवाट पाहून नियह ठेवणे अगर शुद्ध करणे हा अधिकार मठकरवीर संस्थागचा आहे. कराडकर यांनी दरम्यान धांदल करून पत्र लिहिले ८ बरोबर नाही.’ On the other band letter No. 227 in the same volume at p. 276 dated take 1778 addressed to the assembly of brahmanas at Kusegaon by the assembly of Karabata ( Karad in Batara Distriot) assorts halen

आचार ग्यवहारपद प्रायश्चित करण्याचा अधिकार क्षेत्राचा पूर्वापार असून &c.’

  1. fan un FETARTET FAT ITT: frutat sulyar amatata मोहक्रोधविवर्जिताः । धमेणाधिगतो येषां वेदः सपरिवहणः । शिष्टास्तदनुमानज्ञाः वति PEUTATE : # 1. u. 8. 1. 1.5. 6. This last is Manu XII. 109 and Vas. VI. 48 ( with slight variations ). re: 77THERTI OTHY I, 6. Compare ATTHIET vol. III. p. 174 ganharfarna TEHT: Tone S on भएपमाणकारणाः किंचिदन्तरेण कस्याश्चिद विधाया पारगास्तत्रभवन्तः शिक्षा’

972

(Ch. XXVIII

The Matsyapurana 1818 145. 34-38 and Vayu, vol. I. 59. 33-35 derive the word sista and restriot it to Manu, the seven sages and other similar great sages, who in each aon (Manvantara or yuga ) settle the rules of conduct for suoceeding ages.

It is well-known that Shivaji, the great founder of the Maratha Empire, established a council of eight ministers, viz. Mukhya Pradhāna, Amatya, Saciva, Mantri, Senapati, Pandita rao, Nyāyadhisa and Sumanta. “The jurisdiction of the Panditarao extended over 2016 all religious matters, he was to oxamine and decide disputes about dharma and adharma, he was to honour śistas ( respectable people) on behalf of the king, wag to make his signature expressing his approval of the writings ( decisions ) about ācāra, vyavahāra and prāyasoittas (made by learned brābmaṇas ). He was to superintend and carry into immediate execution gifts, propitiatory rites (for the king ).’ This shows that even in matters of prāyasoitta (ponance for lapses and sins ) the final control rested with the Papditarao, who used to send doubtful matters to learned brahmanas at holy places like Wai, Nasik, Karad for their opinions and accept them. There are letters which show that the Panditarao convened meetings of learned brāhmaṇas and with their approval declared prāyasoitta in the case of a brahmapa who had been forcibly converted by Mahomedans and who was thereafter restored to caste,

That sometimes the Pontiff of the Saṅkeśvara matha was consulted even in disputes about rights to lands and villages follows from a decision contained in Rao Bahadur Vad’s work pp. 203-210 ( of 1730 A.D.). Here a dispute arose between Sri karāoārya (to whom a villaga had been donated by king Rajārāma) and his agnates, who, taking advantage of the fact that the gift. deed was made in the name of five persons including Srikari. odrya, put forward their claims to that village. This dispute was referred to the Svāml of Saṅkeśvara and Karavirs who decided on the authority of Vijāāneśvara, the Vyavabārama yūkha and the Dānakamalakara that though the document was

  1. शिषेर्धातोश्च निष्ठातात शिशब्द प्रचक्षते । मन्वन्तरेषु ये शिक्षा र तिष्ठन्ति धामिकामहः सप्तर्षयश्चैव लोकसतानकारिणः । विष्ठन्तीहर धर्मार्थ तान् शिष्टान् संरच waits Pies font #: FC g gh i ARFY 145. 34-36.

  2. Vide Sanads and Letters’ in Marathi selected by Rao Babadur Vad (1913) p. 123 qfSTtit otot e WITTC, W SYA ATE विचिक्षा करावी. शिधांचे सत्कार करावे. आचार, व्यवहार, मायश्चित्त पत्रे होतील स्पोजर संमत चित करावे. दानमसह, शान्ति, भइहान काळी करपावे.’

Oh. XXVIII)

Samnyāsins and parigad

979

executed in the name of five persons, the gift of the village with water, kusa and gold was made to Srikarācārya alone and that therefore he alone was the true owner.

There are cases where the head of the Karavīra matha lesuod an order (in sake 1644 i. e. 1722 A. D.) asking people to dine with a brāhmaṇa whose wife had illioit connection with a gosūvi and who had performed the necessary prayascitta. 1817

On the other hand in numerous instances the assembly of learned brāhmaṇag was approached either by the Papditarao or by the interested parties themselves to declare the proper penance and restore the guilty party to his caste. 218 Numerous docu. ments and letters showing the part played by the family of Gijre at Karad (in the Satara District) in the matter of giving deci. sions on questions of dharma-śāstra have been published by the late Mr. V. K. Rajvade. One Gangadhara Ranganatha Kulkarni of Hargul 28184 was forcibly converted by the Moslems; then the Maratha king Sambhaji ordered his minister the Panditarao to restore him to his caste after giving him appro priate prāyascitta and the Paṇditarao called a meeting of learned brāhmaṇas, looked into works like the Mitākṣarā and with the approval of the brāhmaṇas administered prāyasoitta to him and sent him on a pilgrimage. There is a similar case in which the Panditarao under orders from the king writes to the

  1. Vide भारत-इतिहास-संशोधक-मंडळ, द्वितीयसंमेलनवृत्त p. 130 ‘सदाशिव भट विम जायभट जोतिषी मोजे कटोली यांची श्रीमाहेरी असता जटील गोसावी याने भ्रष्ट केली. ब्रह्मकर्म लोप्य होते सबष सदाशिवभट मठ करवीर क्षेत्रासी श्रीस्वामीकडे गेले …… त्यास तीर्थ प्रसाद देऊन पंक्तिपावन कसन शुद्ध करून घेतले प सदाशिवभट यांचे घरी

अगोदक संसर्ग करण्याविषयी सर्वांस आज्ञा केली.’

  1. Vido मराठ्यांचे इतिहासाची साधने, खण्ड २१ शिवकालीन घराणी PP. 84-360 (कहाड-गिजरे घराण्याचे कागद शके १४२९ ते १७२९).

2218a. Vido भारत-इतिहास-संशोधक मंडळ द्वितीयसंमेलनवृत्त pp. 130-181 ‘गंगाधर रंगनाथ कुळकर्णी कसबे हरसूल यांस मोगलांनी बलात्कारें घाटविला त्यास पावन करून घेण्यावक्षल छत्रपति कृपालु होऊन प्रायश्चित्त घावयास आज्ञा दिली. या उपरी आम्ही राजश्री छन्दोपामास्य याचे सभेसी समस्त विद्ववेदिक ब्राह्मणांचे संमतीने मिताक्ष रादि निवन्ध पाहोन प्रायश्चित्तनिर्वाह करून गंगाधर रंगनाथ यास प्रायश्चित्तसंकल्प सांगोन श्रीयात्रेस पाठविला.. This order was issued by Moreshwar Panditarao in tako 1608 (1688 A. D.). Vide for Netaji Palkar’s conversion and reoonversion शिवकालीन पत्रव्यवहार, खण्ड १५ (published by Satkaryottojaka Sabha at Dbalia) document No. 282 (at p. 289) dated sake 1612 (1690 A.D.) ‘अपरंगजेबाने महाराष्ट्र लोक आहे ती त्यांस मुसलमान करावे असे केले

आहे त्याममाणे मुसलमान केले माो नेतोजी राजे व सावाजी पाटगे व जानोजी राजे व कितेकपाहणही या प्रांतीचे पाटपिले’ and शिवकालीमपत्र सारसंग्रह खण्ड publi shed in 1980 by the Shivacharitrakaryalaya at Poona, ontry No. 1863 of 24th July 1676 A. D.

974

History of Dharmadāsira

(Ch. XXVIII

learned brahmapes of Karad about the prayasoitta to be admi nistered to one Khandu Jadhav 1918 who had been foroibly made by the Moslems to eat their food and in wbioh he informs the brahmanas that a fee of two rupees should be taken from the man. It may be noted in passing that Raje Netaji Palkar who was one of the great commanders under Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire, was made & moslem by the Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb and was subsequently taken back into the Hindu fold by Shivaji. In another document 3120 the learned brahmanas of Poona, 46 in number, write to the brāhmaṇas of Karavira about one Narasimha Bhatta Toro of Paithan who had engaged as a priest in a Vedic saorifice in which he had offered the effigy of an animal made of flour, who had therefore been made outoast and who was subsequently restored to the caste after undergoing penance.

The above brief account will show that for hundreds of years even before the first Samkarācārya flourished it was the privilege of the assembly of learned brāhmaṇas to decide doubt ful points of religious conduct and prescribe penances for lapses, that the same privilege continued undisturbed till the advent of the British rule, that rarely the heads of the mathas, by virtue of their eminent position, their supposed detachment from and renunciation of worldy affairs and their reputation as ascetios, were asked to decide (following Yāj. I. 9) doubtful points of religious and theological importance, that it is only during the last few decades that such heads began to claim exclusive jurisdiction in such matters.

It is desirable in the interest of the solidarity of tha several Hindu castes and the rapid growth of progressive and advanced views that matters of practices, penances and restoration to oaste should be in the hands of the bodies of learned men or the caste itself than in the hands of a single ascetic styling himself Sarkarācārya, who often happens to know nothing of dharma sastra and only puts his seal of approval on what interested persons that are round him say.

  1. Vide pra farF-T ES, gateway p. 94 राजेश्री वेदशासंपन कहाडक्षेत्रस्थ समस्तबावन्देषु पा पति रघुनाथमह पंडितराव ममस्कार. श्रीखत्रपतीनी आज्ञा केली ऐसी जे खण्ड जाधव यामवर्ती परनामी जोरावरि कसन भापले अफ खापिले त्यास राजश्री स्वामी छत्रपतीनी क्षेत्रास पाठविणे त्याजवसन mg ** 916 VOTSTE. 9797 ia ovat a foruma appar for. mare

पद्धपत्र देऊन हनुर रवाना करणे. विलंब न लावणे हे नमस्कार य विज्ञतिः.

  1. Vide the Marathi Quarterly journal callodHet for Sake 1867 vol. IV (for April 1986 ).

Ch. XXVIII)

Samnyāsa-aspects of

975

After this review of the stage of samnyāga we see that asceticism presents several aspects viz. fasting or at least reducing the intake of food, abstention from meat and drink and pleasures of sense, total absence of sexual gratification and suppression of the sexual emotion, yow of silence, sleeping on - bare ground, nakedness or making use of minimum clothing, contempt for the world and its riches. The Hindu Scriptures however do not enjoin self-infiction of pain or flagellation that was indulged in by monks in the early centuries of Christianity, Asceticism in the several forms indicated above is a feature oommon to all religions. It is the fashion to assert that Indians’t have the highest regard for asceticism and that the men whose memories they cherish as ideals of human conduct are ascetics. This statement is only partially true. Christ also taught abandonment of worldly ties and the spurning of riches as the best for entering the Kingdom of Heaven ( vide Matthew 19. 21, Luke 14. 26 and 33, St. John %. 15-16). It is only during the last three or four hundred years that Western peoples have given up much of what was thought for centuries to be the main teaching of Christ and regard suocessful men of action or politicians or men of martial exploits as their ideals and beroes. In India also martial glory has often raised men to the position of heroes or avatāras, but only when they delivered their countrymen from the tyranny and persecution of evil men or foreigners. Parasurama, Rāme and Krṣṇa are avatāras because they fought against tyranny and barbarity and not because they brought as large a slice of the earth under their domination as possible for purposes of exploitation or vainglory. Martial exploits for self-aggrandisement or for domination for domination’s sake have never evoked great enthusiasm in India. Shivaji, the great hero of the Marathas, was paid almost divine honours even during his life-time not for his martial exploits, but for his baving freed the Marathas and other peoples from Moslem tyranny, perseoution, religious Intolerance and fanaticism.

2281, Vido ‘Mystics, asootics and saints of India ’ ( 1903 ) by J. O. Oman p. 271 ‘it is the ascetio profossion that time out of mind has been * pra-ominent dignity in the eyes of the Indian pooplo.’