26 Pratiṣṭhā and Utsarga

CHAPTER XXVI

PRATIṢTHA AND UTSARGA

Pratistha and Utsarga (foundation of temples and dedica. tion of wells, tanks, parks &o, for the benefit of the publio).

The subject of gifts naturally leads on to the topics of pratiṣtha and utsarga. We saw above (p. 157 f. n. 370) how the construction of temples, wells and similar religious and charitable foundations and institutions was included under pūrtadharma and how sūdras were entitled to perform such dharma, The Mit. on Yāj. II. 114 points 8068 out that women (and widows) were entitled to spend on pūrta objects, though they were not authorized to perform iṣta dharma (i. 0. vedio sacrifices &o.). Modern decisions have gone so far that a Hindu widow whose powers of alienating for secular purposes property inherited from her husband are very limited has been held to possess greater powers of alienation if the alienation be made for the spiritual benefit of her deceased husband and dedications by ber of a small fraction of the property for the continuous benefit of the soul of the deceased owner have been upheld..067 Such works of public utility have been highly recommended from very ancient times. Sabara 2008 on Jaimini I. 3. 2 refers to the smrti rules about charitable objects which are based on such śruti passages as ‘O Agni, who art ancient and a king, thou art to the man who desires to offer a sacrifice like prapā (shed where water is distributed to travellers) in a desert’. In

  1. Tek qey U TOTT A granica EU TA I ANT. OD T. II. 114.

  2. Vide Sardar Singh v. Kunj Behari L. R. 49 1. A. 383 p. 391 (a gift made by a widow of a small part of her husband’s property to the temple of Jaganpitha at Purī for bhoga i. e. food offerings to the deity was upheld); Thakur Indraj Buo v. Thakur Sheo Naresh, 2 Lucknow 713 (wbero a temple erected and endowed by a widow for the benefit of her husband’s soul as well as of her own by alienating about sth part of the entire property loft by her husband was held to be valid).

  3. HOTTTTTTTTTTH Ufara aragati HUT qafari ** fūr gut waifa n OT FUCHT firmatfat i on #. I. 3.2; - निष प्रपा असि समय इयक्ष पर प्रत्न राजन् ॥ .x. 4.1; भोजस्पेदं पुष्करिणीय वेश्म

aft ITHTHE RET #. X. 107. 10.

9, D. 112

890

(Ch. XXVI

Rg. X. 107. 10 & puskariṇi (& tank) is mentioned. The Viṣṇu Dh. 8. (obap. 91. 1-2) states ‘one who digs a well (for the publio) has (the consequences of) half his sins destroyed when the water has begun to flow forth; one who dedicates & pond is forever happy (free from thirst ) and attains the world of Varuṇa,’ Bapa in his Kadambari ( para 44 ) 2009 mentions that amstis enjoined upon mon the foundation (for public use) of halls, shelters, wells, prapūs, gardens, temples, embankments, water wheels &o. Some sages went so far as to say that the reward of sacrifices is only heaven, but by pārta ( consecration of temples, tanks and gardens) one secures release from samsāra.2070 This shows that charitable works for the use of the public or large sections of the public came to be regarded as more meritorious than sacrifices the gifts in which benefited only brāhmaṇas.

From very ancient times the procedure of dedicating a well or tank to the public has been settled. Among the earliest is the one in the Saṅkhyāyana gp. V. 2 (S. B. E. vol. 29 pp.134-135) which is as follows: Now about the censecration of ponds, wells and tanks. In the bright fortnight or on an auspicious tithi (day) having cooked a caru (boiled food) of barley in milk he (the donor) should sacrifice with the two verses tvam no agne’ (Rg. IV. 1.4-5) and with the verses’ava te bela’ (Rg. I. 24. 14), ‘imam me varuṇa’(Rg. I. 25. 19), ‘uduttamam Varuna’ (Rg. I. 24. 15), ‘imam dhiyam’ (Rg. VIII. 42.3) and with the words the domestic one, he who goes away from the house, the refreshing one, he who goes into the kennel, he who dwells in the kennel, he who comes out of it, the greedy one, the destroyer of enemies’ to the different directions beginning with the west (Vāruṇi, one over whioh Varupa presided) from left to right. In the centre he makes oblations with milk with the verses ‘visvatas cakṣuruta’ (Rg. X. 81. 3), ‘idam Viṣṇur ( Rg. I. 22, 17 ); he plunges into the water with the verge ‘gat kim cedam Varuna’ (Rg. VII, 89. 5). 2071 A cow and a pair of

2069, rastrauta FATTUKOTEAUTHCAHY**** ….* PET feruauigar ( 591 ) Taraft para 44.

  1. Fara Waget at ETE FARTI ragra a grane लक्षणम् ॥ मुक्तिशक्तिप्रदं पूर्तमिष्ट भोगार्थसाधनम् । कालिकापुराण quoted in करपरत्नाकर

. 10.

2071, Eyon in the e. g. Rg. in VII. 49. 3 (yasam raja varupo yati madbye) Varaja is the lord of wators and therefore it is appropriate that in dedioating wells and tanks to the pablio Varupa should bo invoked in lavoral versos.

Oh. XXVI) Pratisthā and Utsarga

891 clothes are the fee for this sacrifice. Then follows the feeding of brāh mapas.

The Asv. gr. pariĝiṣta IV. 9, Pār, gr. parigiṣta, Matsya. purāṇa chap. 58, Agnipurāṇa chap. 64 contain a more extensive procedure about the dedication of wells and reservoirs of water. That in the Pār. gļ, parisista is briefly as 8074 follows: “In the northward passage of the sun, in the bright half, on an auspicious day, tithi, vāra ( week day), nakṣatra and karana the donor should cook caru sacred to Varung of barley, offer the two djyabhāgas and sacrifice in fire ten oblations of clarified butter with the mantras, Rg. IV. 1. 4, IV. 1. 5, I. 25, 19, I. 24. 11, Kat. śr. 25. 1. 11 (ye te satam Varuṇa ), ayāścāgne (Kat. śr. 25. 1. 11), Rg. I. 24. 15, Rg. I. 24. 8, Vāj. S. IV. 36, Vāj. S. VIII. 24.2073 He then sacrifices ( ten oblations) of the mess of cooked food to Agni, Soma, Varuṇa, Yajña, Ugra, Bhima, Satakratu ( Indra ), Vyuṣṭi ( prosperity ), Svarga ( Heaven) and lastly to Agni Svistakst ( with svāhā at the end of each as in “agnaye svāhā’). After partaking of the remains of the cooked food he should introduce aquatic animals (like fishes and tortoises in the pond &c. ) and having bathed and decked a cow he should make the cow enter the reservoir, repeat the Puruṣa sākta ( Rg. X. 90. 1-16 ) and donate that cow to the ācārya and should also make presents to him of two ear-rings, clothes and of another cow as fee and give a dinner to brāhmaṇas.” Aparārka (p. 413-414), the Nirnayasindhu and others add from the Bahvṛca gf. parisista that when the cow enters the water, he should repeat a mantra ‘may you make this water holy: may the water always be pure, holy and ambrosia-like; while saving me ( from sin) may you bathe in sacred water; she crosses from

region to region and also saves (me and others)’; and that the donor holds the end of the cow’s tail, enters the water and brings her out in the north-east corner (of the reservoir). This procedure

  1. अथातो वापीकूपतहागारामदेवतायतनानां प्रतिष्ठापनं व्याख्यास्यामस्तपोद गयन आपूर्यमाणपक्षे पुण्माहे विधिवारनक्षत्रकरणे च गुणान्विते तत्र पारुणं यधमयं च अपयित्वाश्यभागाविधाज्याहुतीर्जुहोति स्वं नो अग्रेस त्वं नो अग्ने म मे वरुण तस्या यामि ये ते शवमयाधाम गुत्तममुरं हि राजा वरुणस्पोत्तम्भनमग्नेरनीकमिति दश हुरवा स्थाली पाकस्य जुहोत्पमये स्वाहा शतक्रत स्वाहा युधयै स्वाहा स्वर्गाय स्वाहेति यथोक्त स्विट करमाशनान्ते जलचराणि विस्वालं कुत्य गां तारयित्वा पुरुषसूक्तं जपनाचार्याय पर वरचा कर्ण बेटको वासासि धेडक्षिणा ततो माह्मणभोजनम् । पार. पु. परिशिष्ट.

  2. The ten vorges are quoted in full in the Danakriyakaumudi Pp. 175-176,

892

(Ch. XXVI

does not apply to the consecration of a well. In that case a cow is only made to go round the well.

Gradually the procedure prescribed in the purānes came to have the upper hand so much so tbat Aparārka (p. 15 ) says that in pratisthā the procedure prescribed in the purāpas has to be followed and no other. 2074

Aparārka (pp. 409-414), Hemādri (Dāna pp. 997-1029), Danakriyakaumudi (pp. 160-181 ), Jalāsayotsarga-tattve of Raghunandana, the Pratiṣthāmayūkha and Utsargamayūkba of Nilakantha, Rājadharmakaustubha (pp. 171-223) and several other works give a very comprehensive procedure of the con Becration of wells, ponds and tanks, based upon the gļhya parisistas, the purāṇas such as the Matsya chap. 58, the Tantras, Pāñcarātra and other works. This procedure is passed over here. The idea 2075 was that unless the reservoir was consecrated in the way prescribed its water was not holy and when consecrated it became holy. Pratiṣthā generally means dedicating to the public with prescribed2078 rites. Utsarga means ‘divesting one self of ownership over a thing and dedicating it for the use of all.’ There were four principal stages in the procedure of pratiṣthā; first the saṅkalpa,2077 then the homa, then the utsarga (i. 8. declaration that the thing has been dedicated) and lastly the dakṣinā and feeding of brāhmaṇas. In Deosaran Bharthi v. Deoki Bharthi 3 Patna 842 it was said ( at p. 850 ) the essential ingredient that constitutes a gift whether of movable or of immovable property in the Hindu Law is the Saṅkalpa and the Samarpana whereby the property is completely given away and the owner completely divests himself of the ownership in the

  1. g magrera gainy taramua TOT HET dara m a धर्मप्रमाणत्वेन भविष्यपुराणे परिज्ञातस्यात् । अपरार्क p. 16.

  2. Hat Ta FT4F STAFFETTI Unidoria HEART तम् ॥ वापीकूपतडागादौ यज्जलं स्यावसंस्कृतम् । भपेयं तद्भवेत्सर्वं पीत्वा चान्द्रायण चरेत् । भविष्यपुराण quoted in निर्णयसिन्धु III. पूर्वार्ध p. 334.

  3. aasta affreustapaul rata t p. 166.

  4. The सङ्कल्प would be in the form अग्रेत्यादि अमुकगोत्रोऽनुकशाई चतुरर्णवान्तमहीवानफलसमफलदिपकामसमावितवरणलोकमासिकामो पारणविधिना जला शयोत्सर्गकर्म करिष्ये। दामक्रियाकोसदी P. 167%; the उत्सर्ग is made in some such words 88 T SÜETTE E S TATE auferet …… T HAT: Herr Tonga PAH UHF ** TERI Q79 p. 179; at the end of the rite the donor recited the verbe. FraT #Tarrat 1 p at w hatag a furattaat # ’ quoted in the PP. 179 and 216.

Ch. XXVI)

Pratiṣtha and Utsarga

899

property’. In the case of temples, the proper word to use is pratiṣtha and not utsarga.

There is a difference in the technical meaning of dāna and utsarga. In the former the donor gives up his ownership over a thing, makes another the owner of it and cannot thereafter use it nor has he any control over it. When a man makes an utsarga, he no doubt gives up his ownership, but be gives up the thing for the benefit of all (as in the formula above be uses the word sarvabhūtebhyah’) and so the opinion of most writers is that he can as a member of the public make use of the thing dedicated by him, though there were a few authors who recom mended that he should not do so.3077a

Reservoirs of water that are dug out by man are of four kinds, kūpa, vāpi, puskariṇi and tadāga.2078 Some of the works define kūpā as a well that is from five to fifty oubits in length ( if rectangular) or in diameter (if it is circular). It has generally no flight of steps to reach the water. Vāpi is a well with a flight of steps on all sides or on three or two sides or one side only and its mouth may be from 50 to 100 cubits; & puskariṇi is from 100 to 200 oubits in length or diameter and a tadāga (a tank) is from 200 to 800 oubits. The Matsyapurāṇa 154.512 states that a vāpi is equal to ten kūpas ( in merit) and & hrada (deep reservoir ) is equal to ten vāpss ; a son is equal to ten hradas and a tree is equal to ten sons. According to the Vasiṣtha-samhitā quoted by Raghunandana a puskariṇi is up to 400 oubits and a tada ga is five times as much. At certain auspicious times only the consecration of wells and tanks is to take place.8079

Trees have been highly prized in India at all times. They were useful in sacrifices for making the yūpa ( the post to

  1. 917

013 stalim fang: 149 ga: Fifth स्वात् । न चैकस्य एकक्रियायां दानकर्तृत्व संप्रदानत्वं च संभवति । अत एवं सत्रयागे पष्टणा मेव स्वेषामविकत्वेन नास्ति दक्षिणेल्याहुः । तस। त्यक्तजलस्यापि भवादिजलपदोपादा निकसरवापिरोधात् । भोजयित्वा द्विजान्सम्यक तोयमुस्सर्जयेत्ततः । सर्वभूतान् समुबिश्व इति पार्च समुश्चरेत् ॥ इति हयशी असङ्कचितसर्वपदपलात् स्वस्यापि त्यागोवेश्यषन्तर्भापाय। awarenesit p. 126 ; compare urmeter (Jiv. part II. p. 526).

  1. sy werT9: 1 FITOTETTARE: guarfiguren fronte TET: तपाच मत्स्यपुराणम् । …… कूपोऽद्वारको गर्तविशेषः पद्धसोपानकोयं पापीति देशनिर्णयः ।

meter of W. Vide also has it p. 126.

  1. Vide rararatat p. 132 and falfa ( e g. 1003) quoting fotografer

894

which the sacrificial animal was tied ), for idhma (samidhs which were thrown into fire), for the several ladles like sruva, juhū eto. The Tai. Br. I. 1. 3 speaks of seven holy trees. The Tai. S. III. 4. 8. 4 states that idhma ( samidhs ) should be of tbe nyagrodha, udumbara, aśyattha and plakṇa trees, as they are the abodes of Gandharvas and Apsarages.2080 Besides trees with their verdant foliage looked beautiful and tbe leaves of some of them ( such as the mango tree) are hung up even now in pandals and at entrances of houses as auspicious in marriage and other ceremonies. Hemādri cites a passage from the Brahmapurana that the twigs and leaves of the Asvattha (the pipal tree), udumbara, plakṣa, cūta (mango) and nya grodha are styled pañcabhanga 2081 and are auspicious in all rites. The palasa tree was held to be so sacred that one was not to make seats, sandals or tooth brush from it or its branches and twigs ( Baud. Dh. S. II. 3. 25). Trees gave shelter against heat and also yielded flowers and fruits (for worship of gods and pitts). When felled their wood was useful in building houses, for making implements of husbandry and for produoing heat and warmth. In his 7th Pillar Ediot (of Delhi-Topra ) Asoka mentions the construction of wells at a distance of 8 krosas and the planting of banyan trees and mango groves (C. I. I. vol. I pp. 134-135 ). The Mahābhāṣya (vol. I. p. 14 ) quotes a portion of an ancient verse which conveys that if & person waters and tends mango trees, his pitss feel extremely pleased.2048 Manu IV. 39 and Yaj. I. 133 require the anataka to circumambulate well-known trees (like asvattha ) if he meets them on tbe way. The Kadambari also refers to this practice of worsbipping trees, particularly by women desiring to have & son,8083 The Mahābhārata (Anuśāsanaparva 58. 23-32 ) highly eulogizes plant life and divides plants into six kinds viz. vīkṣa (tree), lata (creepers that oling to trees), valli (creepers that spread on the ground ), gulme (bushes ), tvaksāra

2080, cute stat : Taw waga pouakchat : #. #. III. 4. 8. 4.

  1. utgie** TEAT:1007 : 1968 CATQUTee p. 47.

  2. STEFT F T: Ta offerat: 11 HETTY vol. I. p. 14. The doyoral benefito mentioned above are narrated in Aqu&#88DA-parya 68. 28-30 aod Vippu Dh. 8. 91. 5-8.

  3. seviyataqraagar again giro per para 56.

Ob. XXVI)

Praliṣtha and Utsarga

895

(troes whose bark is strong, while the inside is hollow, like bamboos ) and grass and adds that he who plants trees is saved (in a future existence) by them just as sons do and that they should be tonded like sons.2086 The Viṣṇu Dh.8.91.4 says the same thing. Hemadri (Dāna pp. 1030-31) cites a long passage from the Padmapurāṇa how by planting different trees and plants like asvattha, agoka, tamarind, pomegranate and others a man secures such rewards ( respectively ) as wealth, removal of sorrow, long life, & wife, &c. Vṛddha-Gautama (Jiv., part 2. P. 625) identifies the Aśvattha tree with Sri Krsna. The Mahābhārata (Santi 69. 42) forbids even the felling of the leaves of trees like the agvattha that have a platform 2085 built for them ( caitya). Śāntiparva 184. 1-17 graphically describes how trees bave life since they feel pain and pleasure and grow though cut. The Bhaviṣyapurāṇa quoted in the Utsarga mayūkha (p. 16 ) states’ he who plants either one aśvattha or one picumarda or one nyagrodha or ten tamarind trees, or the three trees i. e. kapittha, bilva and āmalaka or plants five mango trees would not see hell ( i. e. would not be condemned to bell for his sins ). 8086 The Matsyapurāns (chap. 270. 28-29 ) requires that to the east of the maṇḍapa of a temple fruit-bear ing trees should be planted, to the south trees that contain milky sap, to the west a reservoir of water with lotuses therein should be constructed and to the north a flower garden and sarala and tāla trees. Vas. Dh. S. 19.11-12 prescribes that no one should injure (i. e, cut) trees that yield fruits and flowers except only for purpoges of oultivating the land 3087 ( and for sacrificial purposes, as laid down in Viṣpu Dh. S. 51, 63). The Viṣṇu Dh. S. V. 55. 59 prescribes that the king should award the highest fine, the middling fine, or a fine of 100 kārṣāpaṇas or of one kārṣāpaṇa respectively against those who wrongfully out a tree bearing fruit or a tree that bears flowers, or who out creepers and shrubs or grass.

Hemādri (Dana. pp. 1029-1055 ) deals at length with the planting of trees, the dedication of a garden and the merit

  1. 9747 THTRUERT TOT I ATHEN FETHT dan wat थिना सदा पुरषरपरिपाल्पाश्च पुत्रास्ते धर्मतः स्मृताः ॥ अनुशासन 68. 30-313; पक्षारोप fugter: gut una faguay 91. 4.

  2. erat ut tai5TATAY 7 69. 42.

  3. **YER again with a repartiet i UTTANTA ESTE IN TURUT HQ i atroTOTO in HT p. 16 and in triumf tery p. 183.

  4. group e fratelor conta urrari FX 19.11.13

896

(Ch. XXVI

acquired by making gifts of various trees. The procedure of dedicating a garden is prescribed in San. gr. V. 3, Asv. gf. parisista IV. 10, the Matsyapurāpa 59, Agnipurāṇa 70 and in many other works. It is modelled on the dedication of wells and tanks. The Matsyapurāṇa expressly states that the prooedure of the consecration of a tank is extended to the con secration of everything, such as a prāsāda ( a large house or ball for public use), a garden &o., the only difference being that the mantras are different.8088 The procedure in Sān. gr. 1088 (V.3) is: Having established the sacred fire in that garden and having cooked a mess of food, the donor should sacrifice with the words ( Viṣnave syāhā, Indrāgnibhyām svāhā, Viśva karmape svāha ) and with verses Rg. III. 8. 6 ff. ( yān vo daro ), verse by verse. Then be recites over the garden the verge Rg. III. 8. 11 ‘Vanaspate satavalko vi roha.’ The fee for the sacri. fioe is gold.

Devatā-pratiṣtha- Consecration of an image in a temple).

Though the dharmasūtras speak as shown above of images and temples, it strikes one as somewhat strange that none of the principal grbya and dharma-sūtras contains any procedure of consecrating an image in a temple, while in the purāṇas and some of the digests much space is devoted to the topic of devatā pratiṣtha. The Matsyapurāṇa in chap. 264 and the Agnipurāṇa in chap. 60 and 66 deal with devatā pratiṣthā in general. There are special chapters in the purāṇas on the consecration of the image of Vispu or of Śiva or the Linga. It would be impossible to deal in any detail with all this matter. The worsbip of god can be done in two ways, viz without any outward symbol and with a symbol. The first is achieved by a prayer and offering oblations into fire; the second by means of images, But even image worshippers are quite conscious that god is pure consciousness (cit), is one without a second, is without parts and without a physical body, and that the various images

  1. fua gerog samarrouqharig frete e gentofty ya पएपविधियः प्रविष्ठास तथैव च । मन्त्रतस्त विशेषा स्यात् प्रासावोगानभूमि ॥ मत्स्यपुराण 58.50-52. पादपाना विधि पश्ये धेषोधानभूमिषु । बागविधिवत्सर्वमासाप जगतापर।

TRY 59. 3.

  1. UTTASKETTATT Foresteren TT Rocuri frat साहा पिपकर्मणे स्वाहेति पायो नरपति प्रत्यूचे छायाइनस्पते शवपल्या इत्पभिमन्य fire afatet im. T. V. .

Ch. XXVI)

Prau

Pratiṣtha-consecrating an image

897

in which he is thought as in-dwelling are so imagined for the benefit of worshippers.2090

The worship of god through the medium of images is again two-fold, viz. done in one’s house and in a public temple. The latter is, socording to many works, the best and the completest, since it allows of the celebration of festivals and the performance of the varied items or modes of worship (upacāra). Private worship of idols in one’s house has already been dealt with above (pp. 726-736 ) under Devapūją. Now the worship of images in temples remains to be dealt with. The esta blishment of images in temples is again of two kinds viz. calarca ( where the image can be lifted up, moved to another place ) and sthirārcā ( where the image is fixed on a pedestal or is not meant to be lifted up or moved ). The consecration of these two differs in certain details.

Here numerous matters have to be considered. The principal matters to be attended to according to the Matsyapurāṇa (264-66) are: the auspicious time for the consecration of an image, the erection of a maṇdapa to the east or north of the temple, the erection of a vedi therein, erection of four toranas ( arched gates ) for the maṇdapa, placing two auspicious jars at each of four gates filled with scented water and herbs and covered with mango leaves and white cloth, raising of banners all round the maṇḍapa, worship of lokapālas (guardian deities of quarters ), ereoting another maṇḍapa for bathing the image in, bringing the image and honouring the artizans, drawing lines on the image or linga with a golden needle to represent the lustre of eyes, the selection of a qualified sthapaka or ācārya and of from eight to 32 other priests (called mūrtipa ); taking the image or linga to the maṇḍapa meant for bathing the image, bathing the image to the accompaniment of music with pañcagavya mixture, with mșttikā (loose earth ), with holy eshes and water ; rendering it pure by repeating four mantras (viz. samudrajyesthā”, apo divyāḥ, yāsam raja and apo hi ṣthā, which are respectively Rg. VII. 49. 1-3 and X. 9.1); offering worship after the bath to the image with sandalwood paste and covering it with a garment ( with the verse’ abhi vastra ‘Rg. IX. 97.50), placing the image in a standing position with the mantrauttiṣths’ (Rg. I. 40. 1); placing the image in & chariot with the verses

propt

  1. peragaaraitant fermenisrétor: I JUTATH TECHT quoted in the afastar of Qara (p. 50).

H. D. 113898

History of Dharmajāstra (Ch. XXVI

mūraja’ and ‘rathe tiṣthan’ (Rg. VI. 47. 31 and VI. 75. 6) and entering it in the maṇḍapa with the verse ‘& krṣpena’ (Rg. L 35. 2); placing the image on a bed on which kusa grass and flowers are strewn with the face of the image ) towards the east; placing & water jar (called nidrākalasa ) having gold in it and a piece of cloth at the mouth towards the head of the image with the mantras &po devir (Tai: 8. VII. 3. 13. 1) and * apo asmān’ (Rg. X. 17. 10); placing under the head of the image silken pillows, sprinkling honey and clarified butter, and worshipping with mustard with the verse ‘&pyāyasta” (Rg. I. 91. 16 or IX. 31. 4) and ‘ya te rudra’ (Tai. S. IV.5. 1. 1); offering worship with sandalwood paste and flowers and tying a band ( pratisara ) on the right hand ( of the image ) with

bārhaspatya’ wantra ; placing a parasol, chowrie, mirror, jewels, auspicious herbs, household utensils, fine vessels and seats by the side of the image with the verse abhi tva’ (Rg. VII. 3%, 2%); honouring the image with the presentation of Various foods and condiments with the verse ’tryambakam yajāmahe’ (Rg. VII. 59. 12); placing four priests and four door-keepers in the four directions viz. a priest knowing Rgveda in the east and so on and each of the four priests is to repeat from his own Veda soveral hymns and verses e. g. the Rgvedin priest should recite Srlgūkta (Rg. I. 165), Pavamāna hymn (from Rg. IX. 1), Santikadhyaya (Rg. X. 16 ), then a hymn to Indra, Then the acārya is to perform homa towards the head of the image with Santika mantras and offer into the fire 1000 samidhs (fuel sticks ) each of palasa, udumbara, asvattha, apāmārga and saml trees and then touch the feet of the god; preparing nine kupdas each one oubit square and offering into them one thousand samidhs each time on touching the navel, the chest and the bead of the image ; remembering the eight forms ( mūrti ) of god viz. the earth, fire, the sacrifice, the sun, the water, wind, moon and ākasa and offering home to these with vaidika mantras ; placing auspicious jars near each kunda; bathing the image at every watch and offering inoonge, food ( naivedya ), sandalwood paste ; offering bali to all beings, and dinner to brāhmaṇas and persons of other castes et one’s desire ; celebrating a festival at night with dances, song and musio; this may go on from one day to noven days (it is called adhivāgada); then the temple building is to be sprinkled over; finding out a place for the image either to the north or slightly to the north-east in the temple; a stone in the form of a tortoise is to be placed on the temple floor;

Ch. XXVI)

Pratisha-consecrating an image

899

preparing & piṇdika and bathing it with patoagavya with mantras; then raising the image with the mantra ‘uttiṣtha’ (Rg. I. 40.1), bringing it in the inmost chamber of the temple and placing it on the pitha (pedestal), offering it arghya water, padya water, madhuparka; then the nyāsa ( depositing) of eight kinds of jewels viz. diamond, pearl, lapis luzuli, conoh, crystal, pusparāga, indranila and nila in the eight directions from the east, also of eight kinds of grains viz. wheat, barley, sesame, mudga, nivara, śyāmāka, mustard and rice and also eight fragrant things such as white and red sandal-wood, agaru, uśira &o. Nyāsa of all these is to be made after repeating om and the paurāṇika mantras ( with ’namo namah’ at end) of the eight guardians (lokapalas) viz. Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirśti, Varuṇa, Vāyu, Soma, Iśāna and also of Brahma (9th ) and Ananta ( 10th); raising the image and fixing it in the scooped up portion of the pedestal with the mantra ‘dhruvā dyaur’ (Rg. X. 173. 4); placing one’s hand on the head of the image and contemplating on the well-known form of the deity that is established, whether Viṣṇu, Śiva, Brahmā, the Sun; repeating appropriate mantras (viz. those of Rudra, Viṣṇu, Brabmā, the Sun in the case of the respective gods whose image is establi shed); establishing deities near the principal image of the god’s dependants (such as Nandi in the case of Śiva); inyooe tion (āvāhana) of the principal deity with its attendants with paurānika mantras; bathing the image with ourds, milk, clarified butter, honey and sugar and then with water in which flowers and Boents are mixed up; repeating the following mantras again and again viz. ‘yaj-jāgrato dūram-upaiti’ (Vaj. 8. 94.1), ’tato virad ajāyata’ (Vaj. 8. 31.5), ‘sahasrastrga’ (Rg. X. 90.1), ‘yenedam bhūtam’ (Vaj. S. 34. 4), ’na tvāvim’( Rg. VII. 32. 23 ); touch ing four times with water the feet, the waist and head ( of the image); giving gifts of olothes, ornaments &o. to the doārya and to the poor, the blind and the distressed and to others that may be gathered to see; filling with sand any aperture in any direction in which the image appears to be unstable and performing propitiatory rites for the guardian of that quarter and making gifts suitable to each lokapala; celebrating & festival for three, five or seven days.

The general procedure of consecrating an image has been given above at some length from the Matsyapurāpa in order to convoy some idea how in the first centuries of the Christian ora the consecration of images was done. It will be noticed

900

(Ch. XXVI

Lin Devotha is cow that

that mostly vedio mantras were employed though a few pau rānika mantras also oocur. In medieval digests like the Deve pratiṣthatattva other elements were added from Tantra works. Special attention may be drawn to the fact that in the above procedure the word prāṇapratisthā does not oocur in the Matsya. Raghunandana (in Devapratiṣthatattva) quotes Devipurāṇa to the effect that prāṇapratisthā is done after touching the cheeks of the image with the right hand and that without this vivifica tion & mere image does not attain to the position of a deity worthy of worship. In the Devapratisthatattva, the Nirnaya sindhu, the Rājadharma-kaustubha and other works the prāṇa pratistha is based on the 23rd chapter (patala) of the Sarada tilaka ( verses 72-76). The mantra is given below. 1001

The Devapratisthataitva (p. 505) quotes the Hayasirsapaif. carātra to the effect that generally a brāhmaṇ& should officiate at the consecration of an image of Viṣṇu, but a ksatriya can officiate for a vaisya or a sūdra yajamāna and a vaisya may do for a sūdra yajamāna, but a sūdra cannot officiate,

__In the Matsyapurana, the Agnipurana, the Nrsimhapurana, the Nirnayasindhu and many other works there are descriptions of the consecration of the images of Vāsudeva, of a linga and other deities, which are all passed over here for want of space. In these works following Tantric practices three kinds of nyāsas viz. Mātrkānyāsa, Tattvanyāsa and Mantranyasa are referred to. The Mātýkānyāsa consists in repeating the letters of the alphabet from a ( including ‘am’ and ‘ah’) to 1 (in the form of akārāya

___2091. अस्य प्राणप्रतिष्ठामन्त्रस्य ब्रह्मविष्णुरुदा ऋषयः ऋग्यजुःसामानि छन्दांसि कियामयवपुः प्राणाख्या देवता । ओ बीजं को शक्तिः प्राणप्रतिष्ठायां विनियोगः । …… देवं स्पृष्ठा जपेत् । ओं माहीं को अंयरलं शं पंसं हंसः देवस्य प्राणाह प्राणाः ।

ओं यहींकों …… हंसः देवस्य जीव इह स्थितः । ओं नहीं …… हंसा देवस्य सर्वे न्द्रियाणि। ओं आंहीं … … हंसः देवस्य वाचनश्चक्षुःभोत्रजिजाम्राणप्राणा इहागस्य स्वस्तये सखेन सचिरं तिष्ठन्तु स्वाहेति । ततोऽहएष्ठं दत्त्वा जपेत् । अस्यै प्राणाः प्रतिष्ठन्तु अस्पै प्राणा: क्षरन्तु च । अस्यै देवत्वमर्चाये मामहति र कचनेति । निर्णयसिन्धु III पूर्वार्ध P. 349. There are alight variations in other works. The verses of the शारदाखिलक are पाशाशपुटा शक्तिर्माली पिनुविभूषिता । पाया सप्त सकारान्ता व्योम सन्दुसंयुतम् ॥ वदन्ते इसमन्त्रः स्यादन्तेऽनुष्यपदं पदेत् । माणा इति पदेपश्चावित प्राणा स्तता परम् ।। अनुष्य जीव इह स्थितस्ततोऽमुण्यपदं वदेत् । सर्षेन्द्रियाण्यहण्यान्ते वायाध भुरन्ततः श्रोत्रमाणपदे प्राणा महागस्य सुखं चिरम् । तिष्ठन्स्वनिवपरन्ते प्राणमन्त्रोयमी. रितः॥ प्रत्पमुख्यपदं पूर्व पाशादीनि प्रयोजयेत् । प्रयोगेषु समाख्यातः प्राणमन्त्री ममीषिभिः। शारदातिलक 23.72-76. The देवप्रतिष्ठातत्त्व p. 506 quotes these and the explana tions of राघवभड the com. of the शारदातिलक and reads the मन्त्र ओहीं क्रों पर संहो हंसः असण्य &0.

Ch. XXVI)

Pratistha and Utsarga

901

pamaḥ svāba ) and offering an oblation in fire. The Tattva nyāsa consists in repeating’ Atmatattvāya namaḥ, svābā’ and the same formula as to Ātmattvādhipati, Kriyāśakti, Śivatattva ( or Viṣṇutattva), Śivatattvādhipati, Icchāśakti, Vidyātattva, Vidyatattvādhipati, Adhāraśakti. The Mantranyāsa is as follows: taking a mantra of certain letters for a god ( e. 8. one of 12 letters as in’om namo bhagavate Vasudevāya ‘) one has to repeat each letter in the formula om omkārāya namaḥ svāhā’.

The Dharmasindhu III (pārvārdha ) sets forth & brief procedure of the consecration of images in which only one priest is required ( vide pp. 333-34). In modern times also the prooedure of devatāpratiṣthā contains numerous elements and is extremely long.

The Vaikhānasa Smartasūtra (IV, 10-11 ) contains perhaps the earliest extant detailed description of the consecration of the image of Viṣṇu. But it appears to have been mainly concerned with an image installed in private houses or with the worship of an image by one individual. It is briefly as follows: 2012 After the daily homa comes the daily worship of Viṣṇu, which (worship ) comprehends in itself the worship of all gods. A brābmaṇa passage ( Ait. Br. I. 1) says ‘Agni is indeed the nethermost ( or the lowest) among gods and Viṣṇu the highest; between these two stand all the other deities’. Therefore hav. ing established in one’s house the bighest god Viṣṇu the house holder worships him at the end of the evening and morning homa. He should make an image of Viṣṇu in length not more than six fingers; he should perform its consecration in the bright half (of & month ) on an auspicious nakṣatra. Three days before he should prepare the space ( kuṇda ) of the gshya fire and perform the several rites of prokṣaṇa, drawing lines as described ( in Vaik. I. 9). Then he is to perform homa up to āgbāras ( as described above pp. 210–11). Then he performs the sacrifices to the limbs in the words ’to the teeth, svābā; to the jaws, svāha’, and other oblations with the six mantras beginning with ato devā’ (Rg. I. 22. 16-21). Then he performs while repeating audibly the hymn to Puruṣa ( Rg. X. 90. 1-16) the opening of the eyes (of the god Viṣṇu ) with a golden needle. Having spread in a river or a pond or in a vessel filled with water oloth and kusa grass with the mantras beginning * ye te satam’(mentioned in Vaik. III. 17 ) he lays down (the

  1. Vide Appendix for the text.

90%

(Ch. XXVI

image of) the god on these with the head turned to the east and leaves the image there. On the second day after he bathes, he offers at night the Aghara in the usual way; he briage eight jars, fills them successively with panoagavya, ghee, ourds, milk, water mixed with whole rios, water with fruits, water with kusa grass, water with jewels ( pearls &c.); worships the god, bathes the image with the (contents of) the (eight) jars successively with the following mantras :‘vasoh pavitram’ (Vaj. S. I. 31 ).‘agna dyabr’, ‘iṣe tvõrje tvā,’ sam no devir," 8018 ‘catvāri sṭnga’ (Rg. IV. 58. 3), “somo dhenum’ (Rg. I. 91.26 ), ‘catvāri vāk (Rg. I. 164. 45 ), ‘idam vispur’ (Rg. I. 22. 17 ); he further bathes the image with perfumed waters to the accompaniment of the mantras āpo’ (Rg. X. 9.1), ‘biraṇya Varnah’(Tai. S. V. 6. 1.1) and the pavamana section. He then makes to the north of the fire & vedi ( altar ) with rice, places a seat on it, spreads cloth on it, places the god thereon and having decked (the image ) with clothes &o. worships the image. He has the benediction pronounced (by the brāhmaṇas), he touches the pratisara (a band or ribbon) with the svasti hymn2084 and ties it (on the right hand of the image ) with the mantra ‘svastidā visaspatir’ (Rg. X. 152, 2). He then lays the god down as before. After filling with purified clear water a jar that is not dark-coloured, he places it by the (right) side of the image, touches it with the syllable ‘om’ and throws into it a bunob of kuśa grass, whole rice, a piece of gold and a jewel (pearl ). Having meditated on the god who is really without parts as residing in his own heart and also in the clear water, 88 golden in splendour, as having red face, eyes, hands and fest, as wearing the srivatsa mark and a yellow garment, as having ( in his hands ) the conch and the diso, as of benign countenance and as possessed of all parts (i. e, complete ) he should bow before him. Having sprinkled water round the fire and having lauded the work of the hots, he invokes the god by name in the southern prapidhi vessel in the words ’ om bhūb purugam ‘(āvābagami) and performs invouations in the same way with vyāhrtis separately and together and of Nāriyaṇa,

  1. Ipe tvorje tvx, agaa Tythi, kam ao devir-are the begionings of the throa Vodas, Yajurvoda (Bukla and Krona), Simaveda and Atharvavada. In the Sannaklya recension of the Atharvavoda tho first vorso is ‘Yo tripa ptāh’ and ‘dam no devir’ is Atharva I. 6. 1.

  2. The Fife is furer oft fortiore &o Rg. V. 61. 11-16, in cuch vorso of which the first word is wasti.

Oh. XXVI)

Pratiṣtha and Utsarga

903

Viṣṇu, Puruṣa, Satya, Aoyuta, Aniruddha, Sri, Mabi. Having poured out the rice ( for the sacrificial offering ) he sacrifices four times with ghee and with a hymn to Viṣṇu, with the Puruṣagūkta (Rg. X. 90), with the mantras beginning with *ato devāḥ ‘( Rg. I. 22. 16-21 ) and with the mantra ‘medini devi’; he should then offer the mess of boiled rice sprinkled over with clarified butter after invoking the god’s names (Kesava and 11 others mentioned in Vaik. III. 13). On the following morning he bathes, placing the god in the standing position after uttering ‘om’; carries the image with the jar while muttering the sakuna hymn (Rg. II. 42. 1-3 and IT. 43. 1-3) in the north Western direction into his house or in & temple or in the agnihotra-shed; placing down on the pedestal meant for the image jewels and gold he instals the image of Viṣṇu saying ‘I install Vispu’ wbile repeating a hymn to Viṣṇu and the hymn to Puruṣa (Rg. X. 90). He makes a nyasa on the head, on the navel, on the feet and the chest of the image of the syllables syaḥ, bhuvaḥ and bhūh and om ; fixing his mind on the god with the mantra ’ idam Viṣṇur’(Rg. I. 22. 17 ) and taking with a bunch of kusa grass the clear water that has been already poured in the jar and that has already the sakti (power personi. fied) in it, he makes ( the water) flow on the head of the image and performs the invocation with the words ‘I invoke Vippu’. Having propitiated by worship as laid down in the sāstric rules he presents the sacrificial food ( to the image ).

In Vaik. IV, 12 the daily worship of Viṣpu is set out.

The practice of attaching dancing girls to temples is of respectable antiquity. The origin of this practice appears to be analogous to the institution of Vestal Virgins in Rome. The Rajatarangipi (IV. 269) speaks of two dancing girls attached to a temple (detagshāsrite nartakyau) who danced and sang at a place as it was the custom of their family, though the temple itself was buried underground. In the Vaghli (Khandesh District) stone Inscription dated sake 991 ( 1069-70 A. D.) there is & grant of Govindaraja making provision for dancing and singing by damsels3045 ( vilāsini). In the Inscription of the Cahamāng king Jojaladeva dated sarvat 1147 ( 1090-91 A. D.) the courtezans of all temples are said to have been ordered to oome in their best dress and celebrate a festival with musio (E. I. vol. XI. 26 and 27 ) and the king records an imprecation

  1. qram

ter rart free

(E. I. vol. II p. 287).

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( Oh. XXVI

against all who might stop that practice. The Içtagi ( 20 miles east of Gadag) inscription dated 1112 A. D. records ( E. I. vol. XIII. p. 58 ) that a brāhmaps named Mahadeva donated houses for the retinue of dancing girls and other attendants of the gods at Ittagi. This practice of devadāsis (minor girls dedicated to the service of temples ) or, bhavns ( which term is known in the southern parts of the Ratnagiri district) was held by the modern Indian Courts to be immoral and whoever disposes of any person under the age of 18 years (or obtains possession of any person ) with intent that such person shall at any age be employed or used for the purpose of prostitution or illicit intercourse with any person or with knowledge that the person is likely to be employed or used for any such purpose at any age is liable to be prosecuted under Seo. 372 and 373 of the Indian Penal Code (as amended by Act 18 of 1924 ),2086 In Bombay there is the Bombay Devadasis Protection Act (Bombay Act X. of 1934) which deolares the performance of ceremonies for dedicating an unmarried woman to an idol or temple illegal and renders the dedicator or abettor thereof liable to punishment ( one year’s imprisonment or fine or both ).

Punah-pratiṣtha:- Re-consecration of images in temples ). The Brahmapurāṇa quoted by the Depapratiṣthātattve and the Nirnayasindhu says when an image is broken into two or is reduced to particles, is burnt, is removed from its pedestal, is insulted, has ceased to he worshipped, is touched by beasts like donkeys or falls on impure ground or is worsbipped with mantras of other deities or is rendered impure by the touch of outcasts and the like in these ten contingencies, god ceases to indwell therein.’ When an image is polluted by (contact with ) the blood of a brāhmapa or by the touch of a corpse or the touch of 8 patita it should be re-consecrated. If an image is broken in parts or reduced to particles it should be removed according to sāstric rules and another should be installed in its place. When

  1. Vide Queen Empress ✓ Tippa, 16 Bom. 737; Reg. y. Jaili Bhavin 6 Bom. H. C. R. 60 (Crown Cases ) for convictions for dedica tion of minor girls to temple-service and marrying them to an idol ; also 1 Mad, 164, 15 Mad. 41 and 75. The Marathi word bhavin’ is derived from bhavini (a woman having bhava) and bhtva in the language of Sanskrit rhetoric means ’love of god’ (ratis-davædi-visay& … … bhava iti proktab Kavya praktda IV. 35). Vide Eatboven’s Tri. bes and castos of Bombay’ vol. I. pp. 146-147 for information about

Bhaving.

Ch. XXVI)

Punan-pratiṣtha

905

an image is broken or stolen a fast should be observed. If images of metal such as of copper are touched by thieves or okndalas they should be purified in the same way in which polluted vessels of those metals are purified and then they should be re-consecrated. If an image properly consecrated has had no worship performed without pre-meditation (i.e. owing to forgetful ness or negleot) for one night or a month or two months or the image is touched by a sūdra or a woman in her monthly illness, then the image should have water adhivāsa (placing in water ) performed on it and it should be bathed with water from a jar, then with pancagavya, then it should be bathed with pure water from jars to the accompaniment of the hymn to Purusa ( Rg. X. 90 ) repeated 8000 times, 800 times or 28 times, worship should be offered with sandal-wood paste and flowers, naivedya (food) of rice cooked with jaggery should be offered. This is the way in which the re-consecration is effected.

Jirnoddhāra (rehabilitating old or dilapidated temples &o.). This subject is closely connected with the preceding topic and is dealt with in the Agnipurāṇa, chap. 67 and 103 ( about lingas); the Nirnayasindhu ( III. pūrvārdha p. 353 ), the Dharmasindhu (III. pārvārdha p. 335 ) give an extensive procedure following the Agnipurāṇa. This is done when the image in a temple or a linga is burnt, or reduced to particles or is removed to another place. The Agnipurāṇa (103. 4) says that if an image or linga is carried off by the strong current of a river, it may be re-consecrated elsewhere according to the rites prescribed in the gāstra. According to the Agnipurāṇa 2017 ( 103. 21 ) a linga that is reputed to have been established by the asuras (like Ban.. sura ) or famous sages or by gods or by those who were expert in Tantra should not be removed to another place, whether it be worn out or broken, even after the performance of prescribed rites. The Agnipurāṇa presoribes (chap. 67. 3-6) that an image of wood when extremely worn out may be burnt, one of stone may be thrown into water, one made of metal or of a jewel ( pearl &o.) should be thrown into very deep water or the sea after carrying it covered with oloth in a cart to the accompani ment of musio and on the same day another of the same dimen. sions and substance should be installed after the purification of the image is effected. When the daily worship of an image

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atur A OTT I spenterramen ti afere Treyta # m g tror 103, 4 and 21.

  1. D. 114

906

(Ch. XXVI

had been stopped of set purpose or when it is touched by gūdras and the like, purification can be effected only by re-conseora tion. Re-consecration can be done even in intercalary months or when Venus is too near the sun to be visible. When a temple or a well or a tank is breached or when & garden embankment or a public ball is injured, one should offer four oblations of clarified butter with the four verses ‘idam Viṇpur’ (Rg. I. 22.17), ‘ma nastoke’ (Rg. I. 114.8), ’ Viṣṇoḥ karmāṇi’ (Rg. I. 22. 19), pādosya’( Rg. X. 90.3), and then a dinner may be given to brāhmaṇas.

The procedure of jirnoddhāra is given at length in the Nirnayasindhu, the Dharmasindhu and other works. Vṭddbe Hārsta IX. 409-415 also deals with re-consecration. Saṅkhe Likhita quoted in the Vivāda-ratnākara and other works bay that, when an image, & garden, a well, a bridge (over & moat or river), a flagstaff, a dam, a reservoir of water are breached, they should be repaired ( or raised ), re-conseorated and the person guilty of breach should be fined 800 panas.2008 When worship was stopped, some authors presoribed re-consecration, while others prescribed only prokṣaṇa as laid down in the Devapratisthā tattva ( p. 512) or Dharmasindhu ( III pārvārdha p. 334 ).

The Kirādu (Jodhpur ) Inscription of the time of king Bhimadeva of Anahillapātaka records that in place of an image broken by Turuṣkas (Moslems ) a new one was installed in samvat 1235 ( 1178-79 A. D.) by the wife of Tejaḥpala, a sub ordinate officer of the feudatory Cāhamāna Mahārājaputra Madanabrahma ( vide E. I. vol. XX, Appendix p. 56 No. 381 ).

Mathapratisthā (the founding of a monastery or a college for teachers and pupils.)

The founding of mathas appears to bave been not very anoient. The Baud. Dh, S. (III. 1. 16) in speaking of a householder who is an agnihotrin remarks after departing from his house he (the householder) stops at the extremity of the village, builds there a hut (kuṭi), or a cottage ball (matha ) and enters it’. Here maths does not appear to have any technioal senge. In the lexicon of Amara a matha is defined as’a place where pupils (and their teacher) reside’. A temple

  1. TATTO

TIC it.. p. 364. The farofafarry explains HEAT Pret WET susidorotor : 1 (III, we p. 362.)

wakatsasta

HFTTT: GH:

Ch. XXVI)

Temples and Mathas

907

and a matha were both established from the same religious motive or sentiment, but they served different purposes. A temple was built principally for the purpose of prayer and worship. It also often provided for religious instruction, for the recitation of the Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyana and the purāṇas, for kirtans to the accompaniment of music. But these latter were only secondary purposes. In the cage of the mathas they were primarily intended for the instruction of pupils or the laity by some great teacher in the tenets of & sect or in the doctrines of some philosophy or in some branch of learning such as grammar, mlmāmgā, astronomy and the like. In many casos shrines or temples are associated with or affiliated to the mathas, but the worship of a particular deity is not the primary

object of mathas. Mathas among the followers of the Vedic religion probably owed their origin to the example of Buddhist monasteries ( vihāras ) 3098 The foundation of mathas received & great fillip after the times of the celebrated Advaita teacher, the great Saṅkarācārya, whom tradition credits with having established for the propagation of his system of Vedānta four mathas at Sṭngeri, Puri (Govardhanamatha), Dvārakā (sāradā. matha ) and Badari (Jyotirmatha ). Vide E. C. vol. VI Sg. No. 11 (an inscription dated 1652 A. D.) where reference is made to a grant in Sṭögapura, the dharmapitha established by Saṅkarācārya, to the famous matha at Spāgers for the worship of Mallikārjuna, Vidyā-sankara-gyāmi and Saradāmbā. Other āoāryas like Rāmānuja and Madhva established their own mathas and the number of mathas is now legion. Originally & matha started by a sannyāsin like the great Saṅkarācārya must have had no property, as ascetics were prohibited by the sāstras from possessing property, except such articles of personal use as clothes, sandals, religious books on paim leaf or paper &c. Besides sannyāsins were required not to stay long in one place. So people built shelters for them, in order to scoommodate them when they visited their town or village and these were probably originally called matha, which in its narrow senge means a place where an ascetio resides. In its wider sense it means an institution where a teacher presides and instructs several disciples in religious and ana logous tenets, practices and dogmas. But gradually the zeal and devotion of the disciples and followers of the great

  1. Vide Cullavagga VI.2 and 15 ( S. B. E. vol. XX. pp. 160-169 and p. 209) for viharas and their condition.908

History of Dharmasastra (Ch. XXVI

teachers endowed the mathas with considerable moveable and immoveable properties. The origin of mathas (spoken of as mattams in South India ) has been lucidly set forth as follows in Sammantha Pandara v. Sellappa Chetti 2 Mad. 175 at p. 179’s preceptor of religious doctrine gathers around him a number of disciples whom he initiates into the parti cular mysteries of the order and instructs in its religious tenets. Such of these disciples as intend to become religious teachers renounce their connection with their family and all olaims to the family wealth and as it were affiliate themselves to the spiritual teacher whose school they have entered. Pious persons endow the schools with property which is vested in the preceptor for the time being and a home for the school is created and & mattam constituted. The property of the mattam does not descend to the disciples or elders in common; the preceptor, the head of the institution, selects from among the afiliated disciples him whom he deems the most competent and in his own life-time instals the disciple so settled as his successor, not unoommonly with some ceremonies. After the death of the preceptor the disciple so chosen is ins talled in the gaddi and takes by succession the property which has been held by his predecessor. The property is in fact attached to the office and passes by inheritance to no one who does not fill that office. It is in & certain sense trust property ; it is devoted to the maintenance of the establishment, but the superior has a large domain over it, and is not accountable for its management nor for the expenditure of the income, provided he does not apply it to any purpose other than what may fairly be regarded as in furtherance of the object of the institution. Aoting for the whole institution he may contract debts for purposes connected with his mattam and debts 80 contracted might be recovered from the mattam property and would devolve as a liability on his successor to the extent of the assets received by him’. Vide also Giyana Sambandha Pandar Sannadhi v. Kandasami Tambiran 10 Mad.375, pp.384-389; Vidyapurna Tirtha Swami v. Vidyanidhi Tirtha Swami 27 Mad. 435 at pp. 438-439, 451, 453-55, Kailasam Pillai v. Nataraja, 33 Mad. 265 ( F. B.) at pp. 267, 273-277 for further remarks on the origin, growth and objects of mathas.‘100

  1. Vide Rajatarangini VI. 87-88 whore the king is said to have donated to the head of a matha (mathadhipati) where pupils woro taught almost all his wealth.

Ch. XXVI)

Temples and Mathas

909

The head of a matha is called svami, mathapati or matha dhipati or mahanta (usually written as mohunt in the Law Reports ). The head of the mathe is usually appointed accord ing to the custom and practice of each matba, generally in one of three ways, viz. (1) the head for the time selects from among his disciples a fit one to succeed him, (2) the disciples elect one from among themselves to succeed on the demise of the head, (3) the ruling power or the original founder or his heirs appoint the head when there is a vacanoy.

Tbat temples and mathas have throughout the centuries been supplementary to each other, both ministering to the reli gious and spiritual wants of the people can be shown by a few examples. It has been seen how Bāna ( in the seventh century) refers to the recitation of the Mahābhārata in the temple of Mabākāla at Ujjayini, The Rājatarangiṇi ( V. 29 ) states how king Avantivarman of Kashmir appointed one Rāmata Upā. dhyāya to the post of expounder (vyākhyātrpadaka) of grammar in a temple ( about 900 A. D.). The Agnipurāṇatol enjoins that in a temple of Śiva or Viṣṇu or the Sun if any one reads a book he may thereby acquire ( the merit of) the imparting of all knowledge. Some mathas on the other hand provided for Instruotion not only in spiritual knowledge but also in secular knowledge. In the Patna Inscription of the time of the Yadava king Singhana, we read that Cangadeva, the court astronomer and astrologer, established in sake 1128 ( 1207 A, D.) & matha for the study of the Siddhanta-śiromani (an astronomical work) of Bhaskarācārya, the grandfather of Cangadeva (E. I. vol. I. p. 338 ), the matha being endowed with lands and other sources of income by two feudatories of Singhaṇa. Vide also E. O. vol. VI. Sg. No. 11 referred to above (p. 907) where in endowing the matha at Sṭngeri provision was made for the worship of Mallikārjuna and Sāradāmbā.

A passage quoted in the Dānacandrikā from the Skanda. purapa states that & mathe should be provided with cots and beats, should be tbatohed with grass and provided with platforms and should be donated to brāhmaṇas or ascetics at some auspi cious time ; by so doing a man secures all his desires and if he has no worldly desires he secures release (from samsāra ).3103

  1. ferarea Parte que va ferata: # FOREST ***PETTO 211. 57.

  2. BUT HE Hupater Targeta i gofreutfit d

a t भितम् । पुण्यकाले विजेम्योपा पतिग्यो वा निवेदयेत् ॥ सर्वान् कामामयामोति निस्कामो

ATWATCHSTIC # Troy quoted in I T p. 162.

910

(Ch. XXVI

The word maṭba was sometimes used in the sense of a dharmaśāla, & place provided for the temporary residence of travellers from distant parts. For example, the Rajatarangiṇi VI. 300 states that queen Didda constructed ( about 972 A, D.) a matha for the residence of the people from Madhyadesa, Lāta and Saurastra.

Throughout India for many centuries there have been well. endowed temples and mathas. But how the rulers or the ancient and medieval courts of justice regulated the administration of these institutions or their funds or how they prevented or stop ped maladministration or misappropriation is not dealt with exhaustively anywhere.

In Girijanund Datta Jha v. Sailajanund Datta Jha 23 Cal. 645 it is observed as follows ( at p. 653 ) notwithstanding the existence of numerous richly endowed Hindu shrines all over India from the earliest times, the Hindu Law strictly so called is, as Sir T. Strange complains (see his Hindu Law, Ed. of 1839, vol. 1, p. 32) meagre in its provisions relating to religious endowments, a fact which may perhaps be accounted for on the supposition that the high reputation for piety and purity of character justly enjoyed for the most part by the priestly classes of ancient India who had the management of the shrines was deemed a sufficient safeguard against breach of duty, go as to render detailed rules of law to regulate their conduct unneces sary’. In the following some of the meagre material that oan be gathered from Dharmasastra works and analogous writings is set out. Manu (XI. 26 ) first appeals to the religious senti. ments of people by declaring that the wicked man who from

greed seizes the property of gods or of brahmanas feeds in another world on the leavings of the food of vultures. Sabara remarks (on Jaimini'18 IX. 1.9) that when it is said that a village or field belongs to a god, that is not a literal expression but used only in a secondary sense. That is said to be owned by a person which one can use as one likes; a field or a village can not be used by a deity; but the attendants on the god ( or temple ) are maintained out of what is donated to a temple or god. From this it follows that all those rules that apply to a gift to a human being do not apply to a property dedicated to an

  1. देवमामो देवक्षेत्रमिति उपचारमात्रम् । यो यवभिप्रेत पिनियोक्तमहति वचस्प सम्भ ब ग्राम क्षेत्र वा यथाभिमायं विनियुको देवता । …… देषपरिचारका तु at foretat quaefumu mi on . IX. 1. 9.

Ch. XXVI)

Administration of temple property

911

idol. Medhātithi ** (on Manu XI. 26 and II. 189) points out that images cannot be said to be owners in the literal sense, but only in a secondary or ideal sense, since the idol in a shrine cannot use the property at its will nor can it safeguard it and ownership consists in being able to use the thing owned as one desires and in being able to preserve it. In modern times courts in India have laid down that an idol is a juridical person capable of holding property, though from the vary nature of the case the possession and management of the property rests with a manager or a trustee. A matha is in the same position as an idol. The rights of the idol or of the maths can be safeguarded and vindicated in a court of law only by the manager or trustee of the temple or by the head (called mohunt) of the matha,2106 Vide Bhupati Nath v. Ram Lal 37 Cal. 128 (F. B.) at pp. 145-153 where Mr. Justice Mukerji examines at length passages of Sabara, Medbātithi, the Dayabhāga and its commentators to explain what is meant by a gift to an idol according to the notions of the Hindu writers. Manu and other smrtikāras lay down that it is part of the king’s duty to prosecute and fine persons interfering with or destroying the property of temples. Yāj. II. 228 prescribes a fine of 40, 80 or 160 panas respectively for cutting off the twigs, principal branches of trees or the entire trees themselves that grow on built up platforms or in cemeteries or on boundaries or in boly places or near temples. Yaj. (II. 240 and 295 ) prescribes the highest ammercement for fabricating & false ediot or for tampering with royal edicts by inserting more or less than what is inten ded to be granted by the king. The Mit. on Yaj. II. 186 says that the king should sedulously safeguard all rules made about the pastures for cows ( in a village ) or about the preser vation of tanks and temples. Manu IX, 280 requires the king to pronounce the death sentence on those who break into a royal storehouse or an armoury or a temple and prescribes that the breaker of an image shall repair the whole damage and also pay a fine of five hundred paṇas. Kaut. III. 9 prescribes punishment

  1. are rart Ferreira varuraator garoth : 1 AUT. on RX II. 189; right into UE ET TOFT FEITA संपन्धस्प देवानामसम्भवात् । महि देवता इच्छया धर्म नियुचते।मपपरिपालनण्यापारस्तासा

F oto argagui AUTO OD ## XI. 26.

  1. Vide Prosunno Kumari v Golab Chand L. R. 2. I. A. 145 at p. 162; Pramatha Nath → Pradyumna L. R. 52 I. A, 245, 261-62.

912

(Ch. XXVI

for encroachment on temples. From the Kautillya 1106 we know that kings appointed an officer called ‘devatādhyakṣa’ (Superintendent of temples ) and that when the king’s treasury became empty it was part of the duty of that officer to bring together all the wealth of the temples in the forts and other parts of the country and the king could in an emergency use that wealth (and probably used to return it later when financial stringenoy ceased). Among matters called prakirṇaka (mis cellaneous) of which the king was to take cognisance suo motu without anybody’s complaint, Nārada inoludes (in verse 3) * abstraction of gifts’ and ‘gifts of villages and towns to brāhmaṇas’ (verse 2). According to the Sm. O. among the topics oalled chalas 1107 were two viz. the destruction of & reservoir of drinking water and of a temple. Katyāyang states that mere wrongful possession for any length of time of women, of state property and of temple property would not confer ownership on anybody. These texts indioated that the Government of the day protected temple properties, tanks, wells and the like that were dedicated to the public and exeroised powers of superin tendence and correction in matters affecting them. Yāj. IL 191 says that those who look after the business of guilds etc. in which many are interested should be students of the Veda, men of rectitude and free from greed. They are styled kārya. cintaka by him. Bphaspati #108 quoted by Aparārka says (p. 796 ) that these kārgacintakas (committee ) should oonsist of two, three or five persons and that if there be disagreement between the larger bodies and the committee the king should decide that dispute and should bring round to the proper path whoever might be in the wrong. It appears that from very ancient times (3rd or 2nd century B. O.) the committee in charge of religious foundations was called goṣthi and the

  1. Fyfarerot get Frequa: i petarit areagot: 1 eta adiante R ENHETTUPANTHETsa-gorreta-feira TRYTAT: entrera III, 9; Tam goregant TURRIA enti suici gua retailery V.2.

  2. Oona Terutan garat PERTUT I FRAMTa paurrare कैविना । पधिभत्री कराक्षेपी माकारोपरिलडकः । निपानस्य विनाशी च तथा चायतनस्य en un foarne quoted in the fraer. (179. p. 27).

  3. To: quan eral #FETECTAT I separate rarit atat TAO Torren erat quoted by secret p. 796 ; T : AT Frerat afaret -

पदि। तदा विचारपेद्राजा स्वमार्गे स्थापतान् । अपराक p. 794.

Ch. XXVI)

Administration of temples

913

members goṣthika “109. In some inscriptions the superintendent of a temple is called sthānapati (vide Śrfrangam plates of Deva rāya II dated sake 1356 in E. I. vol. 18, p. 138). In the Sirpur Stone Inscription of Mahāśivagupta (about 8th or 9th century A. D.) of Mahākosala provision is made for a portion of the property granted being heritable by the song and grandsons of the donees only if they were worthy, kept up agnihotra. studied the six angas and had clean mouths and did not engage in service and further that if the heir did not possess these qualities or died without leaving & son &c., then another person, a relative with the requisite qualifications, could be made the recipient of that share, and he was to be elderly and learned and was to be chosen by mutual agree ment and the king’s express order was not to be necessary for his selection. 3110 Paithinasi quoted by Aparārka p. 746 ordains that the king should not deprive temples and corpo rations of their properties. A record from Malabar of the 11th century A. D, gives the details of temple administration in Kerala, that was in the hands of Yogam ( corporation ) wielding independent power (E. I. vol. 18 p. 340 ). The Peshwa’s Government at Poona often interfered when disputes aroge about properties dedicated to shrines and tombs of saints between the managers of the temples or among the heirs of the saint to whom lands had been originally donated. For example, the Peshwa made an award in 1744 A. D. about the principal religious and charitable institution in the Deccan, viz. the Obinch vad Samsthan, whereby ho set apart one half of all pro perties bestowed on the shrine at that place for purely religious and obaritable purposes and distributed the other half between the manager and his kinsmen who were all descendants of the original founder, Shri Moraya Gosavi ( vide Chintaman v. Dhondo

  1. Vide E. I. vol. II. p. 87 (votivo inscription from Sanchi) at p. 92 where mention is made of Bodha-gothi (Bauddba goethi); E. I. vol. I, p. 184 at p. 188 (for gopthika ), E. I. VIII p. 219 ( Abu inscription No. 2 datod 1230 A. D.) whioh gives the names of the committoo of managemont who and whose descendants were to manage the founda. tion (अनच धर्मस्थाने तथापकगोष्ठिकानां नामानि यथा।… …… एतदीयसन्तानपर

परया च एतस्मिन् धर्मस्थाने सकलमपि सपनपूजासारादिक सदेव करणीयं निहिणीपंच).

  1. Vido preregulated fatto uffit:i ar TATUT E T रसेवक । यस्तु विधी भावी पश्चायो विपल्यते । वपोरंशे प्रवेश्योन्यः पूर्वोकणपान द्विजः स पामेष संपन्धी सविधये पयोधिक पभिरेषच सांमत्यात प्रवेश्यो म सपा

WAT E. I. vol. XI. p. 190 vorso: 30-32.

H. D. 115

914

I Ch. XXVI

15 Bom, 612 at p. 615). A similar award was made by the Peṣbwa in 1777-78 A. D. about the Brahmanal Samsthan in the Satara District ( vide Annaji v. Narayana 21 Bom. 536 ). This privilege of ancient rulers to redress grievances and correct abuses in the management of religious and charitable endow ments devolved upon the British Government as laid down by the Privy Council in Rajah Muthu Ramlinga v. Perianayagum Pillai, L.R 1 I. A. 209 et p. 232 ‘It is evident…that the British Government, by virtue of its sovereign power, asserted as the former rulers of the country had done, the right to visit endow ments of this kind and to prevent and redress abuses in their management’. The Indian Central and Provincial Legislatures huve placed on the Statute book many Acts regulating religious and charitable endowments. A list of the most important of these enactments is given below.*111

Property dedicated to a god is called ‘devottara’ (the word being written as debutter in the Law Reports, particularly from Bengal). Vide Sham Charan Nandi v. Abhiram Goswami, 33 Cal.511 at p. 523. A good deal of litigation comes up to the courts about the rights and liabilities of the trustees and the sevakas (called Shebart in Bengal), about their mismanagement of the temple properties and their removal and so forth.

Among impartible things Manu (IX. 219 ) included yoga kṣema. The Mit. on Yāj. II. 118-119 shows that several mean ings were attached to that expression by various writers, but that relying upon a verse of Laugākṣi it prefers the meaning of iṣta and pārta. Therefore the Mit.9113 declares that gifts dedicated by & person to the public by expending anoestral wealth such

  1. Tbe Religious Endowments Act ( XX of 1863 ) as amendod by Aot XXI of 1925; Tho Charitable Endowments Act (VI of 1890); Religious Societies Act (I of 1880); lodian Civil Procedure Code, Sections 92-93 (Act V of 1908 ); Indian Limitation Act, Section 10 (Act IX of 1908 ); Charitable and Religious Trusts Act (Act XIV of 1920 ); Madras Hindu Roligious Endowments Act (Madras Act II of 1927, applying to temples and maths also); Tirupati and Tirumalai Devastbanams Act (Madras Act XIX of 1933); The Bombay Public Trusts Registration Act ( Bombay Aot XXV of 1936).

  2. parent i ora ha i nga

momife साध्यमिष्ठं कर्म लक्ष्यते । क्षेमशग्देन लब्धपरिरक्षणदेवभूतं बहिदिवानतळागारामनिर्माणादि पूर्व कर्म लक्ष्यते । तदुभये पैतृकमपि पितृब्रम्पविरोधार्जिसमप्पविभाज्यम् । यधाह लोगाक्षिः। क्षेम पूर्त योगमिष्यमित्याहस्तस्पदशिमा। भविभाज्ये व प्रोक्त शपनास नमेष इति ।

AUTO ON T. II. 118-119,

Ch. XXVI)

Administration of temple properties

915

as tanks, gardens, and temples could not be partitioned by the Bons and grandsons. In modern times also the same is the rule. Besides properties dedicated to temples and other religious and charitable purposes are generally inalienable, according to legislative enactments and judicial decisions, “118 except where an alienation is absolutely necessary for the upkeep of the religious worship or for the benefit and preservation of the institution.

A question arises whether, when a work of public utility is dedicated, the founder possesses any control over the thing dedicated and if so to what extent. The Viramitrodaya (on Vyavahāra 2114 ) furnishes an answer to this question. The follow ing is the gist of its argument keeping as close to the original as possible. When a man throws an oblation into fire, his owner ship over the oblation comes to an end; but the oblation belongs to nobody. No human being has accepted it. Yet the sacrificer can prevent any one who wants to desecrate the offering by bringing it into contact with something impure from doing so and can see to it that the offering is reduced to ashes in the fire undisturbed. Similarly when a tank or a garden is dedicated to the publio, the ownership of the founder in the thing is gone, but there is no other individual owner and no new ownership arises in any single person; yet the founder can prevent a third person making himself owner of the thing dedicated to the public and it cannot be argued that the founder cannot interfere for protecting the thing and that there is no blame if he does not safeguard the assumption of ownership by a third person. The practice of respectable people viz. the exercise of the right of preservation in the case of both ( i. e. in the case of what is offered into the fire and what is dedicated to the publio ) is based on this consideration. The sāstric injuno. tion about utsarga does not merely contemplate the divesting

  1. Vide for example Bombay Act II of 1863 (Summary Settlo ment Act, seo. 8). Fide Prosonno Kumari v. Golab Chand L.R. 2 1. A. 245.

  2. किंत वातरेव यथेष्टविनियोगाईस्वरवापगमेपि परस्वत्वापारीफलाभावे दानश ग्वार्थीनिष्पर्दिधिशिरस्कफलार्थिनः प्रतिपादनावधिपरिपालनीयत्वरूप स्वस्त्रमत्येव । यथा

mai ATITET TYTUFTsiru uTATA TATOTTISHI TUT चान्यस्वत्वानुत्पत्तावपिन मध्यकस्वपरिग्रहायनिवारणादिदोषः। शिष्टाचारोप्युभपत्र परिपा लमरूपस्तन्मूलक एव नवोसर्गमात्रस्प तत्र स्खया विश्यम्युपगमारपरस्वत्वापादनावर पब म स्यादिति वाच्यम् । तादृशोत्सर्गस्यैव विधितात्पर्यविषयरवात् । होमस्थलेप्यन्यथा भस्मसाया. पानावरापत्तो। वीरमित्रोदय, व्यवहार ( portion on विभाग edited by G. S. Sarkar cbap. I deo. 60 and Jiv, ed. p. 644 ).

916

(Ch. XXVI

of one’s ownership and dedication to the public, but also that the thing dedicated be enjoyed by the publio without inter ference or encroachment, just as in homs also one does not merely desire to throw an oblation into fire (and rest oontent with that) but one desires to see that the oblation is reduced to ashes and is not rendered impure. This shows that the founder of a temple or the builder of a tank or garden would always retain & power to preserve the thing dedicated.

Questions as to whether a new image can be substituted by the trustee or the shebait of a temple or whether he can remove the image to another place do come before the courts. Vide Kali Kania Chatterji v. Surendra 41 C. L. J. 128 ; Pra. matha Natha v. Pradyumna Kumar 30 O. W. N. 25 (P. O.) where the P. O. laid down (p. 33 ) that family idols are not merely movable chattels and that their destruction, degradation and injury are not within the power of the founder or other custo dian for the time being; vide Hari Raghunath v. Anant Bhikaji 44 Bom. 466, where it was held that the manager of a public temple has no right to remove the image from the old temple and instal it in another new building, especially when the removal is objected to by a majority of the worshippers.