07 Upanayana

CHAPTER VII

UPANAYANA

This word literally means ’leading or taking near’. But the important question is ’near what’? It appears that it originally meant ’taking near the {{ācārya|ācārya}}’ (for instruction); it may have also meant ‘introducing the novice to the stage of student-hood’. Some of the {{gṛhyasūtras|gṛhyasūtras}} bring out this sense clearly e. g. the {{Hir. gṛ.|Hiraṇyakeśi-gṛ.}} I. 5. 2 ¹ says “The teacher then makes the boy utter ‘I have come unto {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}. Lead me near (initiate me into it). Let me be a student,- impelled by the god {{Savitr|Savitṛ}}’”. The {{Mānava|Mānava}} and {{Kāṭhaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (41.1) also use the word {{upāyana|upāyana}} for {{upanayana|upanayana}} and {{Ādityadarśana|Ādityadarśana}} on {{Kāṭhaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (41. 1) says that {{upānaya|upānaya}}, {{upanayana|upanayana}}, {{mauñjībandhana|mauñjībandhana}}, {{baṭukaraṇa|baṭukaraṇa}}, {{vratabandha|vratabandha}} are synonyms.

• अथैनम् {{अभिध्याहारयति|अभिव्याहारयति}} । ब्रह्मचर्यम् आगाम्, उप मा नयस्व, ब्रह्मचारी भवानि देवेन सवित्रा प्रसूतः । — {{हिरण्य. गृ.|हिरण्यकेशि-गृ.}} I.5.2 (S.B.E. vol 30 p. 150); ब्रह्मचर्यम् आगाम् इति वाचयति, ब्रह्मचारी असानि इति च । — {{पार.गृ.|पारस्कर-गृ.}} II.2; {{गोभिलगृह्य|गोभिल-गृह्य}} II.10.21 (S.B.E. vol. 30 p. 65). The phrases ब्रह्मचर्यम् आगाम् and ब्रह्मचारी असानि occur in the {{शतपथ|शतपथ-ब्राह्मण}} XI.5.4.1; vide {{आप.म.पा.|आपस्तम्ब-मन्त्र-पाठ}} II.3.26 for ब्रह्मचर्य… (or if fire is not available) to the sun, to the moon, to the wind or into waters. This hymn thus brings out most of the characteristic features of the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} and of upanayana ( viz. deerskin, {{mekhalā|mekhalā}}, offering of {{samidh|samidh}}, begging and a life of hard work and restraint). From the reference to the beard and from the words ’this man ({{ayam puruṣaḥ|ayam puruṣaḥ}})’ occurring in the Atharvaveda VIII. 1. 1 and elsewhere it appears probable that upanayana was performed rather later in those ancient days than in the days of the sūtras.

In the {{Tai. Br.|Tai. Br.}} III.¹⁵ 10. 11 there is the story of {{Bharadvāja|Bharadvāja}} who remained a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} for three parts of his life ( i. e. till 75 ) and to whom Indra said that in all that long period of brahmacarya he had mastered only an insignificant portion ( three handfuls out of three mountains) of the Vedas, which were endless in extent. The story of {{Nābhānediṣṭha|Nābhānediṣṭha}}, son of {{Manu|Manu}}, who was excluded from ancestral property at a partition made by his brothers, narrated in the {{Ait. Br.|Ait. Br.}} shows¹⁶ that he was a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} staying with a teacher away from his father’s place. The {{Śat. Br.|Śat. Br.}} XI. 5. 4, contains many and almost complete details about the life of {{brahmacārins|brahmacārins}} which bear a very close similarity to those taught in the gṛhya sūtras. A brief summary is set out below. The boy says ‘I have come unto brahmacarya’ and ’let me be a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}}’. Then the teacher asks him ’ what is your name{{’|?}}’; then the teacher takes him near ({{upanayati|upanayati}}); the teacher takes hold of the boy’s hand with the words ’ you are the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} of Indra; Agni is your teacher, I am your teacher, N. N. (addressing the boy by his name)’. Then he consigns the boy to (the care of ) the elements. The teacher instructs him ’ drink water, do work (in the teacher’s house ), put a fuel stick (on the fire), do not sleep (by day). He repeats the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}} (mantra sacred to Savitṛ). Formerly it was repeated a year (after the boy came as a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}}), then at the end of six months, 24 days, 12 days, 3 days; but one should repeat to the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} boy the verse at once ( on the very day of upanayana ); the teacher repeats it to him first each {{pāda|pāda}} separately, then the half and then the whole. Being a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} one should not eat honey.²

A few words about the origin and development of this most important {{saṁskāra|saṁskāra}} would not be out of place here. Comparison with the ancient Zoroastrian scriptures (vide S. B. E. vol. V. pp. 285-290 about the sacred girdle and shirt) and the modern practices among the Parsis of India tend to show that {{Upanayana|Upanayana}} goes back to an Indo-Iranian origin. But that subject is outside the scope of this work. Confining ourselves to Indian Literature, we find that already in the {{Ṛg.|Ṛgveda}} X. 109.5 the word ‘{{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}}’ occurs ‘oh gods! he ({{Bṛhaspati|Bṛhaspati}}), all pervading one, moves as a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} pervading all (sacrifices); he is only one part of the gods (i. e. of sacrifices); {{Bṛhaspati|Bṛhaspati}} secured by that (i. e. by his service to the gods) a wife (me who am named) {{Juhū|Juhū}}, who was (formerly) taken by {{Soma|Soma}}’.¹⁷ The word ‘{{upanayana|upanayana}}’¹⁸ can be derived and explained in two ways: (1) taking (the boy) near the {{ācārya|ācārya}}, (2) that rite by which the boy is taken to the {{ācārya|ācārya}}. The first sense appears to have been the original one and when an extensive ritual came to be associated with {{upanayana|upanayana}} the second came to be the sense of the word. Such an ancient work as the {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.1.1.19 says that {{upanayana|upanayana}} is a {{saṁskāra|saṁskāra}} (purificatory rite) laid down by revelation for him who seeks learning (i. e. it accepts the second explanation) or this sūtra may mean ‘it is a {{saṁskāra|saṁskāra}} brought about by imparting the {{śruti|śruti}} (viz. {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}} mantra) to him who seeks learning’. This would mean that {{upanayana|upanayana}} principally is {{gāyatryupadeśa|gāyatryupadeśa}} ({{tho|the}} imparting of the sacred {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} mantra). This appears to be {{suggestod|suggested}} by the Vedic passage quoted above (p.154 f. n. 356) ‘he created the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} with {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}}, the {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} with {{Triṣṭubh|Triṣṭubh}}, the {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} with {{Jagatī|Jagatī}}’, and by {{Kātyāyana Śrauta|Kātyāyana-śrautasūtra}} ‘one should initiate the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} with {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}}’. {{Jaiminˆ|Jaimini}}¹⁹ also (in VI. 1.35) propounds the view that {{upanayana|upanayana}} is a {{saṁskāra|saṁskāra}} and has a seen result viz. thereby the boy is brought near the teacher for learning {{Vedaˆ|Veda}}.

• ब्रह्मचारी चरति वेविषद् विषः, स देवानां भवति एकम् अङ्गम् । तेन जायाम् {{अन्वषिन्दद्|अन्वविन्दद्}} बृहस्पतिः, सोमेन नीतां जुह्वं न देवाः । — {{ऋ.|Ṛgveda}} X. 109.5 = अथर्ववेद V.17.5. The reference to {{Soma|Soma}} recalls {{Ṛg.|Ṛgveda}} X.85.45 ‘सोमो {{ददद्र्न्धर्वाय|ददद् गन्धर्वाय}}.’ Every girl was supposed to have been under the protection of {{Soma|Soma}}, {{Gandharva|Gandharva}} and {{Agni|Agni}} before her marriage with a human bridegroom.

• तत्र उपनयन-शब्दः कर्म-नामधेयम् । … तच्-च यौगिकम् उद्भिद्-न्यायात् । योगश्-च भाव-व्युत्पत्त्या करण-व्युत्पत्त्या वा इति आह भारुचिः । स यथा । उप समीपे आचार्यादीनां वटोः नयनं प्रापणम् उपनयनम् । समीपे आचार्यादीनां नीयते वटुः येन तद् उपनयनम् इति वा । … तत्र च भाव-व्युत्पत्तिर्-एव साधीयसी इति गम्यते । श्रौत-अर्थ-विधि-सम्भवात् । — संस्कार-प्रकाश p. 334.

• संस्कारस्य तदर्थत्वाद् विद्यायां {{पुरषश्रुति:|पुरुषश्रुतिः}} । — जैमिनि VI.1.35; ‘विद्यायाम् एव एषा श्रुतिः (वसन्ते ब्राह्मणम् उपनयीत) । उपनयनस्य संस्कारस्य तदर्थत्वात् । विद्या-अर्थम् {{उपान्यायस्य|उपाध्यायस्य}} समीपं नीयते, न अदृष्ट-अर्थं, न-अपि कटं कुड्यं वा कर्तुम् । दृष्ट-अर्थम् एव सा एषा विद्यायां पुरुष-श्रुतिः । कथम् अवगम्यते ? । सद्यो ह वा {{त्वाव|तावद्}} ब्राह्मणाय अनुब्रूयाद् आग्नेयो वै ब्राह्मणः । …… तं वै पच्छोऽन्वाह ……अथ अर्धर्चशोऽन्वाह…..अथ कृत्स्नाम् । तद् आहुः । न ब्रह्मचारी सन् मध्वश्नीयात् ……। शतपथ XI. 5.4.1-17.

The word ‘{{antevāsī|antevāsī}}’ (lit. one who dwells near a teacher ) {{ooours|occurs}} in the {{Śaṭ. Br.|Śat. Br.}} V.1.5.17 and in the {{Tai. Up.|Tai. Up.}} I. 11. The {{Śaṭ. Br.|Śat. Br.}} (XI. 3. 3. 2) says²⁰ ‘he who takes to brahmacarya indeed takes upon himself a sacrificial session of long duration.’ It further says (XI. 3. 3. 3-6 ) that the boy when entering upon {{studentbood|studenthood}} approaches giving a fourth part of himself to Agni, Death, the teacher and himself and that by the offering of {{samidh|samidh}} ( to fire), by begging {{an’|and}} by doing work in the teacher’s house respectively he secures freedom from the action of the first three. It also says that after one finishes studenthood and takes the ceremonial bath one should not beg. Vide Gopatha Br. (ed. by {{Gastra|Gaastra}}) 2, 3 and Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 53. The {{Śat. Br.|Śat. Br.}} (III. 6. 2. 15 ) further says ’therefore {{brahmachārins|brahmachārins}} protect the teacher, his house and his cattle, with the idea that otherwise he might be taken away from them’.²¹

Janamejaya {{Pārikṣita|Pārikṣita}} asks the {{haṁsas|haṁsas}} ( who were the {{Āhavanīya|Āhavanīya}} and {{Dakṣiṇā|Dakṣi आचार्य-करणम् एतद् अवगम्यते । कुतः? आत्मनेपद-दर्शनात् ।’ — शबरः ।

{{Ṛg.|Ṛgveda}} III. 8. 4²² is a verse that clearly indicates that some of the characteristics of {{upanayana|upanayana}} described in the {{gṛhya sūtras|gṛhyasūtras}} were well known even then. There the sacrificial post ({{yūpa|yūpa}}) is praised as a young person (i. e. in the language of the later classical rhetoricians there is the first kind of the figure {{Atiśayokti|Atiśayokti}}) ‘here comes the youth, well dressed and encircled (the boy by his {{mekhalā|mekhalā}} and the post by its {{raśanā|raśanā}}); he, when born, attains eminence; wise sages, full of devotion to the gods in their hearts and entertaining happy thoughts, raise him up’. Here in ‘{{unnayanti|unnayanti}}’ we have the same root that we have in {{upanayana|upanayana}}. This mantra is employed in the {{upanayana|upanayana}} by several {{gṛhya sūtras|gṛhyasūtras}}. e.g. {{Āśv.|Āśv.}} I. 20. 8 (who employs it for making the boy circumambulate) and {{Pār.|Pār.}} II. 2. (prescribes that the mantra is to be recited when tying the girdle round the boy’s waist). In the {{Tai. S.|Tai.S.}} VI.²³ 3. 10.5 we have the famous passage referring to the three debts where the words ‘{{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}}’ and ‘{{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}’ occur. ‘Every {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} when born is indebted in three debts viz. in {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}} to the sages, in sacrifice to the gods and in offspring to the manes; he indeed becomes free from debts who has a son, who sacrifices and who dwells (with the teacher) as a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}}.’

• युवा सुवासाः परिवीत आगात्, स उ श्रेयान् भवति जायमानः । तं धीरासः कवय उन्नयन्ति स्वाध्यो मनसा देवयन्तः ॥ — {{ऋ.|ṇā}} fires ) ‘what is holy{{’|?}}’ and the latter reply ‘It is brahmacarya’(vide Gopatha Br. 2.5). Gopatha (2.5) further says ’the period of studenthood for the mastery of all Vedas is 48 years,which, being distributed among the Vedas in four parts, makes brahmacarya last for 12 years, which is the lowest limit; one should practise brahmacarya according to one’s ability before taking the ceremonial bath.’³ The same work says that the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should fetch samidhs every day for worshipping fire and beg and that if he does not do so continuously for seven days he has to undergo upanayana again (2. 6) and that the lady of the house should daily give alms to a {{brahmacārin|brahmacārin}} with the idea that he may not deprive her of her wealth, of merit due to {{iṣṭāpurta|iṣṭāpurta}}. It also says that a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should not sleep on a cot, should not engage in singing and dancing, should not roam about, should not spit about nor go to a cemetery.⁴

• जायमानो ह वै ब्राह्मणस्त्रिभिर्-{{ऋणर्वा|ऋणवान्}} जायते — ब्रह्मचर्येण ऋषिभ्यो, यज्ञेन देवेभ्यः, प्रजया पितृभ्यः । एष वा अनृणो यः पुत्री यज्वा ब्रह्मचारिवासी । — {{तै.सं.|तैत्तिरीय-संहिता}} VI.3.10.5.

In the other Vedas and in the {{Brāhmaṇa|Brāhmaṇa}} literature there is ample material to show what the characteristic features of upanayana and {{brahmacarya|brhmacarya}} were. The whole of {{Atharvaveda|Atharvaveda}} XI. 7 (26 verses) is a hymn containing hyperbolical laudation of the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} (Vedic student) and {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}. The very first verse²⁴ may be cited as a sample ‘The {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} incessantly covering 2.5-7.

It appears from the above and from the {{Upaniṣad|Upaniṣad}} {{pagsages|passages}} set out immediately below that originally Upanayana was a very simple matter. The would-be student came to the teacher with a {{samidh|samidh}} in his hand and told the teacher that he desired (the world by his glory) roams in the two worlds; the gods have the same thoughts (of grace and favour) about him; he fills his teacher by his austerities’. Verse 3 says ’the teacher leading (the boy) to enter the stage of studenthood and begged to be allowed to be a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} living with the teacher. There were no elaborate ceremonies like those {{desoribed|described}} in the g near him makes the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} like unto a foetus’ (here the word ‘{{upanayamānaḥ|upanayamānaḥ}}’ occurs). Verse 4 states that the heaven and theṛhya sūtras. The word brahmacarya occurs in the {{Kaṭha. Up.|Kaṭha earth are the ‘{{samidh|samidh}}’ (the fuel stick) of the {{brahmacār Up.}} I.1.15, {{Muṇḍaka|Muṇḍaka}} II. 1.ī|brahmacārī}} and that the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} by his 7, {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} VI.1.1 and other Upaniṣads{{mekhalā|mekhalā}} (girdle), by his {{samidh|samidh}} and. The {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} and the {{Bṛ. Up.|Bṛ by his life of hard work fills the world with austerities. Verse 6 tells us that the {{brahmacār. Up.}}, probably the oldest among the Upaniṣads, furnish very valuable information. That some ceremonies were required beforeī|brahmacārī}} wears the skin of a black antelope and has a long beard; verse 13 a young boy was admitted as a student even in Upaniṣadic times is clear from the statement in the {{Chānd says that the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} offers {{samidh|samidh}} into fire (or if fire is not available) to the sun, to the moon, to the wind or into waters. Thisogya|Chāndogya}} V.11.7²⁵ that when {{Aśvapati Kekaya|Aśvapati Kekaya}} was approached by {{Prācinaśāla Aupamanyava| hymn thus brings out most of the characteristic features of the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} and of {{upanayana|upanayana}} (viz. deerskin, {{mekhalā|mekhalā}}, offering ofPrācinaśāla Aupamanyava}} and four others who carried fuel in their hands (like young students) and who were grown-up householders and theologians, ‘he ( {{Aśvapati|Aśvapati}}) without submitting {{samidh|samidh}}, begging and a life of hard work and restraint). From the reference to the beard and from the words ’this man (ayam {{puruṣaḥ|puruṣaḥ}})’ occurring in the {{Ath them to the rites of Upanayana began the discourse’. When {{Satyakāma|Satyakāma}}²⁶ {{Jābāla|Jābāla}} tells the truth about his {{gotra|gotraarvaveda|Atharvaveda}} VIII. 1. 1 and elsewhere it appears probable that {{upanayana|upanayana}} was performed rather later in those ancient days than in the days of the {{sūtras|s}} to {{Gautama Hāridrumata|Gautama Hāridrumata}}, the latter says ‘fetch, dear boy, fuel, I shall initiate you. You have not swerved from the truth ({{Chāndogyaūtras}}.

• ब्रह्मचारीष्णंश्चरति रोदसी उभे, तस्मिन् देवाः संमनसो भवन्ति । स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च, स आचार्यं तप|Chāndogya}} IV.4.5). Similarly in the {{Bṛ. Up.|Bṛ. Up.}} VI. 2. 7. it is said that former students ( i. e. students in formerसा पिपर्ति ॥ — अथर्ववेद XI.7.1. This verse is explained in {{गोपथब्रह्मण|गोपथ-ब्राह्मण}} II.1. आचार्य उपनयमानो ब्रह्मचारिणं कृणु ages ) approached (the teacher for brahmacarya) only in words (i. e. without any further solemn rite or ceremony).²⁷ In the most ancient times it is probable that the father himself always taught his son.[^633ते गर्भम् अन्तः । — अथर्ववेद XI.7.3; the idea is found in {{Āp. Dh.S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.1.1. 16-18 (quoted] But it appears that from the times of the {{Tai. S.|Tai. S.}} and the {{Brāhmaṇas|Brāhmaṇas}} the student generally went to a guru and stayed in his house (vide note 62 above p.189 f.n.443) and compare {{शतपथब्रा.|शतपथ-ब्राह्मण}} XI.5.4.12 ‘आचार्यो गर्भी भवति हस्तम् आधाय दक्षिणम्4 about {{Nābhānediṣṭha|Nābhānediṣṭha}}). {{Uddālaka Āruṇi|Uddālaka Āruṇi}} who was himself a profound philosopher । तृतीयस्यां स जायते सावित्र्या स ब्राह्मणः ॥’. ब्रह्मचारी एति समिधा समिद्धः, {{कार्ष्णे|कार्ष्णं}} वसानो, दीक्षितो दीर्घ-श्मश्रुः । — of {{brahma|brahma}} asks his son {{Śvetaketu|Śvetaketu}} to enter upon अथर्ववेद XI.7.6.

aं ब्रह्मचर्यं द्वादश-वर्षाण्य् अवरार्धम् अपि स्नास्यंश्चरेद् यथा-शक्ति । गोपथ 2.5.

In the {{Tai. Br.|Tai.Br.}} III.[^623 brahmacarya and sends him to a teacher to learn the Vedas.²⁸ The same {{Upaniṣad|Upaniṣad}} describes the {{āśrama|āśrama}} of brahmacarya ‘dwelling] 10. 11 there is the story of {{Bharadvāja|Bharadvāja}} who remained as a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} in the house of a teacher, mortifying his body in the house of his teacher till his end’.⁵ {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} for three parts of his life (i. e. till 75) and to whom {{Indra|Indra}} said that in all that long period of {{brahm IV. 4. 4. shows that the teacher asked the pupil his {{gotra|gotra}} ( in order that he may address him by that name ). The same {{Upaniṣad|Upaniṣad}} shows thatacarya|brahmacarya}} he had mastered only an insignificant portion (three handfuls out of three mountains) of the Vedas, which were endless in extent. The story of {{Nābhānediṣṭha|Nābhānediṣṭha}}, son of {{Manu|Manu}}, who was excluded from ancestral property at a partition made by his brothers the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} had to beg for food (IV. 3. 5), that he had to look after the fire of his teacher (IV. 10.1-2) and, narrated in the {{Ait. Br.|Ait.Br.}} shows¹⁶ that he was a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} staying with a teacher away from his father’s place. The that he had to tend his cattle (IV. 4. 5).

The age when upanayana was performed is not expressly stated in the Upaniṣads except in the case of {{Śvetaketu|Śvetaketu}} who was 12 ( vide note 634 above). The period of student-hood was usually twelve {{Śat. Br.|Śat.Br.}} XI. 5. 4, contains many and almost complete details about the life of {{brahmacārins|brahmacārins}} which bear a very close similarity to those taught in the {{gṛhya sūtras|gṛhyasūtras}}. A brief summary is set out below. The ({{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} II. 23.1, IV. 10.1, {{V1|VI}}. 1.2), though the {{Chāndogya|Ch boy says ‘I have come unto {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}’ and ’let me be a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}}’. Then the teacher asks him ‘what is your name’;āndogya}} ( VIII. 11. 3 ) speaks of Indra’s brahmacarya for 101 years and {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} II. 23. 1. then the teacher takes him near ({{upanayati|upanayati}}); the teacher takes hold of the boy’s hand with the words ‘you are the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} of {{Indra|Indra}}; speaks of brahmacarya for life.

• भरद्वाजो ह वै त्रिभिर्-आयुर्भिर्-ब्रह्मचर्यम् उवास । तं ह…शिष्टं लोक्यम् आहुर् इति । आचार्योपनयनं ब्राह्मणस्यानुकल्पः’

We shall now turn to upanayana as described in the sūtras and {{smṛtis|smṛtis}}.624]:

• नाभानेदिष्ठं वै मानवं ब्रह्मचर्यं वसन्तं भ्रातरः निरभजन् । सोऽब्रवीद् एत्य — किं मह्यम् अभाक्त ? इति । — {{ऐ. The following matters fall to be treated under Upanayana: The proper age for upanayana, the auspicious seasons for it ब्रा.|ऐतरेय-ब्राह्मण}} 22. 9. This story occurs also in {{Tai. S.|Tai; the skin, the garments, the girdle and the staff for the {{brahmacārins|brahmacārins}} of different {{varṇās|varṇas}}; the {{yajñopavīta|yajñ.S.}} III.1.9.5.

• ब्रह्मचर्यम् आगाम् इति आह ।… ब्रह्मचारी असानि इति आह… । अथ एनम् आह — को नामा असि ? इति ।opavīta}} ; the preliminaries of upanayana, such as {{homa|homa}}, taking of curds by the boy, {{añjalipūraṇa|añjalipūraṇa}}, {{aśm अथ अस्य हस्तं गृह्णाति । इन्द्रस्य ब्रह्मचारी असि, अग्निः आचार्यस्-तव,ārohana|aśmārohana}}; the principal rites of upanayana viz. taking of the student’s hand by the teacher, touching the chest of the student expressive of acceptance as pupil, handing the boy to Savitṛ and अहम् आचार्यस्-तव असौ इति ।… अथ एनं भूतेभ्यः परिददाति ।… अद्भ्यस्-त्वा ओषधीभ्यः परिददामि इति आह ।… {{अपोशान other gods ({{paridāna|paridāna}}), instruction in the duties of the student (such as putting fuel on fire, begging &c.), instruction in the famous {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}} mantra|अपोऽशान}}… कर्म कुरु… समिधम् आ धेहि इति… मा सुषुप्थाः ;{{medhājanana|medhājanana}}; study of the Vedas and daily recitation of Vedic texts; special इति । अथ अस्मै सावित्रीम् अन्वाह । तां ह स्म एतां पुरा संवत्सरेऽ {{vratas|vratas}} of the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārīन्वाहुः… । अथ षट्सु मासेषु… । अथ चतुर्विंशत्यहे, अथ द्}}; _{{Patitasāvitrīka|Patitasāvitrīka}} (those whose upanayana has not been performed at all) and rules about them. These matters will now be dealt with in order. It should be remembered that allवादशाहे… । अथ त्र्यहे । तद्-अपि श्लोको भवति । आचार्यो गर्भी… ब्राह्मण इति । सद्यो ह वा {{त्वाव|वाव}} ब्राह्मणाय अनुब्रूयाद् आग्नेयो these matters are not dwelt upon by all the smrtis nor are they treated of in the same order. Further the Vedic mantras often differ in the different sūtras.

The proper age for Upanayana

The {{Āśv. वै ब्राह्मणः ।… तं वै पच्छोऽन्वाह… अथ अर्धर्चशोऽन्वाह… अथ कृत्स्नाम् । तद् आहुः — न ब्रह्मचारी सन् मधु अश्नीयात्… । — {{शत gṛ.|Āśv. gṛ.}}²⁹ (I. 19. 1-6) says that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} boy should undergo upanayana in the eighth year fromपथ|शतपथ-ब्राह्मण}} XI.5.4.1-17.

The word ‘{{ birth or from conception, a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} in the 11th yearantevāsī|antevāsī}}’ (lit. one who dwells near a teacher) {{ooours, a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} in the 12th and that to the 16th, 22nd and 24th years respectively for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}}|occurs}} in the {{Śaṭ. Br.|Śat.Br.}} V.1.5.17 and in the {{Tai. Up.|Tai.Up.}} I. 11. The {{Śaṭ. Br it cannot be said that the time for upanayana has passed.

{{Āp|Āp}}.[^63.|Śat.Br.}} (XI. 3. 3. 2) says²⁰ ‘he who takes to {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}} indeed takes upon himself a sacrificial session of long7] (10.2), {{Śāṅ|Śāṅ}}. (II. 1), {{Baud|Baud}}. (II. 5. 2) and {{Bhār|Bhār}}. (1 duration.’ It further says (XI. 3. 3. 3-6) that the boy when entering upon {{studentbood|student-hood}} approaches giving a fourth part of himself to {{Agni|Agni}}, Death.1), Gobhila (II. 10. 1) gṛhya sūtras, {{Yāj|Yāj}}. I. 14, Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. , the teacher and himself and that by the offering of {{samidh|samidh}} (to fire), by begging {{1. 19 expressly say that the respective years are calculated from conception. The {{Mahābhāṣya|Mahābhāṣya}}³⁰ also refers to the rule that a {{brāhmaṇaan’|and}} by doing work in the teacher’s house respectively he secures freedom from the action of the first three. It also says that after one finishes {{studenthood|student-hood}} and takes the ceremonial bath one should not beg’s|brāhmaṇa’s}} upanayana is to be performed in the 8th year from conception.

{{Pār|Pār}}.³¹ gṛ. (II. 2). Vide {{Gopatha Br.|Gopatha-Br.}} (ed. by {{Gastra|Gaastra}}) 2, 3 and {{Baud. Dh. S.|Baud.Dh.S.}} I. 2. allows upanayana in the 8th year from birth or conception and adds that in the case of all {{varṇas|varṇas}} family usage may be followed. {{Yāj|Yāj}}. I. 14 also refers to family usage. {{Śāṅ|Śāṅ}}. gṛ. (II. 1.1) allows {{53. The {{Śat. Br.|Śat.Br.}} (III. 6. 2. 15) further says ’therefore {{brahmachārins|brahmacārins}} protect the teacher, his house and his cattle, with the idea that otherwise he might be taken away from them’.[^627upanayaoa|upanayana}} in the 8th or 10th year from conception, the {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. (I. 22. 1) allows it in the 7th or]

• दीर्घ-सत्रं वा एष उपैति यो ब्रह्मचर्यम् उपैति । — {{शतपथ|शतपथ-ब्राह्मण}} XI.3.3.2. This is quoted 9th year, the Kathaka gṛ. (41. 1-3) prescribes 7th, 9th and 11th years for the upanayana of the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} respectively.

In some {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} upanayana is allowed to be performed even earlier or in {{Baud.Dh.S.|Baud.Dh.S.}} I.2.52. The words ‘अपोऽशान’ refer to sipping water before and after {{bhojana|bhojana}} respectively with the words ‘{{amṛtopastaraṇamasi svāhā|amṛtopastaraṇamasi svāhā}}’ at different ages, e. g. Gautama (I. 6-8) prescribes that upanayana for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} is in the 8th year from conception but it may be in the and ‘{{amṛtāpidhānam-asi svāhā|amṛtāpidhānamasi svāhā}}.’ Vide {{संस्कारतत्व|संस्कारतत्त्व}} p.893. These 5th or 9th according to the result desired;
and Manu. II. 37 says that if spiritual eminence ( for the boy ) is desired ( by his father) then upanayana may be performed in the 5th year for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, in the 6th year for a two {{मन्त्रs|मन्त्राः}} occur in {{आप.म.पा.|आपस्तम्ब-मन्त्र-पाठ}} II.10.3-4.

• तस्माद् ब्रह्मचारिण आचार्यं गोपायन्ति, {{गॄहान्|गृहान्}} पशून् {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} if there is a desire for military power, in the 8th for a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} if there is desire for endeavour to accumulate wealth.
  {{Vaik|Vaik}}. (II. 3) also prescribes the 5th, 8th, 9, नेद् नः अप-हारान् इति । — {{शतपथ|शतपथ-ब्राह्मण}} III.6.2.15.

{{Janamejaya Pārikṣita|Janamejaya Pārikṣita}}th years from conception for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} if there is a desire respectively for spiritual eminence, long life and wealth.
The Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1.21 asks the {{haṁsas|haṁsas}} (who were the {{Āhavanīya|Āhavanīya}} and {{Dakṣiṇā|Dakṣiṇā}} fires) ‘what is holy’ and the latter reply ‘It is {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}’ (vide {{Gopatha Br.| and Baud. gṛ. (II. 5) prescribe 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th years respectively for one desiring spiritual eminence, long life, brilliance, abundant food, physical vigour and cattle.

• अष्टा-चत्वारिंशद्-वर्षं सर्व-वेद-ब्रह्म. 3., शतपथ XI. 5. 4.1, छा. उ. IV. 4. 5 and elsewhere in the Vedic texts it is the {{Ātmanepada|Ātmanepada}}चर्यम् । तत् चतुर्धा वेदेषु व्यूह्य द्वादश-वर्षं ब्रह्मचर्यम् । द्वादश-वर्षाणि अवर-अर्धम् । अपि स्नास्यन् चरेद् यथा-शक्ति । — that is found. {{Pāṇini|Pāṇini}} (I. 3. 36) lays down that the root ’nī’ takes the {{Atmanepada|Ātmanepada}} alone in {{गोपथ|गोपथ-ब्राह्मण}} 2.5.

• तस्माद् ब्रह्मचारिणे अहरहर्-भिक्षां दद्याद् गृहिणी — मा मे the case of {{soveral|several}} senses one of which is आचार्यकरण (and so we should have उपनयेत only). हरदत्त quotes a कारिका that the परस्मैपद is a mistake ‘परस्मैपद- अयम् इष्टापूर्त-सुकृत-द्रविणम् अवरुन्ध्याद् इति । न उपरि-शायी स्यान्, न गायनो, न नर्तनो, न सरणो, न निष्ठीवेद्…पाठोऽयम् अध्येतॄणां प्रमादतः । आचार्य-करणे यस्मात् प्राप्नोत्यत्र आत्मनेपदम् ॥ Vide संस्कार-प्रकाश p. 339 for criticism of {{हरिद न श्मशानम् आतिष्ठेत् । — {{गोपथ|गोपथ-ब्राह्मण}} 2.5-7.

It appears from the above and from the {{Upaniṣad|Upaniṣad}}त्त’s|हरिदत्त’s}} view. Vide शबर quoted above. (p. 269 _ {{pagsages|passages}} set out immediately below that originally {{Upanayana|Upanayana}} was a very simplef.n._ 619)

Therefore, the 8th, 11th and 12th|Chāndogya}} VI.1.1 and other {{Upaniṣads|Upaniṣads}}. The {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} and the {{Bṛ. Up.|Bṛ.Up years from birth for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} are the principal time for upanayana; while the years from 5th onwards up to 11th are the secondary time ({{gauṇa|gauṇa}}).}}, probably the oldest among the {{Upaniṣads|Upaniṣads}}, furnish very valuable information. That some ceremonies were required before a young boy was admitted as a student even in {{Upaniṣadic|Upaniṣadic}} times is for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, 9th to 16th are secondary for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and so on. From 12th to 16 is clear from the statement in the {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} V.11.7[^ {{gauṇatara|gauṇatara}} for {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} and after 16 {{gauṇatama|gauṇatama}} for them. Vide {{Saṁskāra-prakā630] that when {{Aśvapati Kekaya|Aśvapati Kaikeya}} was approached by {{Prācinaśāla Aupamanyava|Prācīnaśāla Aupamanyava}} and four othersśa|Saṁskāra-prakāśa}} p. 342.

The auspicious times according to the Āp. gṛ. and Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 1 who carried fuel in their hands (like young students) and who were grown-up householders and theologians, ‘he ({{Aśvapati|Aśvapati}}) without submitting them to the rites of {{Upanayana|Upanayana}}9, Hir. gṛ. (I.1) and Vaik. are {{vasanta|vasanta}} ( spring), {{grīṣma|grīṣma}} (summer), and {{śarad|śarad}} (autumn) for began the discourse’. When {{Satyakāma|Satyakāma}}²⁶ {{Jābāla|Jābāla}} tells the truth about his {{gotra|gotra}} to {{Gautama Hā the three {{Varṇas|Varṇas}}. The {{Bhār|Bhār}}. gṛ. (1. 1 ) says that upanayana for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} should be performed in {{ridrumata|Gautama Hāridrumata}}, the latter says ‘fetch, dear boy, fuel, I shall initiate you. You have not swerved from the truth ({{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} IVvasanta|vasanta}}, for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} in summer or {{hemanta|hemanta}}, for a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} in {{śarad|śarad}}, in the rains for a carpenter.4.5). Similarly in the {{Bṛ. Up.|Bṛ.Up.}} VI. 2. 7. it is said that former students (i. e. students in former ages) approached (the teacher for {{brahmacarya ({{rathakāra|rathakāra}}) or in {{śiśira|śiśira}} for all. {{Śabara|Śabara}} in his {{bhāṣya|bhāṣya}} on Jaimini VI. 1. 33 where upanayana is denied to {{śūdras|śūdras}} quotes ‘{{vasante brāhmaṇam upanayīta|vasante brāhmaṇam upanayīta}}’ as a Vedic text. Āśv. gṛ. I. 4.1 ( quoted above in f. n. |brahmacarya}}) only in words (i. e. without any further solemn rite or ceremony).²⁷ In the most ancient times it is probable that the father himself always taught his son.³² But it appears that from the times of the {{Tai. S.|Tai.S.}} and the {{Brāhmaṇas|Brāhmaṇas}} the student generally went to a guru and stayed in his house (vide note 494), Hir. gṛ. (I. 1. 5, S. B. E. vol. 30 p.1 37 ) and {{Bhār|Bhār}}. gṛ. (1.1) say that upanayana should be performed in the bright half of a month, on an auspicious {{nakṣatra|nak624 about {{Nābhānediṣṭha|Nābhānediṣṭha}}). {{Uddālaka Āruṇi|Uddālaka Āruṇi}} who was himself a profound philosopher of brahma asks his son {{Śvetaketu|Śvetaketu}} to enter upon {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}} and sends him to a teacher to learn the Vedas²⁸. The sameṣatra}}, particularly under a {{nakṣatra|nakṣatra}} the name of which is masculine.³³

Later works introduced very intricate rules about the proper months,{{tithis|tithis}}, days and times for upanayana. It is neither possible nor very necessary to go into these astrological end’. {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} IV. 4. 4. shows that the teacher asked the pupil his {{gotra|gotra}} (in order that he may address him by that name). The same {{Upaniṣad|Upaniṣad}} shows that the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} details. But a few words must be said as in modern times upanayana is performed only in accordance with these rules. {{Vṛddhagārgya|Vṛddhagārgya}}³⁴ laid down that six months from {{Māgha|Māgha}} were the proper months for upanayana, while others say had to beg for food (IV. 3. 5), that he had to look after the fire of his teacher (IV. 10.1-2) and that he had to tend his cattle (IV. 4. 5).

• ते ह समित्-पाणयः पूर्वाह्णे प्रति that five months from {{Māgha|Māgha}} are the proper ones. Then 1st, 4th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 13th, 14th, 15th i. e. ( full moon and new moon ) tithis are generally avoided (though there are someचक्रमिरे । तान् ह अनुपनीय एव एतद् उवाच । — {{छान्दोग्य|छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद्}} V.11.7.

• समिधं सोम्य आहर, उप त्वा नेष्ये, न सत्याद् अगाः इति । — {{ counter {{exoeptions|exceptions}} {{wbich|which}} are not set out here). It is stated that upanayana should not be performed {{whon|when}} Venus is so near the sun that it cannot be seen, when the sun is in the first degree of any zodiacal sign, on {{anadhyaya|anadhyaya}} days and on {{galagraha|galagraha}}³⁵ (the tithis specified above). Jupiter, Venusछान्दोग्य|छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद्}} IV.4.5.

• उप-ऐमि अहं भवन्तम् इति वाचा ह स्म एव पूर्वे उपयन्ति । स ह उपायन-कीर्त्या उवास । — {{बृह. उ.|बृहदारण्यक-उपनिषद्}} VI.2.7.

• Vide {{बृ. उ.|, Mars³⁶ and Mercury are respectively the presiding deities of the {{Ṛgveda|Ṛgveda}} and the other Vedas. Therefore the upanayana of those who have to study these Vedas should be performed on the week days presided over by these planets. Among week days Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are the best, Sunday is middling, Monday is the leastबृ.उ.}} VI. 2. 1 ‘अनुशिष्टो नु असि पित्रा इति, ओम् इति ह उवाच ।’ {{विश्वरूप|विश्वरूपः}} on याज्ञ. I.15 remarks ‘गुरु-ग्रहणं तु मुख्यं पितुः उपनेतृत्वम् इति । तथा च श्रुतिः — तस्मात् suitable, but Tuesday and Saturday are prohibited (except that for students of the {{Sāmaveda|Sāmaveda}} and {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} Tuesday is allowed). Among the {{nakṣatras|nakṣatras}}⁶ the proper ones are {{Hasta|Hasta}}, {{Citrā|Citrā}}, पुत्रम् अनुशिष्टं लोक्यम् आहुः इति । आचार्य-उपनयनं ब्राह्मणस्य अनुकल्पः ।’

• श्वेतकेतुर्-ह आरुणेय आस । तं ह पिता उवाच — श्वेतकेतो, वस ब्रह्मचर्यम्… । स ह द्वादश-वर्ष {{Svāti|Svāti}}, {{Puṣya|Puṣya}}, {{Dhaniṣṭhā|Dhaniṣṭhā}}, {{Aśvinī|Aśvinī}}, {{Mṛgaśiras|Mṛgaśiras}}, {{Punarvasu|Punarvasu}}, {{Śravaṇa|Śravaṇa}} and {{Revatī|Revatī}}. There are other rules about {{nakṣatras|nakṣatras}} with उपेत्य, चतुर्विंशति-वर्षः सर्वान् वेदान् अधीत्य, महामना अनूचान-मानी स्तब्ध {{एव|एयाय}} । {{य|}} तं ह पिता उवाच — श्वेतकेतो… उत तम् आदेशम् अप्राक्ष्यः, येन अश्रुतं श्रुतं भवति respect to those who follow a particular Veda ( which are passed over ). One rule is that all {{nakṣatras|nakṣatras}} except {{Bharaṇi|Bharaṇi}}, {{Kṛttikā|Kṛttikā}}, {{Maghā|Maghā}}, {{Viśākhā|Viśākhā}}, {{J ? — {{छान्दोग्य|छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद्}} VI.1.1-2.

• {{छान्दोग्य|छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद्}} II.23.1. This refers to the {{नैष्ठिकब्रह्मचारिन्|नैष्ठिक-ब्रह्मचारिन्}}.

The age when {{upanayana|upanayana}} was performed is not expressly stated in the {{yeṣṭhā|Jyeṣṭhā}}, {{Śatatārakā|Śatatārakā}} are good for all. The Moon and Jupiter must be astrologically strong with reference to the boy’s horoscope. The rule about Jupiter probably arose from the fact that Jupiter was supposed to rule over knowledge and happiness and as upanayana was meant to be the entrance for Veda-study, Jupiter’s benevolent aspect was thought to be necessary. If Jupiter and Venus are not to be seenUpaniṣads|Upaniṣads}} except in the case of {{Śvetaketu|Śvetaketu}} who was 12 (vide note 634 above). The period of student-hood was usually twelve ({{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} II. 23.1, IV. 10.1, {{V1.|VI.}} 1.2), though the {{Chāndogya|Ch owing to nearness to the sun, upanayana cannot be performed. Jupiter when in the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th zodiacal sign from the sign of birth (calculation to be made inclusive of the sign of birth ) is auspicious, when in the 1st, 3rd, 6th, 1āndogya}} (VIII. 11. 3) speaks of {{Indra’s|Indra’s}} {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}} for 101 years and {{Chāndogya|Chāndogya}} II. 23. 1. speaks of {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}} for life.

We shall now turn to {{upanayana|upanayana}} as described0th place from the sign of birth it is auspicious after the performance of a propitiatory homa and when it is in the 4th, 8th, 12th place from birth, it is inauspicious. The moon is supposed to be malefic when she is in the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 8 in the {{sūtras|sūtras}} and {{smṛtis|smṛtis}}. The following matters fall to be treated under {{Upanayana|Upanayana}}: The proper age for {{upanayana|upanayana}}, the auspicious seasons for it; the skin, the garments, the girdle and the staff for the {{brahmacārins|brahmacārins}} of different {{varṇās|varṇas}}; the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}; the preliminaries of {{upanayana|upanayana}}, such as {{homa|homa}}, taking of curds by the boy, {{añjalipūraṇa|añjalipūraṇa}}, {{aśmārohana|aśmārohaṇa}}; the principal rites of {{upanayana|upanayana}} viz. takingth, 9th or 12th place from the sign of birth. Four hours from sunrise is the best for upanayana, from that time to noon is middling and afternoon is prohibited. Some said that a person’s upanayana should not be performed in the month in which he was born, others restricted the prohibition to the {{pakṣa|pakṣa}} ( the half) of the month in which he was born. There are other rules about the Lagna (the rising zodiacal sign at the time of upanayana ) {{whioh|which}} are not set out here. There are other prohibited astrological conjunctions like {{Vyatīpāta|Vyatīpāta}}, {{Vaidhṛti|V of the student’s hand by the teacher, touching the chest of the student expressive of acceptance as pupil, handing the boy to {{Savitṛ|Savitṛ}} and other gods ({{paridāna|paridāna}}), instruction in the duties of the student (such as putting fuel on fire, begging &c.), instruction in the famous {{Sāvitrī|Sāaidhṛti}} &c. For detailed rules on these, works like the {{Saṁ. Pr.|Saṁ. Pr.}} (pp. 355-385), {{Nirṇayasindhu|Nirṇayasindhu}} and {{Dharmasindhu|Dharmasindhu}} may be consulted.

The {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}}²⁹ (I. 19. 1-6) says that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} boy should undergo {{upanayana|upanayana}} in the eighth year from birth or from conception, a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} in the 11th year, a {{vaiśya|चतुष्कं तु सप्तम्यादि-त्रयं तथा । चतुर्थ्येकादशी प्रोक्ता अष्टाव् एते गलग्रहाः ॥ स्मृति-च∘ I. p. 27; अपरार्क p. 32 cites the first as from पुराण.

• अष्टमे वर्षे ब्राह्मणम् उपनयेत् । गर्भाष्टमे वा । एकादशे क्षत्रियम् । द्वादशे वैश्यम् । आतुष्कं च अष्टाव् एते गलग्रहाः॥’. गुरुर् भृगु-सुतो धात्री-पुत्रः शशधरात्मजः । स्युर् एते ऋग्-यजुः-साम-अथर्वणाम् अधिपाः क्रमात् ॥ स्मृति-च∘ I. p. 27.

{{Āp.|Āp.}}³⁷ (10.2), {{Śāṅ.|Śāṅkhāyana}} (II. 1), {{Baud-सौम्य-अदिति-विष्णु-भेषु । शस्ते तिथौ चन्द्र-बलोपयुक्तो कार्यो द्विजानाम् उपनायनो विधिः ॥ अपरार्क p.32, स्मृति-च∘ I. p. 27.

For persons who are entitled to perform the upanayana of a boy, vide.|Baudhāyana}} (II. 5. 2) and {{Bhār.|Bhāradvāja}} (1.1), {{Gobhila|Gobhila}} (II. 10. 1) {{gṛhya sūtras|gṛhyasūtras}}, {{Yāj.|Yājñavalkya}} I. 14, {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I. 1. note 480.

A {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} had to wear two garments, one for the lower part of the body ({{vāsas|vāsas}}), another for covering the upper part of the body ({{uttarīya|uttarīya}}). Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1. 2. 39-I. 1. 3. 1. 19 expressly say that the respective years are calculated from conception. The {{Mahābhāṣya|Mahābhāṣya}}³⁰ also refers to the rule that a {{brāhmaṇa’s|brāhmaṇa’s}} {{upanayana|upanayana}} is to be performed in the 8th year from conception.

• गर्भाष्टमेषु ब्राह्मणम् उपनयीत,1-2) says that ’the garment⁷ ({{vāsas|vāsas}}) for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} or {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} is respectively to be made of hemp, flax, {{ajina|ajina}} ( deerskin), some teachers prescribe that the lower garment should be of cotton but coloured reddish-yellow for {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}; dyed with madder for गर्भैकादशेषु राजन्यं, गर्भद्वादशेषु वैश्यम् । — {{आप. गृ.|आपस्तम्ब-गृ.}} 10.2-3. Vide {{सं. प्र.|संस्कार-प्रकाश}} pp 340-341 for discussion whether there is option of counting the years from conception or birth in the case of {{kśatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}}. {{Āp.|Āp.}} and several others employ the Ātmanepada ‘उपनयीत’ while {{Āśv.| {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}}, dyed with turmeric for {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}}.’ {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} (II.5), Manu (II. 41 ) speak of ‘{{āvika|āvika}}’( made of wool) for {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} instead of ‘{{ajina|ajina}}’. {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas. Dh. S.}} (XI. 64-67) says that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} (Āśv.}}, {{Khādira|Khādira}} (II. 2. 1) and {{Pār.|Pār.}} employ the Parasmaipada उपनयेत्. It should be noticed that in the Atharvaveda XI. 7. 3., {{शतपथ|शतपथ-ब्राह्मण}} XI. 5. 4.1, {{छा. उ.|छान्दोग्य-उपनिषद्}} IV. 4. 5 and elsewhere in the Vedic texts it is the Ātmanepada that is found. {{Pāṇini{{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}}) should wear a (lower) garment which is white and unblemished (or new) and for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} or {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} it should be the same as in Āp. Dh., but for {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} Vas. prescribes also one made of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass or he says that all should wear cotton cloth that is undyed.’ {{Gaut|Gaut}}. (I. 17-20) on the other hand says ‘for all the lower garment may be made of hemp, flax or {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass ({{cīra|cīra}}) or of the hair of the mountainous goat ({{kutapa|kutapa}}); other teachers prescribe coloured garments, one coloured with the juice of trees for {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇ|Pāṇini}} (I. 3. 36) lays down that the root ’nī’ takes the Ātmanepada alone in the case of several senses one of which is {{आचार्यकरण|ācāryakaraṇa}} (and so we should have उपनयेत only). हरदत्त quotes a कारिका that the परस्मैपद is a mistake ‘परस्मैपद-पाठोऽयम् अध्येतॄणां प्रमादतः । आचार्य-करणे यस्मात् प्राप्नोत्य्-अत्र आत्मनेपदम् ॥’ Vide {{संस्कारप्रकाश|संस्कार-प्रकाश}} p. 339 for criticism of {{हरिदत्त’s|Haridatta’s}} view. Vide शबर quoted above. (p. 269 f.n. 619)

• गर्भाष्टमे ब्राह्मण उपनेas}} and madder-red and yellow for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}. Āśv. gṛ. (I. 19. 8), {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} (II. 5), {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas. Dh. S.}} (XI. 61-63), Baud. gṛ. (II.5.16 ) say that the upper garment for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} should be the skin of a black deer, for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} the skin of {{ruru|ruru}} deer and for a {{vaisya|vaiśya}} of cow-skin or of goat skin. Baud. and Āśv. prescribe only goat skin. {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} adds that if any one cannot secure aय इति सकृद् उपनीय कृतः शास्त्रार्थः । — {{महाभाष्य|Mahābhāṣya}} vol. III. p.57.

{{Pār.|Pāraskara}}³¹ {{gṛ.|gṛ.}} (II. 2) allows {{upanayana|upanayana}} in the 8th year from birth or conception and adds that in the case of all {{varṇas|varṇas}} family usage may be followed. {{Yāj.|Yāj.}} I. 14 also refers to family usage. {{Śāṅ. gṛ.|Śāṅ.gṛ.}} (II. 1.1) allows {{upanayaoa|upanayana}} in the 8th or 10th year from conception, the {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} (I. 22. 1) allows it in the 7th or 9th year, the {{Kathaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (4 skin suited to one’s {{varṇa|varṇa}}, he may wear an upper garment of cow-hide as the cow is the chief among animals.³⁸ Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 16 prescribes the skin of black deer for all in the same circumstances. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1. 3.7-8) gives the option to all {{varṇas|varṇas}} to use a sheep skin (as upper garment) or a woollen plaid ({{kambala|kambala}}). Āśv. gṛ. ( I. 19. 8-9) appears to suggest that the lower and upper garments may be of the same skin or that the lower garment may be white or coloured ( as stated above by Āp. Dh, S.). The {{Kāṭhaka|Kāṭhaka}} gṛ.³⁹ ( 41. 13 ) says that the upper garment for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}}1. 1-3) prescribes 7th, 9th and 11th years for the {{upanayana|upanayana}} of the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} respectively.

• अष्ट-वर्षे ब्राह्मणम् उपनयेद्, गर्भाष्टमे वा, एकादश-वर्षं राजन्यं, द्वादश-वर्षं वैश्यम्, यथामङ्गलं वा सर्वेषाम् । — {{पारस्करगृ.|पारस्कर-गृ.}} II.१-४. {{बौ. गृ.|बौधायन-गृ.}} adds — त्रयोदशे मेधा-कामं, चतुर्दशे पुष्टि-कामं, पञ्चदशे भ्रातृव्यवन्तम्, षोडशे सर्व-कामम् इति ।

In some {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} {{upanayana|upanayana}} is allowed to be performed even earlier or at different ages, e. g. {{Gautama|Gautama}} (I. 6-8) prescribes that {{upanayana|upanayana}} for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} is in the 8th year from conception but it may be in the 5th or 9th according to the result desired; should be respectively of the skins of black deer, tiger and {{ruru|ruru}} deer. A vestige of these rules survives in the modern practice of tying a small piece of deer skin to the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} of the boy when his upanayana is performed.

Therefore, the 8th, 11th and 12th years from birth for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} are the principal time- ऐणेयम् अजिनम् उत्तरीयम् ब्राह्मणस्य रौरवं राजन्यस्य आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य सर्वेषां वा गव्यम् असति प्रधानत्वात् । पारस्कर II.5.

That the rules about the lower and upper garments go back to great antiquity is shown by a reference to a {{Brāhmaṇa|Brāhmaṇa}} passage in the Āp. Dh. S.⁴⁰ I. 1. 3.9 ‘one should wear only deerskin ( as lower and upper garments ) if one desires the increase of {{Vedlo|Vedic}} lore, only (cotton) garments if one desires the increase of martial valour and both if one desires both’.

The auspicious times according to the {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} and {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I. 1. 1. 19, {{Hir. gṛ.|Hir.gṛ.}} (I.1) and {{Vaik.|Vaikhānasa}} are {{vasanta|vasanta}} (spring), {{grīṣma|grīṣma}} (summerस्त्राण्येवोभय-वृद्धिम् इच्छन्न् उभयम् इति हि ब्राह्मणम् । अजिनं त्वेवोत्तरं धारयेत् । आप. ध. I. 1. 3. 9-10; compare भारद्वाज-गृह्य I.1 ‘यद् अजिनं धारयेद् ब्रह्मवर्चसवद् वासो धारयेत् क्षत्रं वर्धयेद् उभयं धार्यम् उभयोर् वृद्धया इति विज्ञायते’ । ; compare the गोपथ ब्रा. 2.4 ‘न तान्तवं वसीत यस् तान्तवं वस्ते क्षत्रं वर्धते न ब्रह्म तस्मात् तान्तवं न वसीत ब्रह्म वर्धतां मा क्षत्रम् इति’ ।

{{Daṇḍa|Daṇḍa}} (staff):-There is some divergence of view about the trees of which the staff was to be made. Āśv. g), and {{śarad|śarad}} (autumn) for the three {{Varṇas|Varṇas}}. The {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (1. 1) says that {{upanayana|upanayana}} for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} should be performed in {{vasanta|vasanta}}, for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} in summer or {{hemanta|hemanta}}, for a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} in {{śarad|śarad}}, in the rains for a carpenter ({{rathakāra|rathakāra}}) or in {{śiśira|śiśira}} for all. {{Śabara|Śabara}} in his {{bhāṣya|bhāṣya}} on {{Jaimini|Jaimini}} VI. 1. 33 where {{upanayana|upanayana}} is denied to {{śūdras|śūdras}} quotes ‘{{vasante brāhmaṇam upanayīta|vasante brāhmaṇṛ. ( I. 19. 13 and I. 20.1) says ’ a staff of the {{palāśa|palāśa}} wood for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, of {{udumbara|udumbara}} for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and of {{bilva|bilva}} for a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} or all the {{varṇas|varṇas}} may employ a staff of any of these trees.’ The Āp. gṛ. 11. 15-16 (this is the same as Āp. Dh. S.I.1.2. 38) says that the staff should be of {{palāśa|palāśa}} wood for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, of the branch of the {{nyagrodha|nyagrodha}} tree ( so that the downward end of the branch forms the tip of the staff) for a {{kṣatriya|kam upanayīta}}’ as a Vedic text. {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} I. 4.1 (quoted above in f. n. 494), {{Hir. gṛ.|Hir.gṛ.}} (I. 1. 5, S. B. E. vol. 30 p.137) and {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (1.1) say that {{upanayana|upanayana}} should be performed in the bright half of a month, on an auspicious {{nakṣatra|nakṣatra}}, particularly under a {{nakṣatra|nakṣatra}} the name of which is masculine.³³

• आपूर्यमाण-पक्षे पुण्ये नक्षत्रे, विशेषेण पुं-नामधेये । — {{भारद्वाज|Bhāradvājaṣatriya}}, of {{badara|badara}} or {{udumbara|udumbara}} wood for a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}; while some teachers say that the staff should be made of a tree (which is used in sacrifices ) without reference to any {{varṇa|varṇa}}. {{Gaut|Gaut}}. (I. 21 ) and Baud. Dh. S. (II. 5. 17 ) say that the staff of {{palāśa|palāśa}} or {{bilva|bilva}} should be used for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} and {{Gaut|Gaut}}. (I. 22-23 ) says that {{aśvattha|aśvattha}} and {{pīlu|pīlu}} wood staff should be used respectively for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} or}} I. 1. For {{पुंनामधेयनक्षत्र|puṁ-nāmadheya-nakṣatra}} see note 512.

Later works introduced very intricate rules about the proper months, tithis, days and times for {{upanayana|upanayana}}. It is neither possible nor very necessary to go into these astrological details. But a few words must be said as in modern times {{upanayana|upanayana}} is performed only in accordance with these rules. {{Vṛddhagārgya|Vṛddhagārgya}}³⁴ laid down that six months from {{Māgha|Māgha}} were the proper months for {{upanayana|upanayana}}, while others say that five months from {{Māgha|Māgha}} are the proper ones. Then 1st, 4th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 13th, 14 of any sacrificial tree for all {{varṇas|varṇas}}. Baud. gṛ. prescribes {{nyagrodha|nyagrodha}} or {{rauhitaka|rauhitaka}} for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}}, and {{badara|badara}} or {{udumbara|udumbara}} for {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}. {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} (II. 5 ) recommends a staff of {{palāśa|palāśa}}, {{bilva|bilva}} and {{udumbara|udumbara}} respectively for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} (or any of these for all ). {{Kāṭhaka|Kāṭhaka}} gṛ. (41.22)recommends {{palāśa|palāśa}}, {{aśvattha|aśvattha}} and {{nyagrodth, 15th i. e. (full moon and new moon) tithis are generally avoided (though there are some counter {{exoeptions|exceptions}} which are not set out here). It is stated that {{upanayana|upanayana}} should not be performed when Venus is so near the sun that it cannot be seen, when the sun is in the first degree of any zodiacal sign, on {{anadhyaya|anadhyāya}} days and on {{galagraha|galagraha}}³⁵ (the tithis specified above). Jupiter, Venus, Mars³⁶ and Mercury are respectively the presiding deities of the {{Ṛgveda|Ṛgveda}} and the other Vedas. Therefore the {{upanayana|upanayana}} of those who have to study these Vedas should be performed on the weekha|nyagrodha}} respectively for the three. Manu (II. 45) prescribes {{bilva|bilva}} and {{palāśa|palāśa}} for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{vaṭa|vaṭa}} and {{khadira|khadira}} for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}}, {{pīlu|pīlu}} and {{udumbara|udumbara}} for {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}, and {{Kulluka|Kullūka}} adds that two staffs should be used by the boy, as two are recommended in a compound.

The staff was required for support, for controlling the cattle of the teacher ( which the student was to tend ), for protection when going out at night and for guidance when entering a river or the like.⁴¹

The length of the staff varied according to the {{varṇa|varṇa}} of the boy. Āśv. gṛ. I. 19. 13, {{Gaut|Gaut}}. I. 25, {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas. Dh. S.}} (XI. 55-57), {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} (II. 5), Manu ( II. 46 ) prescribe that in the case of the {{brāhmaras|nakṣatras}} with respect to those who follow a particular Veda (which are passed over). One rule is that all {{nakṣatras|nakṣatras}} except {{Bharaṇi|Bharaṇi}}, {{Kṛttikā|Kṛttikā}}, {{Maghā|Maghā}}, {{Viśākhā|Viśākhā}}, {{Jyeṣṭhā|Jyeṣṭhā}}, {{Śatatārakā|Śatatārakā}} are good for all. The Moon and Jupiter must be astrologically strong with reference to the boy’s horoscope. The rule about Jupiter probably arose from the fact that Jupiter was supposed to rule over knowledge and happiness and as {{upanayana|upanayana}} was meant to be the entrance for Veda-study, Jupiter’s benevolent aspect was thought to be necessary. If Jupiter and Venus are not to be seen owing to nearness to the sun, {{upanayana|upanṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} or {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} boy respectively the staff should be as high as his head, forehead or the tip of the nose. The {{Śāṅ. gṛ.|Śāṅ. gṛ.}} ( II. 1. 21-23, S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 260) on the other hand reverses this ( the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} having the shortest staff and the {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} the longest ). {{Gaut|Gaut}}. I. 26 says that the staff should be one not eaten by worms, should have the bark attached to it, and should have a curved tip, while Manu II. 47 adds that the staff should be straight, pleasing to look at and should not have come into contact with fire. The {{Śāṅ. gṛ.|Śāṅ. gṛ.}} (II.ayana}} cannot be performed. Jupiter when in the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th zodiacal sign from the sign of birth (calculation to be made inclusive of the sign of birth) is auspicious, when in the 1st, 3rd, 6th, 10th place from the sign of birth it is auspicious after the performance of a propitiatory {{homa|homa}} and when it is in the 4th, 8th, 12th place from birth, it is inauspicious. The moon is supposed to be malefic when she is in the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th or 12th place from the sign of birth. Four hours from sunrise is the best for {{upanayana|upanayana}}, from that time to noon is middling and afternoon is prohibited. Some said that a person’s {{upanayana|upanayana}} should not be performed in the month in which he was born, others restricted the prohibition to the {{pakṣa|pakṣa}} (the half) of the month in which he was born 13. 2-3) prescribes that the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} should not allow any one to pass between himself and his staff and that if the staff, girdle or the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} break or rend, he has to undergo a penance (same as the one for the breaking of a chariot at a wedding procession ) and that at the end of the period of brahmacarya, he should sacrifice in water the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, staff, the girdle and the skin⁴² with a mantra to Varuṇa ( Rg. I. 24. 6) or with the sacred syllable ‘om’. Manu II. 64 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. ( 27. 29 ) say the same thing.

• मासान् आह वृद्धगार्ग्यः — माघादि-मास-षट्के तु मेखला-बन्धनं मतम् । — quoted in {{संस्कारप्रकाश|संस्कार-प्रकाश}} p. 355; तथा च ज्योतिषःशास्त्रम् — माघादिषु च मासेषु मौञ्जी पञ्चसु शस्यते । एतच्-च वर्ण-त्रय-साधारणम् । — {{स्मृतिच∘|Smṛticandrikगृ. II. 30. 31. रस means ओम्’.

{{Mekhala|Mekhalā}}(girdle):- {{Gaut|Gaut}}. (I. 15), Āśv. gṛ. ( I. 19. 11), Baud. gṛ. ({{IL|II}}. 5. 13), Manu II. 42, {{Kāṭhaka|Kāṭhaka}} gṛ. (41. 12), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (I. 2) and others prescribe that a girdle made of {{muñja|muñja}} grass should be tied round a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} boy’s waist, one made of {{mūrvā|mūrvā}} grass (which is used for making a bowstring) for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and one of hemp cords for a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}. Pāraskara says that the string of a bow should be used for a {{kṣatriya|ā}} I. p. 27.

• नष्टे चन्द्रेऽस्तगे शुक्रे, निरंशे चैव भास्करे । कर्तव्यं औपनयनं न अनध्याये गलग्रहे ॥ … त्रयोदशी-चतुष्कं तु सप्तम्यादि-त्रयं तथा । चतुर्थ्य्-एकादशी प्रोक्ता अष्टाव्-एते गलग्रहाः ॥ — {{स्मृतिच∘|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 27; {{अपरार्क|Aparārka}} p. 32 cites the first as from पुराण.

• The {{निर्णयसिन्धु|Nirṇayasindhu}} quotes नारद as to {{गलग्रह|galagraha}} differently — ‘कृष्ण-पक्षे चतुर्थी च सप्तम्यादि-दिन-त्रयम् । त्रयोदशी-चतुष्कं च अष्टाव्-एते गलग्रहाः ॥’. गुरुर्-भृगु-सुतो धात्री-पुkṣatriya}} and of {{mūrvā|mūrvā}} grass for a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} and adds that in the absence of these the girdle should respectively be made of {{kuśa|kuśa}}, {{aśmantaka|aśmantaka}} and {{balvaja|balvaja}} grass ( for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}). Manu (II. 42-43) gives the same rules as {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1.2. 35-37)⁸ optionally allows a girdle of {{muñja|muñja}} grass with an iron piece intertwined in it for {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and woollen string or the yoke-string or a string of {{tāmala|tāmala}} bark for {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}} ( according to some ). Baud. gṛ. (II. 5. 13 ) allows {{त्रः शशधरात्मजः । स्युर्-एते ऋग्-यजुः-साम-अथर्वणाम् अधिपः क्रमात् ॥ — {{स्मृतिच∘|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 27.

• हस्ताग्र्ये पुष्य-धनिष्ठयोश्-च पौष्ण-आश्वि-सौम्य-अदिति-विष्णु-भेषु । शस्ते तिथौ चन्द्र-बलोपयुक्तो कार्यो द्विजानाम् उपनायनो विधिः ॥ — {{अपरार्क|Aparārka}} p.32, {{स्मृतिच∘|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 27.

For persons who are entitled to perform the {{upanayana|upanayana}} of a boy, vide note 480.

A {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} had to wear two garments, one for the lower part of the body ({{vāsas|vāsas}}mauñji|mauñjī}} girdle also to all. Some of the sūtras (e. g. Baud. gṛ., Āp. Dh.S.) further prescribe that the girdle of {{muñja|muñja}} grass should have three strings to it and the grass should have its ends turned to the right and the knot of the girdle should be brought near the navel. Manu ( II. 43 ) says that there may be one knot or three or five (according to family usage, says {{Kullūka|Kullūka}}).⁴³

In order to convey an idea of the rites of upanayana in the days of the gṛhya sūtras the ceremony as contained in the Āśv.gṛ. sūtra (which is among the shortest ) is set out in full.⁴⁴ ‘Let him initiate the boy who is decked, whose hair (on the head) is shaved (and arranged), who wears a new garment or an antelope skin if a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, ruru skin if a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}}, goat’s skin if a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}; if they put on garments they should put on dyed ones, reddish-yellow, red and yellow (for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}}, {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} respectively), they should have girdles and staffs ( as described above). While the boy takes hold of ( the hand of) his teacher, the latter offers ( a homa of clarified butter oblations) in the fire (as{{āvika|āvika}}’ (made of wool) for {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} instead of ‘{{ajina|ajina}}’. {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas.Dh.S.}} (XI. 64-67) says that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} ({{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}}) should wear a (lower) garment which is white and unblemished (or new) and for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} or {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} it should be the same as in {{Āp. Dh.|Āp.Dh.}}, but for {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} {{Vas.|Vas.}} prescribes also one made of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass or he says that all should wear cotton cloth that is undyed.’ {{Gaut.|Gaut.}} (I. 17-20) on the other hand says ‘for all the lower garment may be made of hemp, flax or {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass ({{cīra|cīra}}) or of the hair of the described above) and seats himself to the north of the fire with his face turned to the east, while the other one ( the boy ) stations himself in front ( of the teacher) with his face turned to the west. The teacher then fills the folded hands of both himself and of the boy with water and with the verse ‘we choose that of Savitṛ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. V. 82. 1) the teacher drops down the water in his own folded hands on to the water in the folded hands of the boy; having thus poured the water, he should seize with his own hand the boy’s hand together with the thumb (of the boy) with the formula ‘by the urge (or order) of the god Savitṛ, with the arms of the two Aśvins, with the hands of Pūṣan, I seize thy hand, oh! so and so ‘;⁴⁵ with the words ‘Savitṛ has seized thy hand, oh so and so’ a second time ( the teacher seizes the boy’s hand ); with the words ’ mountainous goat ({{kutapa|kutapa}}); other teachers prescribe coloured garments, one coloured with the juice of trees for {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} and madder-red and yellow for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}. {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} (I. 19. 8), {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} (II. 5), {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas.Dh.S.}} (XI. 61-63), {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} (II.5Agni is thy teacher, {{ob|oh}} so and so’ a third time. The teacher should cause (the boy ) to look at the sun, while the teacher repeats ‘God Savitṛ! this is thy {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}}, protect him, may he not die⁴⁶ and (the teacher should further ) say ‘Whose {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} art thou ? thou art the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} of Prāṇa. Who does initiate thee and whom ( does he initiate )? I give⁹ thee to Ka ( to Prajāpati)’. With the half verse ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. III 8. 4.) ’the young man, well attired and dressed, came[^.16) say that the upper garment for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} should be the skin of a black deer, for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} the skin of ruru deer and for a {{vaisya|vaiśya}} of cow-skin or of goat skin. {{Baud.|Baud.}} and {{Āśv.|Āśv.}} prescribe only goat skin. {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} adds that if any one cannot secure a skin suited to one’s {{varṇa|varṇa}}, he may wear an upper garment of cow-hide as the cow is the chief among animals.³⁸ {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} II. 5. 16 prescribes the skin of black deer for all in the same circumstances. {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} (I. 1. 3.7-8) gives the option to all {{varṇas|varṇas}} to use a sheep skin (as upper garment) or a woollen plaid (kambala). {{Āśv. gṛ.|Ā656] hither’ he (the teacher ) should cause him to turn round to the right and with his two hands placed over the boy’s ) shoulders he should touch the place of the boy’s heart repeating the latter half (of {{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. III. 8.4). Having wiped the ground round the fire the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} should put ( on the fire ) a fuel stick silently, since it is known (from śruti) ‘what belongs to Prajāpati is silently ( done)’, and the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} belongs to Prajāpati. Some do this (offering of a fuel stick) with a mantra ’to Agni I have brought a fuel stick, to the great {{Jātavedasśv.gṛ.}} (I. 19. 8-9) appears to suggest that the lower and upper garments may be of the same skin or that the lower garment may be white or coloured (as stated above by {{Āp. Dh, S.|Āp.Dh.S.}}). The {{Kāṭhaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}}³⁹ (41. 13) says that the upper garment for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} should be respectively of the skins of black deer, tiger and ruru deer. A vestige of these rules survives in the modern practice of tying a small piece of deer skin to the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} of the boy when his {{upanayana|upanayana}} is performed.

• वासः । शाणी-क्षौम-अजिनानि । का|Jātavedas}}; by the fuel stick mayst thou increase, Oh Agni and may we (increase ) through {{brahman|brahman}} (prayer or spiritual lore), {{svāhā|svāhā}}’.⁴⁷ Having put the fuel stick ( on the fire) and having touched the fire, he ( the student ) thrice wipes off his face with the words ’ I anoint myself with lustre’; it is known (from śruti) ‘for he does anoint himself with lustre’. ‘May Agni bestow on me, insight, offspring and lustre; on me may Indra bestow insight, offspring and vigour ({{indriya|indriya}}); on me may the sun bestow insight, offspring and radiance; what thy lustre is, Oh Agni, may I thereby become lustrous; what thy strength is, Agni, may Iषायं च एके वस्त्रम् उपदिशन्ति । माञ्जिष्ठं राजन्यस्य । हरिद्रं वैश्यस्य । — {{आप. ध.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.1.2.39-41, I.1.3.1-2; शुक्लं अहतं वासो ब्राह्मणस्य । माञ्जिष्ठं क्षत्रियस्य । हारिद्रं कौशेयं वैश्यस्य । सर्वेषां वा तान्तवम् अरक्तम् । — वसिष्ठ XI.64-67; what is अहत is defined by प्रचेतस् — ‘ईषद्-धौतं नवं श्वेतं सदशं यन् thereby become strong; what thy consuming power is Agni, may I thereby acquire consuming power’.⁴⁸ Having waited upon (worshipped) Agni with these formulas, (the student) should bend his knees, embrace (the teacher’s feet) and say to him ‘recite, Sir, recite, Sir, the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}}’. Seizing the student’s hands with the upper garment ( of the student) and his own hands the teacher recites the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}}, first {{pāda|pāda}} by {{pāda|pāda}}, then hemistich by hemistich (and lastly) the whole-न धारितम् । अहतं तद् विजानीयात् सर्व-कर्मसु पावनम् ॥’ — quoted in {{स्मृतिच∘|Smṛticandrikā}} I.p.29.

• ऐणेयम् अजिनम् उत्तरीयम् ब्राह्मणस्य, रौरवं राजन्यस्य, आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य, सर्वेषां वा गव्यम् असति प्रधानत्वात् । — पारस्कर II.5.

• ऐणेयं चर्म ब्राह्मणाय प्रयच्छति, वैयाघ्रं राजन्याय, रौरवं वैश्याय । — {{काठक गृह्य|K verse. He (the teacher) should make him ( the student) recite ( the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}}) as much as he is able. On the place of the student’s heart the teacher lays his hand with the fingers upturned with the formula ‘I place thy heart⁴⁹ unto duty to me; may thy mind follow my mind; may you attend on my words single-minded; may {{Bṛhaspati|Bṛhaspati}} appoint thee unto me. Having tied the girdle round him (the boy ) and having given him the staff, the teacher should instruct him in the observances of a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} with the words ‘a {{brahmacāṭhaka-gṛhya}} 41.13.

That the rules about the lower and upper garments go back to great antiquity is shown by a reference to a {{Brāhmaṇa|Brāhmaṇa}} passage in the {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}}⁴⁰ I. 1. 3.9 ‘one should wear only deerskin (as lower and upper garments) if one desires the increase of {{Vedlo|Vedic}} lore, only (cotton) garments if one desires the increase of martial valour and both if one desiresārī|brahmacārī}}⁵⁰ art thou, sip water, do service, do not sleep by day, depending (completely ) on the teacher learn the Veda’. He (the student) should beg (food) in the evening and the morning ; he should put a fuel stick ( on fire ) in the evening and the morning. That ( which he has received by begging) he should announce to the teacher; he should not sit down (but should be standing) the rest of the day.⁵¹

• ब्रह्म-वृद्धिम् इच्छन्-अजिनान्य्-एव वसीत, क्षत्र-वृद्धिम् इच्छन्-वस्त्राण्य्-एव, उभय-वृद्धिम् इच्छन्-उभयम् इति हि ब्राह्मणम् । अजिनं त्व्-एव उत्तरं धारयेत् । — {{आप. ध.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.1.3.9-10; compare {{भारद्वाजगृह्य|Bhāradvāja-gṛhya}} I.1 ‘यद्-अजिनं धार the boy should be addressed by his name. The formula ‘devasya tvā’ occurs in several connections (e. g. in adoption etc.) in several {{saṁhtās|saṁhitās}}. Vide for this वाज. सं. II. 11, तै. सं. II. 6. 8. 6. A similar formula occurs in आप. मन्त्र-पाठ II. 3. 24 and II. 9. 5, हिरण्य. गृ. I. 11. 17, मानव-गृ. I. 22. 5, बौ. गृ. II. 5. 28 (देवस्य……हस्ताभ्याम् उपयेद् ब्रह्मवर्चसवद्, वासो धारयेत् क्षत्रं वर्धयेद्, उभयं धार्यम् उभयोर्-वृद्ध्यै इति विज्ञायते ।’; compare the {{गोपथ ब्रा.|Gopatha-Br.}} 2.4 ‘न तान्तवं वसीत । यस्-तान्तवं वस्ते क्षत्रं वर्धते, न ब्रह्म । तस्मात्-तान्तवं न वसीत ब्रह्म वर्धतां मा क्षत्रम् इति ।’

Daṇḍa (staff):-There is some divergence of view about the trees of which the staffनयेऽसौ), काठक-गृ. 41. 16 (reads as in बौ. गृ.)

The}} (or any of these for all). {{Kāṭhaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (41.22) recommends {{palāśa|palāśa}}, {{aśvattha|aśvattha}} and {{nyagrodha|nyagrodha}} respectively for the three. {{Manu|Manu}} (II. 45) prescribes {{bilva|bilva}} and {{palāśa|palāśa}} for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{vaṭa|vaṭa}} and {{khadira|khadira}} for {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}}, {{pīlu|p whole procedure of upanayana is more elaborately described in the Āp. gṛ., in Hir. gṛ. and Gobhila. A few points of interest and divergence may be noted here briefly. It is remarkable that Āśv., Āp. and several other {{sūtrakāras|sūtrakāras}} do not say a word about the sacred thread, while a few like Hir. gṛ. (I. 2. 6), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (I.3) and {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. (I. 22. 2) say that the boy already wears theīlu}} and {{udumbara|udumbara}} for {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}, and {{Kulluka|Kullūka}} adds that two staffs should be used by the boy, as two are recommended in a compound.

The staff was required for support, for controlling the cattle of the teacher (which the student was to tend), for protection when going out at night and for guidance when entering a river or the like.⁴¹

• दण्ड-अजिन-उपवीतानि मेखलां चैव धारयेत् । — याज्ञ. I.29; ‘तत्र दण्डस्य कार्यम् अवलम्बनं {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} before the homa begins; while Baud. gṛ.¹¹ (II. 5. 7) says that the boy is given the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} and then made to recite the well-known mantra ’the {{Yajñopavīta|Yajñopavīta}} is extremely sacred’ and the {{Vaik. smārta|Vaik. smārta}} (II. 5) says that the teacher gives the upper garment to the boy with¹² the verse ‘{{parīdaṁ vāsaḥ|par, गव-आदि-निवारणं, तमो-ऽवगाहनम्, अप्सु प्रवेशनम् इति आदि’ — अपरार्क. As the carrying of a staff has a seen result, it need not be carried at all times, according to Aparārka (p. 57), but the others having unseen results must be worn always.

The length of the staff varied according to the {{varṇa|varṇa}} of the boy. {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} I. 19. 13, {{Gaut.|Gīdaṁ vāsaḥ}}’, the sacred thread with the mantra ‘Yajñopavītam’and the black antelope skin with the mantra ’the eye of Mitra’. Sudarśana on Āp. gṛ. 10.5 says that the boy puts on the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} with the mantra before he takes his meal (according to some) or (according to others) before⁵² he puts the fuel stick on the fire and relies on Āp, Dh. S. I. 5. 15. 1 for support. According to {{Karka|Karka}} and Harihara (on Pāraskara) the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} was given to the student by the teacher after the tying of theaut.}} I. 25, {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas.Dh.S.}} (XI. 55-57), {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} (II. 5), {{Manu|Manu}} (II. 46) prescribe that in the case of the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} or {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} boy respectively the staff should be as high as his head, forehead or the tip of the nose. The {{Śāṅ. gṛ.|Śāṅ.gṛ.}} (II. 1. 21-23, S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 260) on the other hand reverses this (the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} having the shortest staff and the {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} the longest). {{Gaut.|Gaut.}} I. 26 says that the staff should be one girdle. The {{Saṁskāratattva|Saṁskāratattva}} p. 934 says the same. Late works like the {{Saṁskāraratnamālā|Saṁskāraratnamālā}} (p. 202) prescribe the wearing of the sacred thread before the homa. The origin and development of the ideas about {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} will be dealt with separately later on, Āp. gṛ, (X.5), Baud gṛ. (II. 5. 7) and {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} (II. 2) prescribe a dinner to {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} before the ceremonies begin and receiving their benedictions. Āp. gṛ. (X.5), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (I. 1), Baud gṛ.⁵³ (II. 5. 7) say that the boy also is made to take not eaten by worms, should have the bark attached to it, and should have a curved tip, while {{Manu|Manu}} II. 47 adds that the staff should be straight, pleasing to look at and should not have come into contact with fire. The {{Śāṅ. gṛ.|Śāṅ.gṛ.}} (II. 13. 2-3) prescribes that the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} should not allow any one to pass between himself and his staff and that if the staff, girdle or the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} break or rend, he has to undergo a penance (same as the one for the breaking of a chariot at a wedding procession) and that at the end of the period of {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}, he should sacrifice in water the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, staff, the girdle and the skin⁴² with a mantra to {{Varuṇa|Varuṇa}} ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} I. 24. 6) or with the sacred syllable ‘om’. {{Manu|Manu}} II. 64 and {{Viṣṇu Dh. S.|Viṣṇu food; according to later works (e. g. {{Saṁskāraratnamālā|Saṁskāraratnamālā}}) the boy takes his meal in the same dish with his mother (for the last time) and other {{brahmacārins|brahmacārins}} (eight in number) are also invited at the same time for meals in the company of the boy. This practice is observed even in modern times. Almost all prescribe that the boy is shaved on this day (as in {{caula|caula}}); this also is done in modern times. But in ancient⁵⁴ times the shaving was done by the {{ācārya|ācārya}} himself as stated by Sudarśana on Āp. gṛ. 10. 6-8. There are several other matters detailed in Āp. and others, on which Āśv. and some others are silent. The important ones are mentioned below.

• उपवीतं च {{द्ण्डे|दण्डे}} बध्नाति । तदप्य्-एतत् । यज्ञोपवीत-दण्डं च मेखलाम् अजिनं तथा । जुहुयाद् अप्सु व्रते पूर्णे वारुण्य्-अर्चा रसेन । — {{शा.गृ.|Śāṅ.gṛ.}} II.13.2-3{{?}}. रस means ओम्’. (The reference seems to be wrong, it is likely II.13.2-3)

Mekhala (girdle):- {{Gaut.|Gaut.}} (I. 15), {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} (I. 19. 11), {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} ({{IL.|II.}} 5. 13), {{Manu|Manu}} II. 42, {{Kāṭhaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (41. 12), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ अस्तु तेजः॥’ इति यज्ञोपवीतिनम् अप आचमय्य अथ देव-यजनम् उदानयति । बौ. गृ. II. 5. 7-8; the verse यज्ञोपवीतं is quoted as from गृह्य-परिशिष्ट in स्मृति-च॰ (I. p. 31) and is repeated even in the island of Bali by the pedandas. In some mss. of {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} this mantra occurs, but it is an interpolation, as Karka, Jayarāma and Harihara say ‘यद्यपि सूत्र-कारेण यज्ञोपवीत-धारणं न सूत्रितम्’ (हरिहर).

(a) Āp. gṛ. (10.9), {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. (I. 23. 12), Baud. gṛ. (II. 5, 10), {{Khādira|Khādira}}Kullūka|Kullūka}}).⁴³

• ज्या राजन्यस्य, मौञ्जी वयो-मिश्रा । आवी-सूत्रं वैश्यस्य । सैरी तामली वा इति एके । — {{आप. ध. सू.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.1.2.34-37. तामल is explained as शण (hemp) in the com. on गोभिल II.10.10 and by हरदत्त as ‘तामलो मूलोदक-संज्ञो वृक्षः । तस्य त्वचा ग्रथिता तामली’.

In order to convey an idea of the rites of {{upanayana|upanayana}} in the days of the {{gṛhya sūtras|gṛhyasū gṛ. (II. 4) and {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (I.8) make the boy tread on a stone to the north of the fire with his right foot after home. The mantras repeated in the several sūtras are significant asking the boy to be firm like a stone.⁵⁵

(b) {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. (I.22.3) and {{Kāṭhaka|Kāṭhaka}} gṛ. (41. 10) prescribe aftertras}} the ceremony as contained in the {{Āśv.gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} sūtra (which is among the shortest) is set out in full.⁴⁴ ‘Let him initiate the boy who is decked, whose hair (on the head) is shaved (and arranged), who wears a new garment or an antelope skin if a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, ruru skin if a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}}, goat’s skin if a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}}; if they put on garments they should put on dyed ones, reddish-yellow, red and yellow (for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}}, {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} respectively), they should have girdles and staffs (as described above). While the boy takes hold of (the hand of homa the tasting of curds thrice after repeating the verse ‘{{Dadhikrāvṇo akāriṣam|Dadhikrāvṇo akāriṣam}}’({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. IV. 39. 6={{Tai. S.|Tai. S.}} I. 5. 4. 11).

(c) {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} (II.2), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (I.7), Āp. gṛ. (11.1-4), Āp. {{Mantrapāṭha|Mantrapāṭha}} (II. 3. 27-30), Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 25 (quoting {{Śāṭyāyanaka|Śāṭyāyanaka}}), {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ.) his teacher, the latter offers (a {{homa|homa}} of clarified butter oblations) in the fire (as described above) and seats himself to the north of the fire with his face turned to the east, while the other one (the boy) stations himself in front (of the teacher) with his face turned to the west. The teacher then fills the folded hands of both himself and of the boy with water and with the verse ‘we choose that of {{Savitṛ|Savitṛ}} ({{Ṛg.|Ṛg.}} V. 82. 1) the teacher drops down the water in his own folded hands on to the water in the folded hands of the boy; having thus poured the water, he should seize with his own hand the boy’s hand together with the thumb (of the boy) with the formula ‘by the urge (or order) of the god {{Savitṛ|Savitṛ}}, with the arms of the two {{ I. 22. 4-5, and {{Khādira|Khādira}} gṛ. II. 4. 12 refer to the fact that the teacher asks the boy his name and the latter pronounces his name. The teacher also asks whose {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} the boy is.

A person was given (as shown above at pp. 246-247) an {{abhivāAśvins|Aśvins}}, with the hands of {{Pūṣan|Pūṣan}}, I seize thy hand, oh! so and so’;⁴⁵ with the words ‘{{Savitṛ|Savitṛ}} has seized thy hand, oh so and so’ a second time (the teacher seizes the boy’s hand); with the words ‘{{Agni|Agni}} is thy teacher, {{ob|oh}} so and so’ a third time. The teacher should cause (the boy) to look at the sun, while the teacher repeats ‘God {{Savitṛ|Savitṛ}}! this is thy {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}}, protect him, may he not die⁴⁶ and (the teacher should further) say ‘Whose {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} art thou? thou art the {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} of {{Prāṇa|Prāṇa}}. Who does initiate thee and whom (does hedanīya|abhivādanīya}} name either derived from the {{nakṣatra|nakṣatra}} of birth or from a deity name or the {{gotra|gotra}} name. This was necessary for several purposes. The teacher had to know that the boy came from a good family, he had also to address him by name (as there might be several pupils). It is wrong to suppose⁵⁶ from the story of {{Satyakāma Jābāla|Satyakāma Jābāla}} (where the teacher asked him his {{gotra|gotra}}) that only {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} were admitted to brahmacarya. All {{smṛtis|smṛtis}}, even the latest, contemplated that the three castes had the right to learn the Veda. It is one thing to have a right and another to exercise it. Probably very few {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} cared to submit their sons to the rigorous discipline of brahmacarya as laid down in the {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} and cared much less for Veda studies. In the Mahābhārata and in the {{Kādambarī|Kādambarī}} it is said that the princes were taught in a special house constructed for the purpose and teachers were paid handsomely and brought there to teach instead of the princes going to the teachers.

It is not possible for want of space to show how the greatest possible confusion prevails as to the order of the various components of the ceremony of upanayana, But a few striking examples may be given. Āśvalāyana gṛ. treats of the tying of the girdle and the giving of the staff almost at the end of the ceremony, while Āp. gṛ. puts this after homa and immediately before {{añjalipūraṇa|añjalipūraṇa}} (filling the folded hands of both with water); Āśvalāyana puts {{ādityadarśana|ādityadarśana}} after the boy Oh {{Agni|Agni}} and may we (increase) through brahman (prayer or spiritual lore), {{svāhā|svāhā}}’.⁴⁷ Having put the fuel stick (on the fire) and having touched the fire, he (the student) thrice wipes off his face with the words ‘I anoint myself with lustre’; it is known (from {{śruti|śruti}}) ‘for he does anoint himself with lustre’. ‘May {{Agni|Agni}} bestow on me, insight, offspring and lustre; on me may {{Indra|Indra}} bestow insight, offspring and vigour ({{indriya|indriya}}); on me may the sun bestow insight, offspring and radiance; what thy lustre is, Oh {{Agni|Agni}}, may I thereby become lustrous; what thy strength is, {{Agni|Agni}}, may I thereby become strong; what thy consuming power is {{Agni|Agni}}, may I thereby acquire consuming power’.⁴⁸ Having waited upon (worshipped)’s {{band|hand}} is held by the teacher and before {{paridāna|paridāna}} (handing the boy {{cover|over}} to the deities), but {{Bhār|Bhār}}. (I. 9) puts it after the instruction in the observances of brahmacarya. The {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (I.9) treats of {{ādityadarśana|ādityadarśana}} almost at the end of the rites, while Āśv. places it among the earlier ones after homa. Besides the same mantras are employed by different sūtras for different purposes; for example, the mantra ‘{{suśrayaḥ|suśravas}} &c.’ is employed by Āp. at the time of taking the staff by the boy (XI. 14 and {{Mantrapāṭha|Mantrapāṭha}} II. 5. 1), while Āśv. gṛ. (I. 22. 19), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (I. 10), {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. (I. 23, 17) employ it in ‘{{medhājanana|medhājanana}}’ (on the 4th day after upanayana) and {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} (II. 4) employs it at the time of putting a fuel stick on fire. Āśv. employs the verse ‘{{yuvā suvāsāḥ|yuvā suvāsāḥ}}’ ({{Ṛg {{Agni|Agni}} with these formulas, (the student) should bend his knees, embrace (the teacher’s feet) and say to him ‘recite, Sir, recite, Sir, the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}}’. Seizing the student’s hands with the upper garment (of the student) and his own hands the teacher recites the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}}, first {{pāda|pāda}} by {{pāda|pāda}}, then hemistich by hemistich (and lastly) the whole verse. He (the teacher) should make him (the student) recite (the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}}) as much as he is able. On the place of the student’s heart the teacher lays his hand with the fingers upturned with the formula ‘I place thy heart⁴⁹ unto duty to me; may thy mind follow my mind; may you attend on my words single-minded; may {{Bṛhaspati|Bṛhaspati}} appoint thee unto me. Having tied the girdle round him (the boy) and having given him the staff, the teacher should instruct him in the observances of a {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} with the words ‘a {{brahmacārī|bra|Ṛg}}. III. 8. 4) for making the boy turn round (first half) and for touching the region of the boy’s heart (latter half), while the same verse is employed at the time of tying the girdle round the boy’s waist by the {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. (I. 22.8 ) and {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}}(II. 2).

Later writers went on adding mantras and details. On the day prior to {{upapayana|upanayana}} the Nāndīśrāddha was performed as said by Haradatta on Āp. gṛ. 10. 5. {{Grahamakha|Grahamakha}} (a sacrifice to the planets) also may be performed the previous day or on any day within 7 or 10 days of the upanayana. Then before the actual upanayana, there is the worship of Gaṇapati and of Kuladavatās, {{puṇyāhavācana|puṇyāhavācana}}, the worship of Mātṛs and the consecration of the {{maṇḍapa-devatās|maṇḍapa-devatās}}. For the detailed modern procedure (prayoga) of upanayana,hmacārī}}⁵⁰ art thou, sip water, do service, do not sleep by day, depending (completely) on the teacher learn the Veda’. He (the student) should beg (food) in the evening and the morning; he should put a fuel stick (on fire) in the evening and the morning. That (which he has received by begging) he should announce to the teacher; he should not sit down (but should be standing) the rest of the day.⁵¹

• Vide Appendix for the text of {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} and for a very concise form prepared recently.

• Here the boy should be addressed by his name. The formula ‘{{devasya tvā|devasya tvā}}’ occurs in several connections (e. g. in adoption etc.) in several {{saṁhtās|saṁhitās}}. Vide for this {{वाज. सं.|Vāj.Saṁ.}} II. 11, {{तै. सं.|Tai.Saṁ.}} II. 6. 8. 6. A similar formula the S. R. M. (pp. 197-210), which in the main follows the briefer procedure in the gṛhya sūtras, may be consulted. Up to the act of making the boy dine with his mother it is the father who does everything ; thereafter it is the {{ācārya|ācārya}} who does the rest. The {{saṁkalpa|saṁkalpa}} of upanayana is given below⁵⁷

{{Yajñopavīta|Yajñopavīta}}⁵⁸ :— A few words must be said on the history of {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} from ancient times. Among the earliest references is one from the {{Tai. S.|Tai. S.}} II. 5. 11.1 ’ occurs in {{आप. मन्त्रपाठ|Āp.Mantrapāṭha}} II. 3. 24 and II. 9. 5, {{हिरण्य. गृ.|Hiraṇyakeśi-gṛ.}} I. 11. 17, {{मानवगृ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} I. 22. 5, {{बौ. गृ.|Baud.gṛ.}} II. 5. 28 (देवस्य… हस्ताभ्याम् उपनयेऽसौ), {{काठकगृ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} 41. 16 (reads as in {{बौ. गृ.|Baud.gṛ.}}).

• देव… … मा मृत. This मन्त्र occurs also in the {{आप. मन्त्रपाठ|Āp.Mantrapāṭha}} II. 3. 31 (असाव्-एष ते देव सूर्य… … मृत) and in {{मानवगृह्य|Mānava-gṛhya}} I. 22. 5, {{शां. गृ.|Śāṅ.gṛ.}} IIthe {{nivīta|nivīta}}⁵⁹ is (used in actions) for men, the {{prācīnāvīta|prācīnāvīta}} (is used in rites) for {{pitṛs|pitṛs}}, the {{upavīta|upavīta}} (in rites) for gods; he wears it in the {{upavīta|upavīta}} mode (i.e. slung from the left shoulder ), thereby he makes a distinguishing sign of the gods’. In the {{Tai. Br.|Tai. Br.}} (I. 6. 8.) we read ‘wearing in the {{prācīnāvīta|prācīnāvīta}} form he offers towards the south; for in the case of {{pitṛs|pitṛs}}, acts are performed towards the south. Disregarding that one should wear in the {{upavīta|upavīta}} form and offer in the north only, since both gods and {{pitṛs|pitṛs. 18. 4 and others.

• The words कस्य… … परिददामि occur in {{आप. म. पा.|Āp.M.Pā.}} II. 3. 29, {{मानवगृह्य|Mānava-gṛhya}} I. 22. 5, {{पारस्कर|Pāraskara}} II. 2 (with variations in all).

• For the whole verse युवा सुवासाः vide note 620 above.

• अग्नये समिधम् आहार्षं &c—The first half occurs in {{आप. म. पा.|Āp.M.Pā.}} II. 6. 2, {{पारस्कर|Pāraskara}} II. 4, {{हिरण्य गृ.|Hiraṇyakeśi-gṛ.}} I. 7. 2, {{गोभिलगृह्य|Gobhila-gṛhya}} II, 10. 46}} are worshipped (in this rite)’.⁶⁰ The three words {{nivīta|nivīta}}, {{pracināvīta|prācīnāvīta}} and {{upavīta|upavīta}} are explained in the Gobhila gṛ. (I. 2. 2-4) which says ‘raising his right arm, putting the head into (the upavīta) he suspends (the cord) over his left shoulder in such a way that it hangs down on his right side ; thus he becomes {{yajñopavītin|yajñopavītī}}. Passing his left arm, putting the head (into the {{upavīta|upavīta}}) he suspends it over his right shoulder, so that it hangs down along his left side; in this way he becomes {{prācīnāvītin|prācīnāvītī}}; a person becomes {{pracināvītin|prācīnāvītī}} only in the sacrifice offered to the Manes’, {{भारद्वाजगृ.|Bhāradvāja-gṛ.}} I. 8, all of which have a long latter half like यथा त्वम् अग्ने समिधा समिध्यसे, एवं माम् आयुषा…

• मयि मेधां &c. These mantras occur in {{तै.सं.|Tai.Saṁ.}} III. 3. 1. 2 and III. 5. 3. 2; also in {{हिरण्य. गृ.|Hiraṇyakeśi-gṛ.}}, {{बौ. गृ.|Baud.gṛ.}} II. 5. 62 &c.

• मम व्रते &c. These words also occur in {{पारस्करगृ.|Pāraskara-gṛ.}} II. 2., {{मानवगृ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} I. 22. 10,⁶¹. To the same effect is {{Khādira|Khādira}} gṛ. I. 1. 8-9, Manu II. 63, Baud. gṛ. {{paribhāṣā-sūtra|paribhāṣā-sūtra}} II. 2. 7 and 10, Vaik. I. 5. The Baud.⁶²in gṛ. {{paribhāṣā-sūtra|paribhāṣā-sūtra}} II.2.3 says ‘when it is carried over the neck, both shoulders and the chest and is held with both the thumbs (of the two hands) lower than the region of the heart and above the navel, that is {{nivīta|nivīta}} ; (when the śruti says it is) for men, what it means is that it is for sages {{हिरण्यगृ.|Hiraṇyakeśi-gṛ.}} (where we have मम हृदये). These words also occur in the marriage ceremony (as addressed by the husband); vide {{पारस्करगृ.|Pāraskara-gṛ.}} I. 8.

• ब्रह्मचार्य्-असि &c. These words (with some additions and omissions) occur in {{आप. म. पा.|Āp.M.Pā.}} II. 6. 14, {{पारस्करगृ.|Pāraskara-gṛ.}} II. 3, {{काठकगृ|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} 41. 17 and several others. These are based on the {{शतपथ|Śatapatha}} passage quoted in note 625 above. In some it is said simply ‘do not sleep’ and this is explained in {{आप. ध. सू.|Ā. The occasions when {{nivīta|nivīta}} mode is used are: {{ṛṣi-tarpaṇa|ṛṣi-tarpaṇa}}, sexual intercourse, {{saṁskāras|saṁskāras}} of one’s children except when homa is to be performed, answering the calls of nature, carrying a corpse and whatever other actions are meant only for men; {{nivīta|nivīta}} is what hangs from the neck’.

• {{अनुप्रवचनीय|Anupravacanīya}} sacrifice is to be performed after a part of the Veda has been learnt, vide {{आश्व. गृ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} I. 22. 10-16, {{गोभिलगृह्य|Gobhila-gṛhya}} III. 2. 46-47.

The whole procedure of {{upanayana|upanayana}} is more elaborately described in the {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}}, in {{Hir. gṛ.|Hir.gṛ.}} and {{Gobhila|Gobhila}}. A few points of interest and divergence may be तत् कुरुते । तै. सं. II. 5. 11. 1.

The {{Śat. Br.|Śat. Br.}} (II. 4, 2. 1, S. B. E. vol. 12, p. 361 ) says “the gods being {{yajñopavītins|yajñopavītins}} approached near, bending their right knee; he (Prajāpati) said to them ’the sacrifice is your food, immortality is your strength, the sun is your light’; then the {{pitṛs|pitṛs}} approached him, being {{prācīnāvītins|prācīnāvītins}} and bending their left knee and then men approached him covered with a garment and bending their bodies” etc.¹³ It isīta}} with the mantra before he takes his meal (according to some) or (according to others) before⁵² he puts the fuel stick on the fire and relies on {{Āp, Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I. 5. 15. 1 for support. According to {{Karka|Karka}} and {{Harihara|Harihara}} (on {{Pāraskara|Pāraskara}}) the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} was given to the student by the teacher after the tying of the girdle. The {{Saṁskāratattva|Saṁskāratattva}} p. 934 says the same. Late works like the {{Saṁskāraratnamālā|Saṁskāraratnamālā}} (p. 202) prescribe the wearing of the sacred thread before the {{homa|homa}}. The origin and development of the ideas about {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavī important to note here that men are said to have been covered only with a garment and there is no reference in their case to any mode of wearing either as {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} or {{nivīta|nivīta}} or {{prācīnāvīta|prācīnāvīta}}. This rather suggests that men wore only garments when approaching gods and not necessarily a cord of threads. In the {{Tai|Tai}}.¹⁴ Br. III. 10. 9. it is said that when {{vāk|vāk}} (speech) appeared to Devabhāga Gautama he put on the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} and fell down with the words ‘{{namo namaḥ|namo namaḥ}}’.

[^6ta}} will be dealt with separately later on, {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} (X.5), {{Baud gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} (II. 5. 7) and {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} (II. 2) prescribe a dinner to {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} before the ceremonies begin and receiving their benedictions. {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} (X.5), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (I. 1), {{Baud gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}}⁵³ (II. 5. 7) say that the boy also is made to take food; according to later works (e. g. {{Saṁskāraratnamālā|Saṁskāraratnamālā}}) the boy takes his meal in the same dish with his mother (for the last time) and other {{brahmacārins|brahm75]: >- ततो देवा यज्ञोपवीतिनो भूत्वा दक्षिणं जान्वाच्योपासीदंस्तान् अब्रवीद् यज्ञो वोऽन्नम् अमृतत्वं व ऊर्ग्वः सूर्यो वो ज्योतिर् इति । अथैनं पितरः प्राचीनावीतिनः सव्यं जान्वाच्य … … अथैनं मनुष्याः प्रावृता उपस्थं कृत्वोपासीदन्’ शतपथ II. 4. 2. 1.

It seems to follow from a passage in the {{Tai. Ā.|Tai. Ā.}} (II.1) that a strip of black antelope skin or of clothacārins}} (eight in number) are also invited at the same time for meals in the company of the boy. This practice is observed even in modern times. Almost all prescribe that the boy is shaved on this day (as in {{caula|caula}}); this also is done in modern times. But in ancient⁵⁴ times the shaving was done by the {{ācārya|ācārya}} himself as stated by {{Sudarśana|Sudarśana}} on {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} 10. 6-8. There are several other matters detailed in {{Āp.|Āp.}} and others, on which {{Āśv.|Āśv.}} and some others are silent. The important ones are mentioned below.

• स्नातं शुचि-वाससं बद्ध-शिखं यज्ञोपवीतं प्रतिमुञ्चन् वाचयति — ‘यज्ञोपवीतं परमं पवित्रं प्रजापतेर्-यत्-सहजं पुरस्तात् । आयुष्यम्-अग्र्यं प्रतिमुञ्च शुभ्रं यज्ञोपवीतं बलम् अस्तु तेजः ॥’ इति । यज्ञोपवीतिनम् अप was used in ancient times as {{upavīta|upavīta}}⁶³ ’the sacrifice of him who wears the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} becomes spread out (prosperous, famous), while the sacrifice of him who does not wear it does not spread ; whatever a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} studies, wearing a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, he really (therein) performs a sacrifice. Therefore one should study, sacrifice or officiate at a sacrifice with the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} on for securing the spreading of sacrifice; having worn an antelope skin or a garment on the right side, he raises the right hand and keeps the left down; this is {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}; when this position is reversed it is {{prācīnāvīta|prācīnāvīta}}; the position called {{saṁvita|saṁvīta}} is for men.’ It is remarkable that here at any rate no cord of threads is meant by {{upavīta|upavīta}}, but only a piece of skin or cloth. The {{Par. M.|Par. M.}} (I. part 1 p आचमय्य, अथ देव-यजनम् उदानयति । — {{बौ. गृ.|Baud.gṛ.}} II.5.7-8; the verse यज्ञोपवीतं is quoted as from {{गृह्यपरिशिष्ट|Gṛhyapariśiṣṭa}} in {{स्मृतिच॰|Smṛticandrikā}} (I. p. 31) and is repeated even in the island of Bali by the pedandas. In some mss. of {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} this mantra occurs, but it is an interpolation, as Karka, Jayarāma and Harihara say ‘यद्यपि सूत्रकारेण यज्ञोपवीत-धारणं न सूत्रितम्’ (हरिहर).

• परीदं वासः — this is {{आप. म. पा.|Āp.M.Pā.}} II. 2. 8; मित्रस्य चक्षुः is {{आप. म. पा.|Āp.M.Pā.}} II. 2. 11.

• Acc. to {{शाङ्खायनगृह्य|Śāṅkhāyana-gṛhya}} II. 2. 3 the {{आचार्य|ācārya}} says ‘यज्ञोपवीतम् अस्ति, यज्ञस्य त्वा यज्ञोपवीतेन उपनह्यामि.’

• {{बौ. गृ. सू.|Baud.g. 173) quotes⁶⁴ a portion of the above passage and remarks that the {{Tai. Ār.|Tai. Ār.}} lays down that a man becomes an {{upavītin|upavītī}} by wearing one of the two, viz. antelope skin and (cotton) garment.

In the {{Pūrvamīṁāmsāsūtra|Pūrvamīmāṁsāsūtra}} (III. 1. 21) it is established (with reference to the words) in the {{Tai. S.|Tai. S.}} II. 5. 11. 1 ({{upavyayate|upavyayate}} etc. quoted in f. n. 671ṛ.sū.}} ‘कुमारं भोजयित्वा, तस्य {{चालैवत्तूष्णीं|चौलं एव तूष्णीं}} केशान्-ओप्य स्नातं शुचि-वाससं बद्ध-शिखम्’ &c. (II. 5. 7).

• त्रींस्-त्रीन् दर्भान्-अन्तर्धाय उत्तराभिश्-चतसृभिः चतसृभिः प्रति-मन्त्रं प्रति-दिशं प्रवपति । वपन्तम् उत्तरया अनुमन्त्रयते दक्षिणतो माता ब्रह्मचारी वा । आनडुहे शकृत्-पिण्डे यवान्-निधाय, तस्मिन् केशान्-उपयम्य, उत्तरयोर्-उदुम्बर-मूले दर्भ-स्तम्बे वा निदधाति । — {{आप.गृ.|Āp.gṛ.}} X.6-8. {{सुदर्शन|Sudarśana}} on sūtra says ‘प्र-शब्द-करणात् कुशलीकरणम् अपि आचार्यस्यैव’ and on sūtra 8 ‘केचित्—आचार्यः पूर्वं वपनम् आरभते, ततो नापितः संसृष्टाभिर्-एव अद्भिरबर्थं कुर्वन् केशान् प्रवपति । तं च वपन्तम् उत्तरया आचार्योनुमन्त्रयते । दक्षिणतो मातेत्युक्तार्थमेव । तन्-न । एतद्-वपनं नापितः समाप) that one has to be an {{upavītin|upavītī}} throughout all the actions, prescribed in the sections on the {{Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa|Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa}} sacrifice and not only when the Sāmidhenī verses are recited. The first part of the same passage is discussed by Jaimini (III. 4. 1-9) and it is established that the passage enjoins the wearing of {{upavīta|upavīta}} in {{Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa|Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa}} which is {{devakarma|devakarma}} and that the reference to {{pracināvīta|prācīnāvīta}} and {{nivīta|nivīta}} is only an {{anuvāda|anuvāda}} intended to emphasize the desirability of the wearing of {{upavīta|upavīta}} in sacrifices to gods. The Tantravārtika⁶⁵ explains that {{nivīta|nivīta}} is tying the {{upavīta|upavīta}} round the throat like a braid of hair (according to some), while according to others it is tying it round the waist as if for girding up the loins and that the first is not done except in battle, while the latter has to be resorted to in all acts in order to devote sole attention to them. So according to the Tantravārtika, the {{Tai. S.|Tai. S.}} is not referring (in II. 5. 11. 1) to a cord of threads but to a pieceयति इत्य्-अत्र वचन-अभावात्, तत्-कल्पनायां च अनुपपत्त्य्-अभावात् ।’ हरदत्त on {{आप. गृ.|Āp.gṛ.}} X. 6 says ‘पूर्वं मन्त्रवद्-वपनं करोत्य्-आचार्यः, पश्चान् नापित इत्य्-उक्तं भवति,’ which is combated by {{सुदर्शन|Sudarśana}}.

(a) {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} (10.9), {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} (I. 23. 12), {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} (II. 5, 10), {{Khādira gṛ.|Khādira-gṛ.}} (II. 4) and {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (I.8) make the boy tread on a stone to the north of the fire with his right foot after {{home|homa}}. The mantras repeated in the several {{sūtras|sūtras}} are significant asking the boy to be firm like a stone.⁵⁵

• आ तिष्ठ इमम् अश्मानम्, अश्मा इव त्वं स्थिरो भव । अभि तिष्ठ पृतन्यतः, सहस्व पृतनायतः । — {{आप. म. पा.|Āp.M.Pā.}} II.2.2, which is the मन्त्र in {{आप. गृ.|Āp.gṛ.}}, {{भार॰ गृ.|Bhār.gṛ.}}, {{बौ. गृ.|Baud.gṛ.}}

(b) {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} (I.22.3) and {{Kāṭhaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (41. of cloth. Some of the {{sūtrakāras|sūtrakāras}} and commentators drop hints that garments were used or could be used as {{upavīta|upavīta}}. Āp. Dh. S. (II. 2. 4. 22-23 ) says that a householder should always wear an upper garment and then adds’or the sacred thread may serve the purpose of an upper garment.’ This shows that originally {{upavīta|upavīta}} meant an upper garment and not merely a cord of threads. In another place the same sūtra says (II. 8. 19.12) ‘one (who partakes of {{śrāddha|śrāddha}} dinner) should eat covered with an upper garment slung over {{tha|the}} left shoulder and passing under the right arm’. Haradatta gives two explanations of this, viz. that one should wear an upper garment (while dining at a {{śrāddha|śrāddha}}) like a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} i. e. under the right arm and over the left shoulder, that is, a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} cannot rely on Āp. Dh. S. II. 2. 4. 23 and wear at {{śrāddha|śrāddha}} repast only the sacred thread (but he must wear the garment in that fashion) and give up the sacred thread for the time.⁶⁶ While another view is that he must wear the sacred thread and the upper garment both in the fashion of {{upavīta|upavīta}}. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 2. 6. 18-19) prescribes that when a student wears two garments he should wear one of them (i. e. the upper one) in the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} mode, but when he wears only one garment then he should wear it round the lower part of the body (and should not cover the upper body with a portion of the garment though it may be long enough for that). Āp. Dh. S. I. 5. 15. 1 prescribes that a man must be {{yajñopavītin|yajñopavītī}} at the time of waiting upon teachers, elders, guests, at the time of homa, in _{ 10) prescribe after {{homa|homa}} the tasting of curds thrice after repeating the verse ‘{{Dadhikrāvṇo akāriṣam|Dadhikrāvṇo akāriṣam}}’ ({{Ṛg.|Ṛg.}} IV. 39. 6={{Tai. S.|Tai.S.}} I. 5. 4. 11).

(c) {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} (II.2), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (I.7), {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} (11.1-4), {{Āp. Mantrapāṭha|Āp.Mantrapāṭha}} (II. 3. 27-30), {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} II. 5. 25 (quoting {{Śāṭyāyanaka|Śāṭyāyanaka}}), {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} I. 22. 4-5, and {{Khādira gṛ.|Khādira-gṛ.}} II. 4. 12 refer to the fact that the teacher asks the boy his name and the latter pronounces his name. The teacher also asks whose {{brahmacārī|brahmacārī}} the boy is.

A person was given (as shown above at pp. 246-247) an {{abhivādanīya|abhivādanīya}} name either derived from the {{nakṣatra|nakṣatra}} of birth or from a deity name or the {{gotra|gotra}} name. This was necessary for several purposes. The teacher had to know that the boy came from a good family, he had also to address him by name (as there might be several pupils). It is wrong to suppose⁵⁶ from the story of {{Satyakāma Jābāla|Satyakāma Jābāla}} (where the teacher asked him his {{gotra|gotra}}) that only {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} were admitted to {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}. All {{smṛtis|smṛtis}}, even the latest, contemplated that the three castes had the right to learn the Veda. It is one thing to have a right and another to exercise it. Probably very few {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} cared to submit their sons to the rigorous discipline of {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}} as laid down in the {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} and cared much less for Veda studies. In the {{Mahābhārata|Mahābhārata}} and in{japa|japa}}_ (murmuring prayer), at meals and in taking ācamana and at the time of daily vedic study. On this Haradatta says’{{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} means a particular mode of wearing the (upper) garment; if one has no upper garment, then there is another (but inferior) mode stated in Āp. Dh. S. II. 2. 4. 23 and that at other times it is not necessary to have the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}’.

The Gobhila gṛ. (I. 2. 1) in treating of upanayana[^6 the {{Kādambarī|Kādambarī}} it is said that the princes were taught in a special house constructed for the purpose and teachers were paid handsomely and brought there to teach instead of the princes going to the teachers.

• Vide Keay in ‘Ancient Indian Education’ p. 23 where he says ‘it was still the rule for {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} to be received as students.’ Dr. Ghurye in ‘Caste and race in India’ p. 43 merely repeats this {{dictom|dictum}}.

It is not possible for want of space to show how the greatest possible confusion prevails as to the order of the various components of the ceremony of {{upanayana|upanayana}}, But a few striking examples may be given. {{Āśvalāyana gṛ.|Āśvalāyana-gṛ.}} treats of the tying of the girdle and the giving of the staff almost at the end of the ceremony, while {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} puts this after {{homa|homa}} and immediately before {{añjalipūraṇa|añjalipūraṇa}} (filling the folded hands of both with water); {{Āśvalāyana|Āśvalāyana}} puts {{ādityadarśana|ādityadarśana}} after the boy’s {{band|hand}} is held by the teacher and before {{paridāna|paridāna}} (handing the boy {{cover|over}} to the deities), but {{Bhār.|Bhār.}} (I. 9) puts it after the instruction in the observances of {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}. The {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (I.9) treats of {{ādityadarśana|ādityadarśana}} almost at the end of the rites, while {{Āśv.|Āśv.}} places it among the earlier ones after {{homa|homa}}. Besides the same mantras are employed by different {{sūtras|sūtras}} for different purposes; for example, the mantra ‘{{suśrayaḥ|suśravas}} &c.’ is employed by {{Āp.|Āp.}} at the time of taking the staff by the boy (XI. 14 and {{Mantrapāṭha|Mantrapāṭha}} II. 5. 1), while {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} (I. 22. 19), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (I. 10), {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} (I. 23, 17) employ it in ‘{{medhājanana|medhājanana}}’ (on the 4th day after {{upanayana|upanayana}}) and {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} (II. 4) employs it at the time of putting a fuel stick on fire. {{Āśv.|Āśv.}} employs the verse ‘{{yuvā suvāsāḥ|yuvā suvāsāḥ}}’ ({{Ṛg.|Ṛg.}} III. 8. 4) for making the boy turn round (first half) and for touching the region of the boy’s heart (latter half), while the same verse is employed at the time of tying the girdle round the boy’s waist by the {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} (I. 22.8) and {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} (II. 2).

Later writers went on adding mantras and details. On the day prior to {{upapayana|upanayana}} the {{Nāndīśrāddha|Nāndīśrāddha}} was performed as said by {{Haradatta|Haradatta}} on {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} 10. 5. {{Grahamakha|Grahamakha}} (a sacrifice to the planets) also may be performed the previous day or on any day within 7 or 10 days of the {{upanayana|81] says ’the student takes as {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} a cord of threads, a garment or a rope of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass’. This indicates that though a cord of threads was considered in Gobhila’s days as the appropriate {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, that was not an invariable rule in his day and that a garment could be employed instead. The commentator being brought up in the latter day tradition explains by saying that if the sūtra was lost in a forest then a garment may be worn like the sacred thread and if even that was lost a rope of {{kuśa|kuśa}}. But this appears to be rather far-fetched as an explanation of Gobhila’s unqualified words. Manu (II. 44) says that the {{upavīta|upavīta}} of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} should be made of cotton, its strands should be twined with the right hand moved over them (or the twist of the strands must be upwards) and it should have three threads’. Medhātithi comments on this that ‘{{upavīta|upavīta}}’ means a particular mode of wearing a garment or a particular position of it and therefore here by {{upavīta|upavīta}} is meant that which can be worn in that mode. The Sm. C. quotes a prose passage from {{Ṛṣyaśṛṅga|Ṛṣyaśṛṅga}} ‘or one may carry out all the purposes for which {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} is required by means of a garment and in its absence by a string of three threads’. From the above passages, from the fact that many of the gṛhyasūtras are entirely silent about the giving or wearing of the sacred thread in upanayana and from the fact that no mantra⁶⁷ is cited from the Vedic Literature for the act of giving the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} (which is now the centre of the upanayana rites), while scores of vedic mantras are cited for the several component parts of the ceremony of upanayana, it is most probable, if not certain, that the sacred thread was not invariably used in the older times as in the times of the later Smṛtis and in modern times, that originally the upper garment was {{need|used}} in various positions for certain acts, that it could be laid aside altogether in the most ancient times and that the cord of threads came to be used first as an option and later on exclusively for the upper {{garnent|garment}}.

A few rules about {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} may now be stated here.⁶⁸ The {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} is to have three threads of nine strands well twisted (for each thread). Vide Baud. Dh.S.I. 5.5., Devala quoted in the Sm. C.⁶⁹. The nine devatās of the nine {{tantus|tantus}} (strands) are given by Devala viz. Oṁkāra, Agni, Nāga, Soma, {{Pitṛs|Pitṛs}}, Prajāpati, Vāyu, Sūrya,⁷⁰ all gods. Medhātithi on Manu II.44 says that in iṣṭis, animal sacrifices and soma sacrifices, the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} was to have only one thread of three {{tantus|tantus}}, but it was three-fold in three classes of _{{ahīna, ekāha,|ahīna, ekāha,}} and {{sattra|sattra}} sacrifices as they required three fires and in the seven _{{somasaupanayana}}. Then before the actual {{upanayana|upanayana}}, there is the worship of {{Gaṇapati|Gaṇapati}} and of {{Kuladavatās|Kuladevatās}}, {{puṇyāhavācana|puṇyāhavācana}}, the worship of {{Mātṛs|Mātṛs}} and the consecration of the {{maṇḍapa-devatās|maṇḍapa-devatās}}. For the detailed modern procedure ({{prayoga|prayoga}}) of {{upanayana|upanayana}}, the S. R. M. (pp. 197-210), which in the main follows the briefer procedure in the {{gṛhya sūtras|gṛhyasūtras}}, may be consulted. Up to the act of making the boy dine with his mother it is the father who does everything; thereafter it is the {{ācārya|ācārya}} who does the rest. The {{saṁkalpa|saṁkalpa}} of {{upanayana|upanayana}} is given below⁵⁷

• आचम्य प्राणानायम्य, देश-कालौ सङ्कीर्त्य, अस्य कुमारस्य द्विजत्व-सिद्धि-पूर्वक-वेद-अध्ययन-अधिकार-सिद्धि-द्वारा श्री-परमेश्वर-प्रीत्यर्थम् आचार्य-{{पैतृकसावित्रीमातृकम्|पैतृक-सावित्री-मातृकम्}} उपनयनाख्यं संस्कारं करिष्ये इति सङ्कल्पं कुर्यात् ।

Yajñopavīta⁵⁸:— A few words must be said on the history of {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} from ancient times. Among the earliest references is one from the {{Tai. S.|Tai.S.}} II. 5. 11.1 ’the {{nivīta|nivīta}}⁵⁹ is (used in actions) for men, the {{prācīnāvīta|prācīnāvīta}} (is used in rites) for {{pitṛs|pitṛs}}, the {{upavīta|upavīta}} (in rites) for gods; he wears it in the {{upavīta|upavīta}} mode (i.e. slung from the left shoulder), thereby he makes a distinguishing sign of the gods’. In the {{Tai. Br.|Tai.Br.}} (I. 6. 8.) we read ‘wearing in the {{prācīnāvīta|prācīnāvīta}} form he offers towards the south; for in the case of {{pitṛs|pitṛs}}, acts are performed towards the south. Disregarding that one should wear in the {{upavīta|upavīta}} form and offer in the north only, since both gods and {{pitṛs|pitṛs}} are worshipped (in this rite)’.⁶⁰ The three words {{nivīta|nivīta}}, {{pracināvīta|prācīnāvīta}} and {{upavīta|upavīta}} are explained in the {{Gobhila gṛ.|Gobhila-gṛ.}} (I. 2. 2-4) which says ‘raising his right arm, putting the head into (the {{upavīta|upavīta}}) he suspends (the cord) over his left shoulder in such a way that it hangs down on his right side; thus he becomes {{yajñopavītin|yajñopavītī}}. Passing his left arm, putting the head (into the {{upavīta|upavīta}}) he suspends it over his right shoulder, so that it hangs down along his left side; in this way he becomes {{prācīnāvītin|prācīnāvītī}}; a person becomes {{pracināvītin|prācīnāvītī}} only in the sacrifice offered to the Manes’⁶¹. To the same effect is {{Khādira gṛ.|Khādira-gṛ.}} I. 1. 8-9, {{Manu|Manu}} II. 63, {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} {{paribhāṣā-sūtra|paribhāṣā-sūtra}} II. 2. 7 and 10, {{Vaik.|Vaikhānasa}} I. 5. The {{Baud.|Baudhāyana}}⁶² in {{gṛ. paribhāṣā-sūtra|gṛhya-paribhāṣā-sūtra}} II.2.3 says ‘when it is carried over the neck, both shoulders and the chestṁsthās|somasaṁsthās}}_ seven-fold and five-fold when viewed with reference to the three savanas and two {{saṁdhyās|saṁdhyās}}. The {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} should reach as far as the navel, should not reach beyond the navel, nor should it be above the chest.⁷¹ Manu II. 44 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 27. 19 prescribe that the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} should respectively be of cotton, hemp and sheep wool. Baud. Dh. S. (I. 5.5), Gobhila gṛ. (I.2.1) say that it may be of cotton thread or of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass and Devala as quoted in Sm. C. says that all twice-born persons should make their {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} of cotton, of {{kṣumā|kṣumā}}, hair of cow’s tail, hemp, tree bark or {{kuśa|kuśa}} according to the availability of the material.⁷² The remarks of the Saṁskāramayūkha after quoting Manu II. 44 are interesting ‘we do not know the origin of (or authority for) the practice of present-day {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}}, viz. of wearing cotton {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}’. This shows that in the 17th century A. D. many {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}} put on {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}.⁷³ Kumārila also says that wearing {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} and studying Vedas is common to all the three {{varṇas|varṇas}}.

• Vide ‘Orion’ by the late Mr. Tilak pp. 145-148 for discussion on this.

• निवीतं मनुष्याणां, प्राचीनावीतं पितॄणाम्, उपवीतं देवानाम् । उपव्ययते, देव-लक्ष्मम् एव तत् कुरुते । — {{तै. सं.|Tai.Saṁ.}} II.5.11.1.

• दक्षिणतः प्राचीनावीती निर्वपति । दक्षिणा-वृद्-धि पितॄणाम् । अनाहृत्य तत् । उत्तरत एव उपवीय निर्वपेत् । उभये हि देवाश्-च पितरश्-च ईज्यन्ते । अथो यद्-एव दक्षिण-अर्धे अधिश्रयति तेन दक्षिणा-वृत् । — {{तै. ब्रा.|Tai.Br.}} I.6.8.

• दक्षिणं बाहुम् उद्धृत्य शिरोऽवधाय सव्येंसे प्रतिष्ठापयति, दक्षिणं कक्षम् अनु-अवलम्बं भवति, एवं यज्ञोपवीती भवति । सव्यं बाहुम् उद्धृत्य शिरोऽवधाय दक्षिणेंसे प्रतिष्ठापयति, सव्यं कक्षम् अनु-अवलम्बं भवति, एवं प्राचीनावीती भवति । पितृ-यज्ञे तु एव प्राचीनावीती भवति । — {{गोभिल गृह्य|Gobhila-gṛhya}} I.2.2-4.

• उपरिष्टाद्-अंसाभ्यां ग्रीवां हृदयं च सम्परिगृह्य हृदयस्य अधस्ताद्-ऊर्ध्वं नाभेर्-अङ्गुष्ठाभ्यां परिगृह्णाति तन्-निवीतं मनुष्याणाम् इति ऋषीणाम् इति एव-इदम् उक्तं भवति । अथ निवीत-कार्याणि — ऋषीणां तर्पणं, व्यवायः, प्रजा-संस्कारोऽन्यत्र होमात्, मूत्र-पुरीष-उत्सर्गः, प्रेतोद्वहनं, यानि चान्यानि मनुष्य-कार्याणि । कण्ठेऽवसक्तं निवीतम् इति । — {{बौ. गृ. परिभाषासूत्र|Baud.gṛ. Paribhāṣāsūtra}} II.2.3 and 6.

The {{Śat. Br.|Śat.Br.}} (II. 4, 2. 1, S. B. E. vol. 12, p. 361) says “the gods being {{yajñopavītins|yajñopavītins}} approached near, bending their right knee; he ({{Prajāpati|Prajāpati}}) said to them ’the sacrifice is your food, immortality is your strength, the sun is your light’; then the {{pitṛs|pitṛs}} approached him, being {{prācīnāvītins|prāपास-क्षौम-गो-बाल-शण-वल्कतृणोद्भवम् । सदा संभवतः कार्यम् उपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥ स्मृति-च॰ I. p. 32; परा. मा. I. 2. p. 36; वृद्ध-हारीत (VIII.47-48) has a similar verse.

The number of {{yajñopavītas|yajñopavītas}} to be worn differed according to circumstances. A {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} was to wear only one {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} and {{saṁnyāsins|saṁnyāsins}}, when they kept {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} at all, also wore only one. A {{snātaka|snātaka}}⁷⁴ (i. e. one who has returned from the teacher’s house after brahmacarya) and a house-{{bolder|holder}} were to wear two while one who desired long life may wear more than two. {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas. Dh. S.}} XII. 14 {{days|says}} ‘{{snātakas|snātakas}} should always wear a lower garment and an upper one, two {{yajñopavītas|yajñopavītas}}, should have a stick and a pot filled with water’. Kaśyapa allowed a householder to wear any number up to ten. Whether {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} as worn in modern times was worn from the most ancient times or not, it is certain that long before the Christian era it had come to be so worn and it had become an inflexible rule that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} must always wear a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} and have his top-knot (of hair) always tied up; if he did any act without observing this rule, it was inefficacious.⁷⁵ Vas.⁷⁶ and Baud. Dh. S. (II. 2. 1) both say that a man must always wear {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}. If a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} took his meals without wearing {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, he had to undergo {{prāyaścitta|prāyaścitta}} viz. to bathe, to mutter prayers and fast; vide Laghu-Hārita verse 23 quoted by {{Aparārks|Aparārka}} pp. 1171, 1173. The Mit, on Yāj. III. 292 prescribes {{prāyaścitta|prāyaścitta}} for answering calls of nature without having the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} placed on the right ear (as Yāj. I, 16 prescribes). Manu IV. 66 forbids the wearing of another’s {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} along with several other things (such as shoes, ornament, garland and {{kamanḍalu|kamaṇḍalu}}). In Yāj. (I. 16 and 133) and other {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} is called {{brahmasūtra|brahmasūtra}}.

• ततो देवा यज्ञोपवीतिनो भूत्वा दक्षिणं जान्व्-आच्य उपासीदंस्-तान्-अब्रवीद् — यज्ञो वोऽन्नम्, अमृतत्वं व ऊर्ग्वः, सूर्यो वो ज्योतिर्-इति । अथैनं पितरः प्राचीनावीतिनः सव्यं जान्व्-आच्य… अथैनं मनुष्याः प्रावृता उपस्थं कृत्वोपासीदन् । — {{शतपथ|Śatapatha-Br.}} II.4.2.1.

• एतावति ह गौतमः यज्ञोपवीतं कृत्वा अधो निपपात नमो नम इति । — {{तै. ब्रा.|Tai.Br.}} III.10.9. सायण remarks ‘स्वकीयेन वस्त्रेण यज्ञोपवीतं कृत्वा ।’.

It seems to follow from a passage in the {{Tai. Ā.|Tai.Ā.}} (II.1) that a strip of black antelope skin or of cloth was used in ancient times as {{upavīta|upavīta}}⁶³ ’the sacrifice of him who wears the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} becomes spread out (prosperous, famous), while the sacrifice of him who does not wear it does not spread; whatever a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} studies, wearing a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, he really (therein) performs a sacrifice. Therefore one should study, sacrifice or officiate at a sacrifice with the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} on for securing the spreading of sacrifice; having worn an antelope skin or a garment on the right side, he raises the right hand and keeps the left down; this is {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}; when this position is reversed it is {{prācīnāvīta|prācīnāvīta}}; the position called {{saṁvita|saṁvīta}} is for men.’ It is remarkable that here at any rate no cord of threads is meant by {{upavīta|upavīta}}, but only a piece of skin or cloth. The {{Par. M.|Par.M.}} (I. part 1 p. 173) quotes⁶⁴ a portion of the above passage and remarks that the {{Tai. Ār.|Tai.Ār.}} lays down that a man becomes an {{upavītin|upavītī}} by wearing one of the two, viz. antelope skin and (cotton) garment. [^6 ॥ वसिष्ठ XII, 14; विष्णु-धर्मसूत्र 71. 13-15 has similar rules, the verse of Vasiṣṭha is quoted by the Mit. on Yāj I. 133; compare मनु. IV. 36; एकैकम् उपवीतं तु यतीनां ब्रह्मचारिणाम् । गृहिणां च वनस्थानाम् उपवीत-द्वयं स्मृतम् । सोत्तरीयं त्रयं वापि बिभृयाच् छुभ्र-तन्तु वा । वृद्ध-हारीत VIII. 44-45. Vide देवल quoted in स्मृति-च. I. p. 32 and ‘त्रीणि चत्वारि पञ्चाष्ट गृहिणः स्युर् दशापि वा । सर्वैर्वा शुचिभिर् धार्यम् उपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥’ कश्यप quoted in the संस्कार-मयूख.

An interesting question is whether women ever had upanayana performed or whether they had to wear the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}. Several {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} contain instructive dicta on this point.⁷⁷ The Hārītadharmasūtra as quoted in the Sm. C. and other digests says ’there are two sorts of women, those that are {{brahmavādinīs|brahmavādinīs}} (i. e. students of sacred lore) and those that are {{sadyovadhūs|sadyovadhūs}} (i. e, who straightway marry). Out of these {{brahmavādinīs|brahmavādinīs}} have to go through upanayana, keeping fire, vedic study and begging in one’s house (i. e. under the parental roof); but in the case of {{sadyovadhūs|sadyovadhūs}} when their marriage is drawing near, the mere ceremony of upanayana should somehow be performed and then their marriage should be celebrated.’ In the Gobhila gṛ.⁷⁸ II. 1. 19 it is said “leading forward towards the sacred fire (from the house) the bride who is wrapped in a robe and wears the sacred thread (slung from her left shoulder, in the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} mode) he (the husband) should murmur the verse ‘Soma gave her to Gandharva’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 85. 41)”. It is clear that the girl, according to Gobhila, wore the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} as a symbol of the rite of upanayana. The commentator to whom this procedure naturally seemed strange explains ‘{{yajñopavītinīm|yajñopavītinīm}}’ as meaning ‘whose upper garment is worn in the fashion of the77]:

• प्रसृतो ह वै यज्ञोपवीतिनो यज्ञोऽप्रसृतोऽनुपवीतिनो, यत्-किं च ब्राह्मणो यज्ञोपवीत्य्-अधीते यजत एव तत् । तस्माद्-यज्ञोपवीत्य्-एव अधीयीत, याजयेद्, यजेत वा यज्ञस्य प्रसृत्यै । अजिनं वासो वा दक्षिणत उपवीय, दक्षिणं बाहुम् उद्धरतेऽवधत्ते सव्यम् इति यज्ञोपवीतम् । एतद्-एव विपरीतं प्राचीनावीतम्, संवीतं मानुषम् । — {{तै. आ.|Tai.Ā.}} II.1. This passage is quoted as from the Kāṭhaka in the {{तन्त्रवार्तिक|Tantravārtika}} on जैमिनि I.3.7 (p. 201).

• तत्रेतिकर्तव्यता-रूपेण कृष्णाजिन-वाससोर्-अन्यतरेण उपवीतित्वं तैत्तिरीयके विधीयते । — {{परा. मा.|Parā.Mā.}} I.1.p.173.

In the {{Pūrvamīṁāmsāsūtra|Pūrvamīmāṁsāsūtra}} (III. 1. 21) it is established (with reference to the words) in the {{Tai. S.|Tai.S.}} II. 5. 11. 1 ({{upavyayate|upavyayate}} etc. quoted in f. n. 671) that one has to be an {{upavītin|upavītī}} throughout all the actions, prescribed in the sections on the {{Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa|Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa}} sacrifice and not only when the {{Sāmidhenī|Sāmidhenī}} verses are recited. The first part of the same passage is discussed by {{Jaimini|Jaimini}} (III. 4. 1-9) and it is established that the passage enjoins the wearing of {{upavīta|upavīta}} in {{Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa|Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa}} which is {{devakarma|devakarma}} and that the reference to {{pracināvīta|prācīnāvīta}} and {{nivīta|nivīta}} is only an anuvāda intended to emphasize the desirability of the wearing of {{upavīta|upavīta}} in sacrifices to gods. The {{Tantravārtika|Tantravārtika}}⁶⁵ explains that nivīta is tying the {{upavīta|upavīta}} round the throat like a braid of hair (according to some), while according to others it is tying it round the waist as if for girding up the loins and that the first is not done except in battle, while the latter has to be resorted to in all acts in order to devote sole attention to them. So according to the {{Tantravārtika|Tantravārtika}}, the {{Tai. S.|Tai.S.}} is not referring (in II. 5. 11. 1) to a cord sacred thread’. In the {{Saṁskāratattvā|Saṁskāratattva}} of Raghunandana it is stated that Hariśarmā held that according to Gobhila the bride was to wear a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, though Raghunandana himself does not approve of this explanation. In the ceremony of Samāvartana, Āśv. gṛ. III. 8,⁷⁹ on the subject of applying ointment says ‘after having smeared the two hands with ointment a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} should salve his face first, a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} his two arms, a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} his belly, a woman her private parts and persons who gain their livelihood by running, their thighs’. It is improper to say, as some do, that as to women this is a general rule interpolated in the treatment of samāvartana and has nothing to do with the latter. We should rather hold that Āśv. knew of women undertaking Vedic study and so prescribed what they should do in their samāvartana. In the Mahābhārata (Vanaparva 305. 20)⁸⁰ a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} is said to have taught to the mother of the Pāṇḍava heroes a number of mantras from the Atharvaśiras. Hārīta⁸¹ prescribes that in the case of women samāvartana took place before the appearance of menses. Therefore {{brahmavādinī|brahmavādinī}} women had upanayana performed in the 8th year from conception, then they studied Vedic lore and finished student-hood at the age of puberty. Yama⁸² says ‘in former ages, tying of the girdle of {{muñja|muñja}} (i. e. upanayana) was desired in the case of maidens, they were taught the vedes and made to recite the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}} (the sacred {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}} verse); either their father, uncle or brother taught them and not a stranger and begging was prescribed for a maiden in the house itself and she was not to wear deer-skin or bark garment and was not to have matted hair’. Manu seems to have been aware of this usage as prevalent in ancient times, if not his own. Having spoken of the {{saṁskāras|saṁskāras}} from {{jātakarma|jātakarma}} to upanayana, Manu winds up (II. 66) ’these ceremonies were to be performed in their entirety for women also, but without mantras’ and adds (II. 67) ’the ceremony of marriage is the only {{saṁskāra|saṁskāra}} per formed with Vedic mantras in the case of women; (in their case) attendance on the husband amounts to serving a guru (which a student had to do) and performance of domestic duties to worship of fire’ (which the student had to perform by offering a fuel of threads but to a piece of cloth. Some of the {{sūtrakāras|sūtrakāras}} and commentators drop hints that garments were used or could be used as {{upavīta|upavīta}}. {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} (II. 2. 4. 22-23) says that a householder should always wear an upper garment and then adds ‘or the sacred thread may serve the purpose of an upper garment.’ This shows that originally {{upavīta|upavīta}} meant an upper garment and not merely a cord of threads. In another place the same sūtra says (II. 8. 19.12) ‘one (who partakes of {{śrāddha|śrāddha}} dinner) should eat covered with an upper garment slung over {{tha|the}} left shoulder and passing under the right arm’. {{Haradatta|Haradatta}} gives two explanations of this, viz. that one should wear an upper garment (while dining at a {{śrāddha|śrāddha}}) like a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} i. e. under the right arm and over the left shoulder, that is, a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} cannot rely on {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} II. 2. 4. 23 and wear at {{śrāddha|śrāddha}} repast only the sacred thread (but he must wear the garment in that fashion) and give up the sacred thread for the time.⁶⁶ While another view is that he must wear the sacred thread and the upper garment both in the fashion of {{upavīta|upavīta}}. {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} (I. 2. 6. 18-19) prescribes that when a student wears two garments he should wear one of them (i. e. the upper one) in the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} mode, but when he wears only one garment then he should wear it round the lower part of the body (and should not cover the upper body with a portion of the garment though it may be long enough for that). {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I. 5. 15. 1 prescribes that a man must be {{yajñopavītin|yajñopavītī}} at the time of waiting upon teachers, elders, guests, at the time of {{homa|homa}}, in japa (murmuring prayer), at meals and in taking {{ācamana|ācamana}} and at the time of daily {{vedic|Vedic}} study. On this {{Haradatta|Haradatta}} says ‘{{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} means a particular mode of wearing the (upper) garment; if one has no upper garment, then there is another (but inferior) mode stated in {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} II.-stick in the evening every day). This shows that in the day of the Manusmṛti, upanayana for women had gone out of practice, though there were faint glimmerings of its performance for women in former days. Relying on the words ‘in former ages’ occurring in the verses of Yama quoted above medieval digests like the Sm. C., the {{Nirṇayasindhu|Nirṇayasindhu}} and others say that this practice belonged to another yuga. In Bāṇabhaṭṭa’s {{Kādambarī|Kādambarī}},⁸³ Mahāśvetā (who was practising {{tapas|tapas}}) is described as one whose body was rendered pure by (wearing) a {{brahmasūtra|brahmasūtra}} (i. e. {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}})’. The {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} came to have superhuman virtues attributed to it and so probably even women who were practising {{susterities|austerities}} wore it. The {{Saṁ. Pr.|Saṁ. Pr.}} (p. 419) quotes a verse saying that the Supreme Being is called yajña and {{yajñopavta|yajñopavīta}} is so called because it belongs to the Supreme Being (or is used in sacrifices for Him).⁸⁴

• निवीतं केचिद्-गल-वेणिका-बन्धं स्मरन्ति । केचित्-पुनः परिकर-बन्धम् । तत्र गल-वेणिका-बन्धो युद्धाद्-अन्यत्र न प्राप्नोति । परिकर-बन्धस्-तु सर्व-कर्मसु अव्यग्रता-करत्वात् प्राप्तः । — {{तन्त्रवार्तिक|Tantravārtika}} on जैमिनि III.4.2 (p. 891).

• नित्यम् उत्तरं वासः कार्यम् । अपि वा सूत्रम् एव उपवीत-अर्थे । — {{आप. ध. सू.|Āp.Dh.S.}} II.2.4.22-23; सोत्तराच्छादनश्-चैव यज्ञोपवीती भुञ्जीत । — {{आप. ध. सू.|Āp.Dh.S.}} II.8.19.12; हरदत्त explains “उत्तराच्छादनम् उपरि-वासः । तेन यज्ञोपवीतेन यज्ञोपवीतं कृत्वा भुञ्जीत । नास्य भोजने ‘अपि वा सूत्रम् एव उपवीत-अर्थे’ इत्य्-अयं कल्पो भवति इत्य्-एके । समुच्चय इत्य्-अन्ये ।”; यज्ञोपवीती द्वि-वस्त्रः । अधो-निवीतस्-तु एक-वस्त्रः । — {{आप. ध. सू.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.2.6.18-19; उपासने गुरूणां, वृद्धानाम्, अतिथीनां, होमे, जप्य-कर्मणि, भोजन, आचमने, स्वाध्याये च यज्ञोपवीती स्यात् । — {{आप. ध. सू.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.5.15.1, where हरदत्त says ‘वासो-विन्यास-विशेषो यज्ञोपवीतम् । दक्षिणं बाहुम् उद्धरत इति ब्राह्मण-विहितम् । वाससोऽसंभवेऽनुकल्पं वक्ष्यति — अपि वा सूत्रम् एव उपवीत-अर्थे इति । एषु विधानात् काल-अन्तरे न अवश्यं-भावः ।’; vide {{औशनसस्मृति|Auśanasasmṛti}} (Jīvānanda, part I. p.502) ‘अग्न्य्-अगारे गवां गोष्ठे, होमे जप्ये तथैव च । स्वाध्याये भोजने नित्यं ब्राह्मणानां च संनिधौ । उपासने गुरू्य मुखम् अग्रे ब्राह्मणोऽनुलिम्पेत् । बाहू राजन्यः । उदरं वैश्यः । उपस्थं स्त्री । ऊरू सरण-जीविनः । आश्व. गृ. III. 8. 11.

Though {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}} also were entitled to have the upanayana performed, it appears that they often neglected it or at least neglected the constant wearing of {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, so much so that from comparatively early times the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} came to be regarded as the peculiar indicator of the wearer’s being of the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} caste. For example, Kālidāsa in Raghuvaṁśa (XI. 64)⁸⁵ while describing the irate {{brणां च संध्ययोर्-उभयोर्-अपि । उपवीती भवेन्-नित्यं विधिर्-एष सनातनः ॥’

The {{Gobhila gṛ.|Gobhila-gṛ.}} (I. 2. 1) in treating of {{upanayana|upanayana}}⁸⁶ says ’the student takes as {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} a cord of threads, a garment or a rope of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass’. This indicates that though a cord of threads was considered in {{Gobhila’s|Gobhila’s}} days as the appropriate {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, that was not an invariable rule in his day and that a garment could be employed instead. The commentator being brought up in the latter day tradition explains by saying that if the {{sūtra|sūtra}} was lost in a forest then a garment may be worn like the sacred thread and if even that was lost a rope of {{kuśa|kuśa}}. But this appears to be rather far-fetched as an explanation of {{Gobhila’s|Gobhila’s}} unqualified words. {{Manu|Manu}} (II. 44) says that the {{upavīta|upavīta}} of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} should be made of cotton, its strands should be twined with the right hand moved over them (or the twist of the strands must be upwards) and it should have three threads’. {{Medhātithi|Medhātithi}} comments on this that ‘{{upavīta|upavīta}}’ means a particular mode of wearing a garment or a particular position of it and therefore here by {{upavīta|upavīta}} is meant that which can be worn in that mode. The {{Sm. C.|Sm.C.}} quotes a prose passage from {{Ṛṣyaśṛṅga|Ṛṣyaśṛṅga}} ‘or one may carry out all the purposes for which {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} is required by means of a garment and in its absence by a string of three threads’. From the above passages, from the fact that many of the {{gṛhyasūtras|gṛhyasūtras}} are entirelyāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} hero Paraśurāma says ‘wearing the {{upavīta|upavīta}}, which was the heritage that came to him from his father, and holding a formidable bow that came to him from the side of his mother (who was a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} princess)’. If the {{upavīta|upavīta}} had been as constantly worn by the {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} as by {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} in Kālidāsa’s day he would not have spoken of it as the peculiar sign of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}. In the drama {{Veṇīsaṁhāra|Veṇīsaṁhāra}} (Act III) when Karṇa resented the attitude of Aśvatthāman, who raised his left foot for kicking Karṇa, and said that he could not cut off his leg as by virtue of his caste (as {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}) he could not be punished in that way, Aśvatthāman replied by throwing away his sacred thread with the words ‘here do I give up my caste’.⁸⁷ That shows that in the days of the {{Veṇīsaṁhāra|Veṇīsaṁhāra}} (not later than about 600 A. D.) the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} had become the peculiar indicator of the caste of {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} only.

The Baudhāyana-sūtra quoted in the {{Saṁskāra-ratnamālā|Saṁskāra-ratnamālā}} (p. 188) says that yarn spun by a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} or his maiden daughter is to be brought, then one is to measure first 96 aṅgulas of it with the syllable silent about the giving or wearing of the sacred thread in {{upanayana|upanayana}} and from the fact that no mantra⁶⁷ is cited from the Vedic Literature for the act of giving the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} (which is now the centre of the {{upanayana|upanayana}} rites), while scores of {{vedic|Vedic}} mantras are cited for the several component parts of the ceremony of {{upanayana|upanayana}}, it is most probable, if not certain, that the sacred thread was not invariably used in the older times as in the times of the later {{Smṛtis|Smṛtis}} and in modern times, that originally the upper garment was {{need|used}} in various positions for certain acts, that it could be laid aside altogether in the most ancient times and that the cord of threads came to be used first as an option and later on exclusively for the upper {{garnent|garment}}.

• यज्ञोपवीतं कुरुते, वस्त्रं वा, अपि वा कुश-रज्जुम् एव । — {{गोभिलगृह्य|Gobhila-gṛhya}} I.2.1; सूत्रम् अपि वस्त्र-अभावाद् वेदितव्यम् इति । अपि वाससा यज्ञोपवीत-अर्थान् कुर्यात्, तद्-अभावे त्रिवृता सूत्रेण इति ऋष्यशृङ्ग-स्मरणात् । — {{स्मृतिच॰|Smṛticandrikā}} I. P. 32.

• The mantra ‘यज्ञोपवीतं परमं’ &c. is cited only in {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} (note 662 above) and in {{Vaik.|Vaikhānasa}} (II.5), has certainly a comparatively modern ring about it and is not cited in any well-known ancient work.

A few rules about {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} may now be stated here.⁶⁸ The {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} is to have three threads of nine strands well twisted (for each thread). Vide {{Baud. Dh bhūḥ, then another 96 with bhuvaḥ and a third 96 with svaḥ, then the yarn so measured is to be kept on a leaf of {{palāśa|palāśa}} and is to be sprinkled with water to the accompaniment of the three mantras ‘{{āpo hi ṣṭhā|āpo hi ṣṭhā}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 9. 1-3), with the four verses ‘{{Hiraṇyavarṇāh|Hiraṇyavarṇāḥ}}’ ({{Tai, S.|Tai. S.}} V. 6. 1 and Atharva I. 33. 1-4) and with the {{anuvāka|anuvāka}} beginning with ‘{{pavamānaḥ suvarjaṇaḥ|pavamānaḥ suvarjanaḥ}}’ ({{Tai. Br.|Tai. Br.}} I. 4.8) and with the {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}}, then the yarn is to be taken in the left hand and there is to be a clapping of the two {{handa|hands}} thrice, the yarn is to be twisted [[297]] with the three verses ‘{{bhūragnim ca|bhūr agniṁ ca}}’( {{Tai. Br.|Tai. Br.}} III. 10.2) and then the knot is to be tied with the {{forinula|formula}} ‘{{Bhurbhuvaḥ svas candram&saṁ ca|Bhūr bhuvaḥ svas candramasaṁ ca}}’ ({{Tai. Br.|Tai. Br.}} III. 10. 2) and the nine deities Oṁkāra, Agni (quoted above in note 685)’ have to be invoked on the nine strands, then the {{upavīta|upavīta}} is to be taken with the mantra ‘{{devasya tvā|devasya tvā}}’ and then it is to be shown to the sun with the {{verge|verse}} ‘{{.S.|Baud.Dh.S.}} I. 5.5., {{Devala|Devala}} quoted in the {{Sm. C.|Sm.C.}}⁶⁹. The nine {{devatās|devatās}} of the nine tantus (strands) are given by {{Devala|Devala}} viz. {{Oṁkāra|Oṁkāra}}, {{Agni|Agni}}, {{Nāga|Nāga}}, {{Soma|Soma}}, {{Pitṛs|Pitṛs}}, {{Prajāpati|Prajāpati}}, {{Vāyu|Vāyu}}, {{Sūrya|Sūrya}},⁷⁰ all gods. {{Medhātithi|Medhātithi}} on {{Manu|Manu}} II.44 says that in {{iṣṭis|iṣṭis}}, animal sacrifices and soma sacrifices, the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} was to have only one thread of three tantus, but it was three-fold in three classes of ahīna, ekāha, and sattra sacrifices as they required three fires and in the seven somasaṁsthās seven-fold and five-fold when viewed with reference to the three {{savanas|savanas}} and two {{saṁdhyās|saṁdhyās}}. The {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} should reach as far as the navel, should not reach beyond the navel, nor should it be above the chest.⁷¹ {{Manu|Manu}} II. 44 and {{Viṣṇu Dh. S.|Viṣṇu-Dh.S.}} 27. 19 prescribe that the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, {{kṣatriya|kṣud vayam tamasaspari|ud vayaṁ tamasaspari}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 50. 10) and then the {{yajñopayita|yajñopavīta}} is to be put on with the verse ‘{{yajñopavītam|yajñopavītam}} &o.’ Then there is to be a japa of the {{gāyatri|gāyatrī}} verse and then ācamana. For a brief statement of the mode of putting on a fresh sacred thread vide note below.⁸⁸

The {{Baudhayana-gphyasesasūtra|Baudhāyana-gṛhyaśeṣasūtra}} (II. 8. 1-12 ) gives a few insignificant points of difference as to the upanayana of {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}}, {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}}, {{ambastha|ambaṣṭha}} and {{karaña|karaṇa}} (son of a {{vaisya|vaiśya}} from a {{sūdra|śūdra}} female). It is not necessary to go into these details.

The next important question is as to whether upanayana was performed in the case of the blind, the deaf and dumb, the idiotic &c. Jaimini has established that those who are devoid of a limb⁸⁹ are not eligible for agnihotra, but this inability arises only when the {{defeot|defect}} is incurable. Similarly the Āp. Dh.S. II. 6. 14. 1, Gaut.atriya}} and {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} should respectively be of cotton, hemp and sheep wool. {{Baud. Dh. S.|Baud.Dh.S.}} (I. 5.5), {{Gobhila gṛ.|Gobhila-gṛ.}} (I.2.1) say that it may be of cotton thread or of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass and {{Devala|Devala}} as quoted in {{Sm. C.|Sm.C.}} says that all twice-born persons should make their {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} of cotton, of {{kṣumā|kṣumā}}, hair of cow’s tail, hemp, tree bark or {{kuśa|kuśa}} according to the availability of the material.⁷² The remarks of the {{Saṁskāramayūkha|Saṁskāramayūkha}} after quoting {{Manu|Manu}} II. 44 are interesting ‘we do not know the origin of (or authority for) the practice of present-day {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}}, viz. of wearing cotton {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}’. This shows that in the 17th century A. D. many {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}} put on {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}. ⁷³ {{Kumārila|Kumārila}} also says that wearing {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} and studying Vedas is common to all the three {{varṇas|varṇas}}. [^68 28. 41-42, Vas. 17, 52-54, Manu 9. 201, Yāj. II. 140-141, Viṣṇu. Dh. S. 15. 32 ff. lay down that persons who are impotent, {{palita|patita}}, congenitally blind or deaf, cripple and those who suffer from incurable diseases are not entitled to share property on a partition, but are only entitled to be maintained. But they all allow even these to marry. As marriage is not possible for {{dvijatis|dvijātis}} unless upanayana precedes it, it appears that the {{core.|ceremony}} of upanayana was gone through as far as it could be carried out in the case of the blind, the deaf and dumb &o. The Baud. gṛ. {{seṣasūtra|śeṣasūtra}} (II. 9) prescribes a special procedure for the upanayana of the deaf and dumb and idiots. The principal [[298]] points in which their upanayana differs from that of others are that the offering of {{samidh|samidh}}, treading on a stone, putting on a garment, the tying of {{mekhala|mekhalā}}, the giving of deer skin and staff are done silently, that the boy does not mention his {{Dame|name}}, it is the {{doārya|ācārya}} himself who makes offerings of cooked food or of clarified3]:

• Vide {{स्मृत्यर्थसार|Smṛtyarthasāra}} p. 4 and {{सं. प्र.|Saṁ.Pra.}} pp. 416-418 as to how the upavīta is to be manufactured and who is to manufacture it, one interesting fact being that an upavīta prepared by a maiden was to be preferred to one prepared by a widow. {{मदनरत्न|Madanaratna}} quoted in the {{आचाररत्न|Ācāraratna}} defines {{ऊर्ध्ववृत|ūrdhvavṛta}} in Manu II. 44 as ‘करेण दक्षिणेन ऊर्ध्वगतेन त्रिगुणीकृतम् । वलितं मानवे शास्त्रे सूत्रम् ऊर्ध्ववृतं स्मृतम् ॥’ (p.2).

• कौशं सूत्रं वा त्रिस्-त्रिवृद्-यज्ञोपवीतम् । आ नाभेः । — {{बौ. ध. सू.|Baud.Dh.S.}} I.5.5-6; उक्तं देवलेन — यज्ञोपवीतं कुर्वीत सूत्रेण नव-तन्तुकम् । इति । — {{स्मृतिच.|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 31.

• अत्र प्रति-तन्तु देवता-भेदम् आह देवलः — ओङ्कारः प्रथमस्-तन्तुर्-द्वितीयोऽग्निस्-तथैव butter, all the mantras are muttered softly by the {{ācārya|ācārya}} himself. The sūtra {{yot|yet}} says that according to some the same procedure is followed as to other persons who are impotent, blind, lunatics, or suffering from such diseases as epilepsy, white leprosy or black leprosy &c. The {{Nirnayasindhu|Nirṇayasindhu}} quotes a passage from the {{Brahmapuriṇa|Brahmapurāṇa}} cited in the Prayogaparijata about the {{upangyana|upanayana}} of the impotent, the deaf and others which contains rules similar to Baudhāyana’s. The {{Sam. Pr.|Saṁ. Pr.}} (pp. 399-401) and S. R. M. (pp. 273-274 ) also quote the passage and explain it. The purāṇa says that those who cannot repeat the Gayatri ( such as the deaf and dumb ) should be brought near the teacher or fire and that the teacher should then touch them and then mutter the Gayatri himself, but {{tbat|that}} in other cases such as lunatics, they should be made to repeat the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} at least if possible and च । तृतीयो नाग-दैवत्यश्-चतुर्थः सोम-दैवतः । पञ्चमः पितृ-दैवत्यः षष्ठश्-चैव प्रजापतिः । सप्तमो वायु-दैवत्यः सूर्यश्-च अष्टम एव च ॥ नवमः सर्व-दैवत्य इत्य्-एते नव तन्तवः । — {{स्मृतिच॰|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 31

• कात्यायनस्-तु परिमाण-अन्तरम् आह — पृष्ठ-वंशे च नाभ्यां च धृतं यद्-विन्दते कटिम् । तद्-धार्यम् उपवीतं स्यान्-न अति-लम्बं न च उच्छ्रितम् । … देवलः — स्तनाद्-ऊर्ध्वम् अधो नाभेर्-न कर्तव्यं कथञ्चन । — {{स्मृतिच॰|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 31

• कार्पास-क्षौम-गोबाल-शण-वल्क-तृणोद्भव if that too is not possible, then on touching them the acārya should repeat it. The {{game|same}} purana prescribes that {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} (the first being the offspring of an adulterous intercourse when the husband of the woman is living and the second when the husband is dead) should have upanayana performed in the same way as for the deaf and dumb, if it is known that the adulterer and the woman were both of the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} caste. There is some difference of opinion as to {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}}. Manu ({{II|III}}. 174) defined them as above. Ap. Dh. S, II. 6. 13. 1, Manu (10.5) and Yaj. (I. 90, 92 ) expressly say that a person born of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} from a brahmana woman belongs to the same caste only if he is born in lawful wedlook and that even the anuloma sons must be born in wedlock. Theम् । सदा संभवतः कार्यम् उपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥ — {{स्मृतिच॰|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 32; {{परा. मा.|Parā.Mā.}} I. 2. p. 36; {{वृद्धहारीत|Vṛddhahārīta}} (VIII.47-48) has a similar verse.

• एवं च यद्-इदानींतनानां क्षत्रिय-वैश्यानां कार्पास-उपवीत-धारणं, तत्र मूलं न विद्मः । — संस्कारमयूख.

The number of {{yajñopavītas|yajñopavītas}} to be worn differed according to circumstances. A {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} was to wear only one {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} and {{saṁnyāsins|saṁnyāsins}}, when they kept {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} at all, also wore only one. A {{snātaka|snātaka}}⁷⁴ (i {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} being the offspring of adultery [[299]] would not really be {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} even though both parents were brahmanas. Thus, though these two are not strictly {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}, upanayana of a secondary kind is allowed to them. Manu (III. 156 ) included the {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} among {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} not to be invited at {{śrāddha|śrāddha}}. Elaborate discussions have been held why they were so specially mentioned, when they were not on Manu’s own dictum {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}. Some like the author of the Samgraha held that the {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} forbidden by Manu in sraddha were those born under the ancient practice of {{ni. e. one who has returned from the teacher’s house after {{brahmacarya|brahmacarya}}) and a house-bolder were to wear two while one who desired long life may wear more than two. {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas.Dh.S.}} XII. 14 {{days|says}} ‘{{snātakas|snātakas}} should always wear a lower garment and an upper one, two {{yajñopavītas|yajñopavītas}}, should have a stick and a pot filled with water’. {{Kaśyapa|Kaśyapa}} allowed a householder to wear any number up to ten. Whether {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} as worn in modern times was worn from the most ancient times or not, it is certain that long before the Christian era it had come to be so worn and it had become an inflexible rule that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} must always wear a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīyoga|niyoga}}; while others repudiated the idea that those born under the practice of {{niyoga|niyoga}} had any taint attaching to them.⁹⁰

It is not necessary to go into the question of the upanayana of mixed castes. Manu ( X. 41 ) says that the six {{anulomas|anulomas}} are eligible for the rites of {{drijas|dvijas}} (and so for upanayana ) and the Mit. on Yaj. I. 92 and 95 says that the {{anulomas|anulomas}} have upanayana performed according to the rules of the {{oaste|caste}} of the mother and further mixed castes arising from the six anuloma castes in the anuloma order are also eligible for upanayana. The Baud. gṛ. {{seṣasūtra|śeṣasūtra}} II. 8 gives rules for the {{upana yana|upanayana}} of {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}}, {{vaisyas|vaita}} and have his top-knot (of hair) always tied up; if he did any act without observing this rule, it was inefficacious.⁷⁵ {{Vas.|Vasiṣṭha}}⁷⁶ and {{Baud. Dh. S.|Baud.Dh.S.}} (II. 2. 1) both say that a man must always wear {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}. If a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} took his meals without wearing {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, he had to undergo {{prāyaścitta|prāyaścitta}} viz. to bathe, to mutter prayers and fast; vide {{Laghu-Hārita|Laghu-Hārīta}} verse 23 quoted by {{Aparārks|Aparārka}} pp. 1171, 1173. The {{Mit.|Mit.}} on {{Yāj.|Yāj.}} III. 292 prescribes {{śyas}} and of mixed castes like {{rathakara|rathakāra}}, {{ambaṣtba|ambaṣṭha}} &c. Gaut. IV. 21 made an exception in the case of the son of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} from a {{sūdra|śūdra}} woman. All {{pratilomas|pratilomas}} were like {{sūdra|śūdra}} according to Manu (IV. 41 ) and the offspring of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} from a {{sūdra|śūdra}} woman, though anuloma, was like {{pratilomas|pratilomas}}. A {{śūdra|śūdra}} is only {{ekajāti|ekajāti}} and not {{dvijāti|dvijāti}} (Gaut. X. 51) and for the {{pratilomas|pratilomas}} ( as well as for the gūdra ) there was no upanayana.

Upanayana wasprāyaścitta|prāyaścitta}} for answering calls of nature without having the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} placed on the right ear (as {{Yāj.|Yāj.}} I, 16 prescribes). {{Manu|Manu}} IV. 66 forbids the wearing of another’s {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} along with several other things (such as shoes, ornament, garland and {{kamanḍalu|kamaṇḍalu}}). In {{Yāj.|Yāj.}} (I. 16 and 133) and other {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} is called {{brahmasūtra|brahmasūtra}}.

• स्नातकानां तु नित्यं स्याद्-अन्तर्-वासस्-तथोत्तरम् । यज्ञोपवीते द्व so highly thought of that some of the ancient texts prescribe a method of {{upanayans|upanayana}} for the {{Asvattha|Aśvattha}} tree. Vide Baud. gṛ. {{seṣasūtra|śeṣasūtra}} II, 10. In modern times also rarely this upanayana is performed. To the west of the {{Asvattha|Aśvattha}} tree homa is performed, the {{samskāras|saṁskāras}} from {{pumsavana|puṁsavana}} are imitated but with the {{vyabrtis|vyāhṛtis}} only, the tree being touched with {{R&|Ṛg}}. III. [[300]] 8. 11 ‘{{vanaspate|vanaspate}}’. A piece of {{oloth|cloth}} is held between the tree and the performer, then eight auspicious verses areे, यष्टिः, सोदकश्-च कमण्डलुः ॥ — वसिष्ठ XII, 14; {{विष्णुधर्मसूत्र|Viṣṇudharmasūtra}} 71. 13-15 has similar rules, the verse of {{Vasiṣṭha|Vasiṣṭha}} is quoted by the {{Mit.|Mit.}} on {{Yāj|Yāj.}} I. 133; compare {{मनु.|Manu}} IV. 36; एक-एकम् उपवीतं तु यतीनां ब्रह्मचारिणाम् । गृहिणां च वनस्थानाम् उपवीत-द्वयं स्मृतम् । सोत्तरीयं त्रयं वा-अपि बिभृयाच्-छुभ्र-तन्तु वा । — {{वृद्धहारीत|Vṛddhahārīta}} VIII. 44-45. Vide देवल quoted in repeated ({{mangalāṣṭaka|mangalāṣṭaka}}), the cloth is removed and then the hymn {{oalled|called}} Dhruva sūkta ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 72. 1-9 ) is repeated. Other mantras (like {{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 62-63 ) are also recited. Then {{&|a}} piece of cloth, {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, girdle, staff and deer-skin are given with appropriate mantras and lastly after touching the tree, the {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}} is repeated. In E. C. vol. III. Malavalli No. 22 there is a reference to the upanayana of Aśvattha trees performed {{स्मृतिच.|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 32 and ‘त्रीणि चत्वारि पञ्चाष्ट गृहिणः स्युर्-दशापि वा । सर्वैर्-वा शुचिभिर्-धार्यम् उपवीतं द्विजातिभिः ॥’ — कश्यप quoted in the संस्कारमयूख.

• Vide note 609 above.

• नित्योदकी नित्य-यज्ञोपवीती नित्य-स्वाध्यायी पतितान्न-वर्जी । ऋतौ च गच्छन् विधिवच्-च जुह्वन्-न ब्राह्मणश्-च्यवते ब्रह्म-लोकात् ॥ — वसिष्ठ 8.9, {{बौ. ध. सू.|Baud.Dh.S.}} II. 2. 1, उद्योगपर्व 40. 25; the by one Bāchappa in 1358 A. D.

Savitryupadesa - It will be seen from the passage of the {{Sat. Br.|Śat. Br.}} quoted above (in note 625) that the sacred Gayatri verse was imparted in very {{apoient|ancient}} times to the student by the teacher a year, or six months, 24, 12 or 3 days after upanayana and that the {{Sat. Br.|Śat. Br.}} prescribes that in the case of {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} students this must be done immediately. This ancient rule was probably due to the fact that students in those far-off times when first pāda is quoted in the {{तन्त्रवार्तिक|Tantravārtika}} p. 896.

An interesting question is whether women ever had {{upanayana|upanayana}} performed or whether they had to wear the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}. Several {{smṛtis|smṛtis}} contain instructive dicta on this point.⁷⁷ The {{Hārītadharmasūtra|Hārītadharmasūtra}} as quoted in the {{Sm. C.|Sm.C.}} and other digests says ’there are two sorts of women, those that are {{brahmavādinīs|brahmavādinīs}} (i. e. they came to the teacher at the age of seven or eight had hardly any previous instruction and so must have found it difficult to pronounce properly and {{correotly|correctly}} the sacred verse immediately on initiation. It is for this reason that so modern a work as the S. R. M. (p. 194) says that such mantras as ‘{{San-no devirabhiṣtaye|Śaṁ no devīr abhiṣṭaye}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 9. 4) which have to be repeated by the {{brahmacārl|brahmacārī}} in the rites of upanayana should be taught students of sacred lore) and those that are {{sadyovadhūs|sadyovadhūs}} (i. e. who straightway marry). Out of these {{brahmavādinīs|brahmavādinīs}} have to go through {{upanayana|upanayana}}, keeping fire, {{vedic|Vedic}} study and begging in one’s house (i. e. under the parental roof); but in the case of {{sadyovadhūs|sadyovadhūs}} when their marriage is drawing near, the mere ceremony of {{upanayana|upanayana}} should somehow be performed and then their marriage should be celebrated.’ In the {{Gobhila gṛ.|Gobhila-gṛ.}}⁷⁸ II. 1. 19 it is said “leading forward towards the sacred fire (from the house) the bride who is wrapped in a robe and wears the sacred thread (slung from her to him even before upanayana, just as the wife (who being a woman had no upanayana performed ) was taught the Vedic mantras accompanying such acts as that of examining {{ajya|ājya}} in sacrifices. The same rule of postponing the {{instruc tion|instruction}} in Gayatri is stated in {{Sān. gṛ.|Śān. gṛ.}} II. 5, {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. I. 22. 15, {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} I. 9, {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} II. 3. The general practice however seems to have been to impart the Gayatri that very day. According to most of the sūtras the teacher sits to the north of the fire facing the east left shoulder, in the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} mode) he (the husband) should murmur the verse ‘{{Soma|Soma}} gave her to {{Gandharva|Gandharva}}’ ({{Ṛg.|Ṛg.}} X. 85. 41)”. It is clear that the girl, according to {{Gobhila|Gobhila}}, wore the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} as a symbol of the rite of {{upanayana|upanayana}}. The commentator to whom this procedure naturally seemed strange explains ‘{{yajñopavītinīm|yajñopavītinīm}}’ as meaning ‘whose upper garment is worn in the fashion of the sacred thread’. In the {{Saṁskāratattvā|Saṁ and in front of him the student sits facing the west and then the student requests the teacher to recite to him the Verse sacred to Savitr and the {{toacher|teacher}} imparts to him first one {{pāda|pāda}} at a time, then two pādas and then the whole. According [[301]] to Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 34-37 the student places on the fire four fuel sticks of the {{palāśa|palāśa}} or other {{saorificial|sacrificial}} tree anointed with clarified butter and repeats mantras to Agni, Vāyu, Aditya and the lord of {{vratas|vratas}} with ‘{{svāhā|svāhā}}’ when offering {{til|to}} them. Various intricate modes occur in the sskāratattva}} of {{Raghunandana|Raghunandana}} it is stated that {{Hariśarmā|Hariśarmā}} held that according to {{Gobhila|Gobhila}} the bride was to wear a {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, though {{Raghunandana|Raghunandana}} himself does not approve of this explanation. In the ceremony of {{Samāvartana|Samāvartana}}, {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} III. 8,⁷⁹ on the subject of applying ointment says ‘after having smeared the two hands with ointment a {{brāhmaṇa|brūtras and the commentaries thereon about how this first instruction in {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} is to be carried out. The differences are due to the place assigned to the {{vyābrtis|vyāhṛtis}} ({{bbūḥ|bhūḥ}}, {{bhuvaḥ|bhuvaḥ}}, {{svaḥ|svaḥ}}). Two illustrations are set out below from {{Sudarśana|Sudarśana}} on Ap. gṛ. II. 11. The syllable ‘om ’ has been looked upon as very sacred from ancient times and is a symbol of the Supreme Being. The {{Tai. Br.|Tai. Br.}} II. 11 contains {{āhmaṇa}} should salve his face first, a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} his two arms, a {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} his belly, a woman her private parts and persons who gain their livelihood by running, their thighs’. It is improper to say, as some do, that as to women this is a general rule interpolated in the treatment of {{samāvartana|samāvartana}} and has nothing to do with the latter. We should rather hold that {{Āśv.|Āśv.}} knew of women undertaking Vedic study and so prescribed what they should do in their {{samāvartana|samāvartana}}. In the {{Mahābhārata|Mahābh&|a}} eulogy of ‘{{omkara|oṁkāra}}’ and quotes {{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 164.39 in support {{rco aksare parame|ṛco akṣare parame}} &c.’ taking the word ‘{{aksara|akṣara}}’ to mean the ‘{{omkara|oṁkāra}}’. The {{Tai. Up.|Tai. Up.}} I. 8. says (ārata}} ({{Vanaparva|Vanaparva}} 305. 20)⁸⁰ a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} is said to have taught to the mother of the {{Pāṇḍava|Pāṇḍava}} heroes a number of mantras from the {{Atharvaśiras|Atharvaśiras}}. {{Hārīta|Hārīta}}⁸¹ prescribes that in the case of women {{samāvartana|samāvartana}} took place before the appearance of menses. Thereforesyllable) om is Brahma; om is all this (universe). A {{brahmana|brāhmaṇa}} about to begin the teaching (of the Veda) says ‘om’ with the idea that he may reach {{pear|near}} brahma. ‘Om’ is called pranava. Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 13. 6 says ‘{{omkara|oṁkāra}} is the door to [[302]] heaven {{brahmavādinī|brahmavādinī}} women had {{upanayana|upanayana}} performed in the 8th year from conception, then they studied Vedic lore and finished student-hood at the age of puberty. {{Yama|Yama}}⁸² says ‘in former ages, tying of the girdle of {{muñja|muñja}} (i. e. {{upanayana|upanayana}}) was desired in the case; therefore one who is about to study the Veda, should start his study by first repeating om.’ Manu (II. 74 ) prescribes the repetition of pranava at the beginning and at the end of daily Vedic study and further on (II. 76 ) says that the three letters ‘a’, ‘u’,’m’(in om) and the three {{vyābftis|vyāhṛtis}} were distilled from the three vedas by Prajāpati as the essence. of maidens, they were taught the {{vedes|Vedas}} and made to recite the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}} (the sacred {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}} verse); either their father, uncle or brother taught them and not a stranger and begging was prescribed for a maiden in the house itself and she was not to wear deer-skin or bark garment and was not to have matted hair’. {{Manu|Manu}} seems to have been aware of this usage as prevalent in ancient times, if not his own. Having spoken of the {{saṁskā {{Medbātitbi|Medhātithi}} on Manu (II. 74 ) says that ‘om must be uttered at the {{begin.|beginning}} of the daily Vedic study by the student or by the house holder ( when performing {{brahmayajña|brahmayajña}}), but it is not necessary in {{japa|japa}}’ &o. In the {{Mārkandeya-purāṇa|Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa}} chap. 42, Vayu chap. 20, {{ras|saṁskāras}} from {{jātakarma|jātakarma}} to {{upanayana|upanayana}}, {{Manu|Manu}} winds up (II. 66) ’these ceremonies were to be performed in their entirety for women also, but without mantras’ and adds (II. 67) ’the ceremony of marriage is the only {{saṁskāra|saṁskāra}} performed with Vedic mantras in the case of women; (in their case) attendance on the husband amounts to serving a guru (which a student had to do) and performance of domestic duties toVṭddha-Harsta-smrti|Vṛddha-Hārīta-smṛti}} VI. 59-62 and in numerous other places there are hyperbolical or esoterio identifications of the three letters of om with Viṣṇu, Lakṣmi and the jive, with the three Vedas, with the three worlds, with three fires &o. In the {{Kathopaniṣad|Kathopaniṣad}} I. 2. 1 worship of fire’ (which the student had to perform by offering a fuel-stick in the evening every day). This shows that in the day of the {{Manusmṛti|Manusmṛti}}, {{upanayana|upanayana}} for women had gone out of practice, though there were faint glimmerings of its performance for women in former days. Relying on the words ‘in former ages’ occurring in the verses of {{Yama|Yama}} quoted above medieval digests like the {{5-17 om is said to be the end of all Vedas, the source of the knowledge of brahma and also its symbol.

The sacred Gayatri verse is {{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. III. 62. 10 and {{oocurs|occurs}} in the other Vedas also. It is addressed to Savitr (the sun) and may also be interpreted as a prayer to the Source and Inspirer of everything. It literally means ‘we contemplate that esteemed (longed for)Sm. C.|Sm.C.}}, the {{Nirṇayasindhu|Nirṇayasindhu}} and others say that this practice belonged to another {{yuga|yuga}}. In {{Bāṇabhaṭṭa’s Kādambari|Bāṇabhaṭṭa’s Kādambarī}},⁸³ {{Mahāśvetā|Mahāśvetā}} (who was practising tapas) is described as one refulgence ( glory ) of the divine Savitr who may inspire our intellects (or actions)’. Some gṛhya sūtras prescribe the same {{vorge|verse}} for all students, whether {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}, {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} or {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}}. But others say that for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} the {{Sāvitrl|Sāvit whose body was rendered pure by (wearing) a {{brahmasūtra|brahmasūtra}} (i. e. {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}})’. The {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} came to have superhuman virtues attributed to it and so probably even women who were practising {{susterities|austerities}} wore it. The {{Saṁ. Pr.|Saṁ.Pr.}} (p.rī}} verse is the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}}, but for {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}}, a {{sāvitri|sāvitrī}} ( verse addressed to Savitr) in the {{Triṣçubh|Triṣṭubh}} (having 11 syllables in each quarter 419) quotes a verse saying that the Supreme Being is called {{yajña|yajña}} and {{yajñopavta|yajñopavīta}} is so called because it belongs to the Supreme Being (or is used in sacrifices for Him).⁸⁴

• “यत्-तु हारीतेन उक्तं — द्विविधाः स्त्रियोः ब्रह्मवादिन्यः सद्यो-वध्वश्) or Jagati (12 syllables in each quarter ) should be the proper one. Here again there is difference. According to the commentators on the {{Kathaka|Kāṭhaka}} gṛ. (41.20 ), the {{verge|verse}} ‘{{adabdhebhiḥ savita|ādabdhebhiḥ savita}}’( {{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} IV. 10) and the {{ver-च । तत्र ब्रह्म-वादिनीनाम् उपनयनम्, अग्नीन्धनं, वेद-अध्ययनं, स्व-गृहे च भिक्षाचर्या इति । सद्यो-वधूनां तु उपस्थिते विवाहे कथञ्चिद् उपनयन-मात्रं कृत्वा विवाहः कार्यः ॥ — quotedge|verse}} {{Viśvā rūpāpi|Viśvā rūpāṇi}}’ ({{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} XVI. 8) are cited as the Savitri for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and a {{vaisya|vaiśya}} respectively; while the commentator on {{Sān. gṛ.|Śān. gṛ.}} (II. 5. 4- in {{स्मृतिच॰|Smṛticandrikā}} I. p. 24; {{संस्कारप्रकाश|Saṁskāraprakāśa}} p. 402.

• ‘प्रावृतां यज्ञोपवीतिनीम् अभ्युदानयन् जपेत् सोमो ददद्-गगन्धर्वाय इति ।’ — {{गोभिलगृह्य|Gobhila-gṛhya}} II6) says that the {{Trisṭubh|Triṣṭubh}} which is to be taught as the {{Sāvitri|Sāvitrī}} to the {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} students is ‘{{& kṛṣpena rajasā|ā kṛṣṇena rajasā}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 35. 2) and the Jagati Savitri for the {{valấya|vaiś. 1. 19; the com. says ‘यज्ञोपवीतवत्-कृत-उत्तरीयाम्’; ‘यज्ञोपवीतिनीम् इत्य्-अनेन स्त्रीणाम् अपि कर्म-अङ्गत्वेन यज्ञोपवीत-धारणम् इति हरिशर्मोक्तं युक्तं स्त्रीणां यज्ञya}} is. {{Hiranya pāṇiḥ savita|Hiraṇyapāṇiḥ savitā}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 35. 9 ) or {{hamsaḥ śuciṣad|haṁsaḥ śuciṣad}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. IV. ोपवीत-धारण-अनुपपत्तेः ।’ — {{संस्कारतत्त्व|Saṁskāratattva}} p. 896.

• अनुलेपनेन पाणी प्रलिप्य मुखम् अग्रे ब्राह्मणोऽनुलिम्पेत् । बाहू राजन्यः । उदरं वै40. 5). According to the {{Vārabagļhya|Vārāhagṛhya}} (5) ‘{{devo yāti savita|devo yāti savitā}}’ and ‘{{yuñjate manaḥ|yuñjate manaḥ}}’({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. V. 81.श्यः । उपस्थं स्त्री । ऊरू सरण-जीविनः । — {{आश्व. गृ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} III. 8. 11.

• तत1) are the {{Triṣtubh|Triṣṭubh}} and Jagat meant as Savitri for the {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaisya|vaiśya}} respectively. According to Satatapa quoted in the Madanapārijāta (p. 23) the verse ‘{{Deva savस्-ताम् अनवद्याङ्गीं ग्राहयाम् आस स द्विजः । मन्त्र-ग्रामं तदा राजन्न्-अथर्व-शिरसि श्रुतम् ॥ — वनपर्व 305. 20.

• प्राग्-रजसः समावर्तनम् । इति हरीतोक्त्याitaḥ|Deva savitaḥ}}’ ({{Tai. S.|Tai. S.}} I. 7.7.1, {{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} XIII. 14) is the {{sāvitri|sāvitrī}} for the {{ksatriya|kṣatriya}}. According to {{Medbāt — {{संस्कारप्रकाश|Saṁskāraprakāśa}} p 404.

• यमोऽपि — पुरा-कल्पे कुमारीणां मौञ्जी-बन्धनम्ithi|Medhātithi}} on Manu II. 38 : {{& krsñena|ā kṛṣṇ इष्यते । अध्यापनं च वेदानां सावित्री-वाचनं तथा । पिता पितृव्यena}} ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 35. 2 ) and ‘{{visva rūpāṇi|viśva rūpāṇi}}’ ({{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} XVI.ो भ्राता वा न एनान् अध्यापयेत् परः । स्व-गृहे च एव कन्याया भैक्ष-चर्या विधीयते ॥ वर्जयेद्-अजिनं चीरं जटा-धारणम् 8) [[303]] are the two {{Sāvitris|Sāvitrīs}} respectively for {{ksatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaibya|vaiśya}}. That all these rules about the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}} being in the Gayatri, {{Tristubh|Triṣṭubh}} and एव च ॥ — {{संस्कारप्रकाश|Saṁskāraprakāśa}} pp. 402-403; these verses are ascribed to Manu in the {{स्मृतिचन्द्रिका|Smṛticandrikā}} (I. p. 24) edited by Mr. Gharpure, but this seems to be a misreading for य Jagati metres for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} respectively are probably very ancient follows from the text ‘{{gāyatrgā brāhmaṇamassajata triṣtubbā rājanyam|gम (which is the reading of the Mysore ed.).

• ब्रह्मसूत्रेण पवित्रीकृत-कायाम् in para 133 of कादम्बरी (पूर्वार्ध).

-āyatryā brāhmaṇam asṛjata triṣṭubhā rājanyam}} &c.’ (quoted in note 356 above). The Āśv. gṛ., Āp. gṛ., and यज्ञ-अर्थः परमात्मा य उच्यते चैव होतृभिः । उपवीतं ततोऽस्येदं तत्-स्याद्-यज्ञोपवीतकम् ॥ — {{सं. प्र.|Saṁ.Pra some other sūtras are entirely silent on the point, while {{Pār, gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} II. 3 allows an option viz, all {{varṇas|varṇas}} may learn the {{.}} p. 419.

Though {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaiśyas|vaiśyas}} also were entitled to have the {{upanayana|upanayana}} performed, it appears that they often neglected itGāyatri|Gāyatrī}} or the Savitri verses in the Gayatri, {{Tristubh|Triṣṭubh}} and Jagati respectively. Why the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} verse ({{Ṛ or at least neglected the constant wearing of {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, so much so that from comparatively early times the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} came to be regarded asg|Ṛg}}. III. 62. 10) came to be famous it is difficult to say. Its fame was probably due to its grand simplicity and to its adaptability to an idealistic conception of the world as emanating from an all-per the peculiar indicator of the wearer’s being of the {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} caste. For example, {{Kālidāsa|Kālidāsa}} in {{Raghuvaṁśa|Ragvading Intelligence. The Gopatha {{Brābmana|Brāhmaṇa}} (I. 32-33 ) explains the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} in various ways. In the {{Tai. Ār.|Taihuvaṁśa}} (XI. 64)⁸⁵ while describing the irate {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} hero {{Paraśurāma|Paraśurāma}} says ‘wearing the {{upavīta|upavīta}}, which was the heritage that came to him from his father, and. Ār.}} (II. 11 ) it is stated that the {{mystio|mystic}} words’{{bhūḥ. bhuvah, svaḥ|bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ}}’ are holding a formidable bow that came to him from the side of his mother (who was a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} princess)’. If the {{upavīta|upavīta}} had been as constantly worn by the the truth (essence) of speech and that Savita in the Gayatri means ‘one who {{en.|en-}}genders glory,’. Atharvaveda 19. 71. 1 calls it {{vedamata|ved {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} as by {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}} in {{Kālidāsa’s|Kālidāsa’s}} day he would not have spoken of it as the peculiar sign of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}. In the drama {{Veamātā}}’ and prays that it may {{confor|confer}} long life, glory, children, cattle &c, on the singer. The {{Br. Up.|Bṛ. Up.}} V, 14. 1-6 contains a sublime eulogy of {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} which word is there derivedṇīsaṁhāra|Veṇīsaṁhāra}} (Act III) when {{Karṇa|Karṇa}} resented the attitude of {{Aśvatthāman|Aśvatthāman}}, who raised his left foot for kicking {{Karṇa|Karṇa}}, and said that he could not cut off his leg as by virtue of his from ‘{{gaya|gaya}}’ meaning {{prāṇa|prāṇa}}’, and the root ‘{{trai|trai}}’ ( to save ) and it is said that when the teacher repeats the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} for the benefit of the young student he thereby saves the boy’s life ( caste (as {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}) he could not be punished in that way, {{Aśvatthāman|Aśvatthāman}} replied by throwing away his sacred thread with the words ‘here do I give up my caste’.⁸⁷ That shows that in the days of the {{Veṇīsaṁhārafrom ignorance and the effects of sin). The Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 10 {{montions|mentions}} a brahmana text to the effect that the Savitri is recited for all the Vedas|Veṇīsaṁhāra}} (not later than about 600 A. D.) the {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}} had become the peculiar indicator of the caste of {{brāhma ( i.e. by its recital all Vedas become recited as it is their essence ). Manu II. 77 ( ={{Vispu|Viṣṇu}} Dh. S. 55. 14 ) says that eachṇas|brāhmaṇas}} only.

• पित्र्यम् अंशम् उपवीत-लक्षणं मातृकं च धनुर्-ऊर्जितं दधत् । — रघुवंश XI. 64.

• जात्या चेद्-अवध्योऽ pada of the Savitri was as if extracted from each of the three Vedas and that ( II. 81={{Viṣṇu|Viṣṇu}} Dh. S. 55, 15 ) the Savitri together with om and the three mystic syllables ({{bhūḥ|bhūḥ}} &o.) is the mouth of Vedic lore ({{हम्, इयं सा जातिः परित्यक्ता । — वेणीसंहार III.

The {{Baudhāyana-sūtra|Baudhāyana-sūtra}} quoted in the {{Saṁskāra-ratnamālā|Saṁskāra-ratnamālā}} (p. 188) says that yarnsinoe|since}} Vedic study starts with it, or ‘{{brabna|brahma}}’ may mean ’the Supreme Being’). Manu II. 77-83, {{Viṣṇu|Viṣṇu}} Dh. S. 55. 11-17, Saṅkhasmrti XII, spun by a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} or his maiden daughter is to be brought, then one is to measure first 96 {{aṅgulas|aṅgulas}} of it with the syllable {{bhūḥ|bhūḥ}}, then another 96 with {{bhuvaḥ|bhuvaḥ}} and a third {{Saṁvarta|Saṁvarta}} ( verses 216-223 ), [[304]] Bphat-Parāśara chap. V (where the mystical significance of each of the 24 letters of the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} is explained ) and numerous other works contain hyperbolical eulogies96 with {{svaḥ|svaḥ}}, then the yarn so measured is to be kept on a leaf of {{palāśa|palāśa}} and is to be sprinkled with water to the accompaniment of the three mantras ‘{{āpo hi ṣṭhā|āpo hi ṣṭhā}}’ ({{Ṛg.|Ṛg.}} X. 9. of Gayatri. Parāśara V.1 calls it ‘Vedamata’. The words’{{Apo jyoti rasonrtam brahina bhur-bhuvah svarom|Āpo jyotī raso’mṛta 1-3), with the four verses ‘{{Hiraṇyavarṇāh|Hiraṇyavarṇāḥ}}’ ({{Tai, S.|Tai.S.}} V. 6. 1 and {{Atharva|Atharvaveda}} I. 33. 1-4) and with the anuvāṁ brahma bhūr-bhuvaḥ svarom}}’ are said to be the {{tiras|śiras}} (head) of the Gaya tri (vide Saṅkhasmrti XII. 12). Manu (II.104) and others {{pres cribe|prescribe}} that every day a {{brahmacārika beginning with ‘{{pavamānaḥ suvarjaṇaḥ|pavamānaḥ suvarjanaḥ}}’ ({{Tai. Br.|Tai.Br.}} I. 4.8) and with the {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}}, then the yarn is to be taken in the left hand and there is to be a clapping of the two|brahmacārī}} ( as well as others) must {{per form|perform}} japa of Gayatrl, Baud. Dh. S. II 4. 7-9 prescribes that in the evening {{Sandhyā|Sandhyā}} adoration one should murmur the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} a thousand times, or a {{handa|hands}} thrice, the yarn is to be twisted [[296]] with the three verses ‘{{bhūragnim ca|bhūr-agnim ca}}’ ({{Tai. Br.|Tai.Br.}} III. 10.2) and then the knot is to be tied with the {{forinula|formula hundred times with {{prāṇāyāma|prāṇāyāma}} each time or ten times with ‘om’ and the seven {{vyahrtis|vyāhṛtis}}. Vas. Dh. S. 26. 15 {{proscribes|prescribes}} that a man desirous of purifying himself from sin should}} ‘{{Bhurbhuvaḥ svas candram&saṁ ca|Bhūr-bhuvaḥ svas-candramasaṁ ca}}’ ({{Tai. Br.|Tai.Br.}} III. 10 repeat the divine Gayatri 1000 times (daily) as the maxi mum or 100 times (as the middle way) or at least ten times. There are mantras for invoking the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī. 2) and the nine deities ‘{{omkāra|oṁkāra}}, {{Agni|Agni}} (quoted above in note 685)’ have to be invoked on the {{pine|nine}} strands, then the {{upavīta|upavīta}} is to be taken with the mantra ‘{{devasya tvā|devas}} and for taking leave of it.

{{Brahmacāri-dharmāḥ|Brahmacāri-dharmāḥ}}Certain rules and observances are prescribed for all {{brahmacārins|brahmacārins}}. They are of two kinds, some are {{pregoribed|prescribed}} for a very short time and some have to be observed for all the years of studenthood, The Āśv.gṛ. I. ya tvā}}’ and then it is to be shown to the sun with the {{verge|verse}} ‘{{ud vayam tamasaspari|ud vayaṁ tamasas-pari}}’ ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} I. 50. 10) and then the {{yajñopayita|yajñopavīta}} is to be put on with the verse ‘{{yajñopavītam &o.|yajñopavī22.17 says " for three nights, or twelve nights or a year after upanayana [[305]] the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should not eat’ {{kṣāra|kṣāra}}’ and ‘{{lavana|lavaṇa}}’ and should sleep on the ground”. The same rule is stated by Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 55 ( adding the maintenance of the fire kindled at the uptam}}’ &c. Then there is to be a japa of the {{gāyatri|gāyatrī}} verse and then {{Scamans|ācamana}}. For a brief statement of the mode of putting on a fresh sacred thread vide note below.⁸⁸

The {{Baudhayana-gphyasesasūtra|Baudhāyana-gṛhyaśeṣasūtra}} (II. 8. 1-12) givesanayana for three days), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār. gṛ.}} I. 10, {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} II. 5, {{Kbūdira|Khādira}} gṛ. II. 4. 33 (adding avoidance of milk also for three days). Hir. gṛ. ( I. 8. 2 ) specially prescribes for the first three days the avoidance of {{kṣāra| a few insignificant points of difference as to the {{upanayana|upanayana}} of {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}}, {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}}, {{ambastha|ambaṣṭha}} and {{karaña|karaṇa}} (son of a {{vaisya|vaiśya}} from a {{sūdra|śūdra}} female). It is not necessary to go into these details. [[297]]

The next importantkṣāra}}, of {{lavana|lavaṇa}} and vegetables, and the duty of sleeping on the ground, of not drinking out of an earthen vessel, of not giving the remnants of his food to {{śūdras|śūdras}} and several other observances which he has to continue throughout the period of student-hood. These latter are briefly indicated in Manu II. 108 and 176 viz. offering {{samidhs|samidhs}} into fire question is as to whether {{upanayana|upanayana}} was performed in the case of the blind, the deaf and dumb, the idiotic &c. {{Jaimini|Jaimini}} has established that those who are devoid of a limb⁸⁹ are not eligible for {{agnihotra|agnihotra}}, but this inability arises only when the {{defeot|defect}} is incurable. Similarly the {{Ap. Dh.S.|Āp.Dh.S.}}, begging for food, not using a cot, working for the teacher, daily bath, tarpana of gods, sages and {{ II. 6. 14. 1, {{Gaut.|Gaut.}} 28. 41-42, {{Vas.|Vas.}} 17, 52-54, {{Manu|Manu}} 9. 201, {{Yāj.|Yāj.}} II. 140-141, {{Viṣṇu. Db. S.|Viṣṇu-Dh.S.}} 15. 32 ff. lay down that persons who are impotent, {{palita|patita}}, congenitally blind orpitṛs|pitṛs}} &c.

The observances that last throughout the period of student hood are first seen in the passage of the {{Sat. Br.|Śat. Br.}} (quoted above in note 625 ). The same are laid down in Aśv, gṛ, I, 22.2 ( quoted on p. 283 above), {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} II. 3, Āp. {{Mantrapātha|Mantrapāṭha}} (II. 6. 14), {{Kathaka|Kāṭhaka}} gṛ. ( 41. 17 ) and other texts. These are principally acamana, {{guruśusrūṣā|guruśuśrūṣā}}, {{vāksaiyama|vāksaṁyama}} (silence), {{samidādhāna|samidādhāna}}. When deaf, cripple and those who suffer from incurable diseases are not entitled to share property on a partition, but are only entitled to be maintained. But they all allow even these to marry. As marriage is not possible for {{dvijatis|dvijātis}} unless {{upanayana|upanayana}} precedes it, it appears that the {{core.|ceremony}} of {{upanayana|upanayana}} was gone through as far as it could be carried out in the case of the blind, the deaf and dumb &c. The {{Baud. gṛ. seṣasūtra|Baudhāyana-gṛhyaśeṣasūtra}} (II. 9) prescribes a special procedure for the {{upanayana|upanayana}} of the deaf and dumb and idiots. The principal points in which their {{upanayana|upanayana}} differs from the teacher says in the upanayana’ drink water, do work &c’, the student is to reply with the word ‘yes’ (’{{bādham|bāḍham}}’ or om ). But the sūtras and {{emptis|smṛtis}} lay down many rules about these and other observances; vide Gaut. II, 10-40, {{Sān. gṛ.|Śān. gṛ.}} II. 6.8, Gobhila gṛ. III. 1.27, {{Khādira|Khādira}} gṛ. II. 5. 10-16, Hir. gṛ. 8.1-7, Ap. Dh. S, I. 1. 3. 11-1.2.7. that of others are that the offering of {{samidh|samidh}}, treading on a stone, putting on a garment, the tying of {{mekhala|mekhalā}}, the giving of deer skin and staff are done silently, that the boy does not mention his {{Dame|name}}, it is the {{doārya|ācārya}} himself who makes offerings of cooked food or of clarified butter, all the mantras are muttered softly by the {{ācārya|ācārya}} himself. The sūtra {{yot|yet}} says that according to some the same procedure is followed as to other persons who are impotent, blind, lunatics, or suffering from such diseases as epilepsy, white leprosy or black30, Baud. Dh. S. I. 2, Manu II. 49-249, Yāj. I. 16-32 &o. The rules centre principally round {{agnipa ricaryā|agniparicaryā}} (worshipping fire), {{bhikṣā|bhikṣā}} (begging for food ), {{samdhyopāsana|saṁdhyopāsana}}, study of Veda and its methods and duration, avoidance of certain foods and drinks and other matters like singing &o., {{guruśusrūṣa|guruśuśrūṣā}} ( including honouring him and his family and other elders ), and the special {{v leprosy &c.⁹¹ The {{Nirnayasindhu|Nirṇayasindhu}} quotes a passage from the {{Brahmapuriṇa|Brahmapurāṇa}} cited in the {{Prayogaparijata|Prayogapārijāta}} about the {{upangyana|upanayana}} of the impotent, the deaf and others which contains rules similar to {{Baudhāyana’s|Baudhāyana’s}}. The {{Sam. Pr.|Saṁ.Pr.}} (pp. 399-401) and S. R. M. (pp. 273-274) also quote the passage and explain it. The {{ratas|vratas}} of the {{brabma cāri|brahmacārī}}. These principal topics will be dealt with in some detail now. Before doing so some other matters will have to be briefly disposed of.

On the 4th day after upanayana a rite was performed called {{Medbājangna|Medhājanana}} ( generation of intelligence) by virtue of which [[306]] it was supposed that the student’s intellect was made capable of mastering Vedic lore. {{A$v|Āśv}}. gṛ. I. 22. 18-19 deals with this. The teacher makes the student sprinkle water in an unobjectionable direction thricepurāṇa|purāṇa}}⁹² says that those who cannot repeat the {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} (such as the deaf and dumb) should be brought near the teacher or fire and that the teacher should then touch them and then mutter the {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} himself, but {{tbat|that}} in other cases such as lunatics, they should be made to repeat the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} at least if possible and if that too is not possible, then on touching them the {{acārya|ācārya from the left to the right with a pot of water round about a {{palāśa|palāśa}} tree that has one root, or round a bunch of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass if there is no {{palāśa|palāśa}}, and makes him repeat the mantra ‘Oh glorious one, thou art glorious. As thou, glorious one, are glorious, thus, glorious one, make me full of glory. As thou art the preserver of the treasure of sacrifice for the gods, thus may I become the preserver of the treasure of Veda among men’. The {{Bhār. gṛ}} should repeat it. The {{game|same}} {{purana|purāṇa}} prescribes that {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} (the first being the offspring of an adulterous intercourse when the husband of the woman is living and the second when the husband is dead) should have {{upanayana|upanayana}} performed in the same way as for the deaf and dumb, if it is known that the adulterer and the woman were both of the.|Bhār. gṛ.}} (1. 10 ) also prescribes this rite on the fourth day after upanayana and says that a {{palāśa|palāśa}} tree with one root is to be anointed with {{ājya|ājya}} and the mantra ‘{{suśravaḥ|suśravas}}’ (the same as in Āśv.) is to be muttered. {{Kathaka|Kāṭhaka}} gṛ. 41. 18, {{ {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} caste. There is some difference of opinion as to {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}}. {{Manu|Manu}} (II. 174) defined them as above. {{Ap. Dh. S|Āp.Dh.S.}}, II. 6. 13. 1, {{Manu|Manu}} (10.5) and {{Yaj.|Yāj.}} (I. 90, 92)⁹³ expressly say that a person born of a {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. I. 22. 17 also refer to this. The {{Sam. Pr.|Saṁ. Pr.}} (pp. 444-446) gives a more elaborate {{des cription|description}}. In addition to what is stated in Āśv. gṛ. it quotes from Saunaka and adds a few more details, viz. the student deposits at the root of the {{palāśa|brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} from a {{brahmana|brāhmaṇa}} woman belongs to the same caste only if he is born in lawful wedlook and that even the {{anuloma|anuloma}} sons must be born in wedlock. The {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} being the offspring of adultery

• In modern times whenever a new {{yajaoppalāśa}} his garments already worn, the staff and the girdle and then wears new ones and then when the boy returns to the house, a stream of water is poured before him. The teacher takes the garments &c. left by the boy. The Āp. gṛ. 11. 24 says that on the fourth day the teacher takes the garments worn on the day of {{upanayang|upanayana}} by the student and the boy wears new ones. Sudarsana on Ap. 11. 24 speaks of {{palāśa-karms|palāśa-karma}}avita|yajñopavīta}} has to be worn (because the one worn is lost or cut &c.) the ceremony briefly consists in repeating the three verses ‘{{Apo bi otha|Āpo hi ṣṭhā}}’ ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} X. 9. 1-3) over water with which the {{yajñopavita|yajñopavīta}} is to be sprinkled; then there is the {{repetition}} on the fourth day. The boy goes out with his {{ācārya|ācārya}} to the east or north and three {{sthapdilas|sthaṇḍilas}} are prepared to the north or east of a {{palāsa|palāśa}} tree and on these three pranava ( om ), {{sraddhā|śraddhā}} and {{medha|medhā}} are invoked, are worshipped with unguents, flowers, lamp &c. ( of the {{Gøyatri|Gāyatrī}} ten times (each time preceded by the {{vythṛtis|vyāhṛtis}}, as {{om bhur bhuraḥ ayah’|oṁ bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ}}) and then the {{yajāopavita|yajñopavīta}} is to be put on with the mantra ‘{{yajõopavītam paramam|yajñopavītaṁ paramaṁ}}‘as in the regular worship of an image ), then the pranava is worshipped with the formula ‘{{yas-chandasām|yaśchandasām}}’ to ‘{{śrutam me gopaya|śrutam me gopāya}}’ ({{Tai. Up.|Tai. Up.}} I.4.1), {{sraddha|śraddhā}} with the hymn’{{sraddhayāgniḥ|śraddhayāgniḥ}}’{{ (cited above in note 662).

• {{w ** mi faca ayat|अङ्गाभावे तु शास्त्रफलाभावात् स्यात्}} । — जैमिनि VI.1.41-42. The exclusion of these from inheritance will be dealt with later.

-Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 151 and {{Medhā|Medhā}} with the anuvāka ‘{{Medhā devi|Medhā devī}}’ ({{Tai. Ār.|Tai. Ār.}} X, 39 ). Then the staff is deposited at the foot of the {{palāśa|palāśa}}, {{Pesantrenament informar-sent ango-futittavaa tiene ut . . VE II. 9. 14.|मूकबधिरान्धजडषण्ढपङ्गुव्याधितव्यङ्गादीनां च तू another staff is taken and the student returns to the house with the acārya. In modern times in the Deccan a similar ceremony is gone through under the (Marathi) name ‘Palasula’. [[307]] We have seen above that the student has to offer {{samidh|samidh}} (fuel stick) into the fire on the day of upanष्णीमेवोपनीय… । — बौ. गृ. शेषसूत्र II.9.14.}}

• {{वस्तपुस्त्वेषु|वस्तुतस्त्वेषु}} चैतेषु संस्काराः सayana. The fire kindled at the time of upanayana was to be kept up for three days and the fuel-{{stioks|sticks}} were offered in that fire during those days. Afterwards {{samidh|samidh}} was to्युर्-यथोचितम् । मत्तोन्मत्तौ न संस्कार्यौ इति केचिद्-विचक्षते । कर्मसु अनधिकाराच्-च पातित्यं नास्ति चैतयोः । तद्-अप be offered in the ordinary fire ( vide Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 55-57, Ap. gṛ. 11.22). The student is required to offer every day after upanayana aत्यं च संस्कार्यम्-अपरे त्व्-आहुर्-अन्यथा ॥ संस्कार-मन्त्र-होमा {{samidb|samidh}} into fire in the evening and in the morning. Āśv. gṛ. I. 22. 6 prescribes this and the commentator Nārāyaṇa adds that in so doing he has to observe the procedureदीन् करोत्य्-आचार्य एव तु । उपनेयांश्-च विधिवद्-आचार्यः स्व prescribed in Āśv. gṛ. I. 20.10-1. 21. 4 for the putting on of {{samidh|samidh}} on the first day. {{Sān, gṛ.|Ś-समीपताम् । सावित्रीं वाचयेत् तां तु योऽधीयात् स द्विजो भवेत् । मेव द्विजैर्-जातौ संस्कार्यौ कुण्ड-गोलकौ ॥ — ब्रह्मān. gṛ.}} II. 10, Manu II. 186, Yāj. I. 25 and almost all others prescribe the offering of {{samidh|samidh}} into fire in the evening as well as inपुराण quoted in निर्णयसिन्धु and संस्कारमयूख; the latter (p. 401) quotes some the morning ; but Ap. Dh. 8. I. 1. 4. 17 notes that according of these verses.

• Vide {{Mit.|Mit.}} on {{Yāj.|Yāj.}} I.92.

[[298]] would not really be {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇ to some “agnipāja’ was to be performed in the evening only. Ap. Dh. S. (1. 1. 4. 14-20) lays down the following rules : ’the student shouldas}} even though both parents were {{brahmanas|brāhmaṇas}}. Thus, though these two are not strictly {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}, {{upanayana|upanayana}} of a secondary kind is always bring fuel from the forest and heap it on a low place (otherwise if placed high it may fall on anybody’s head), one should not go out after sunset for bringing fuel-sticks. Hav. ing kindled fire, having swept round allowed to them. {{Manu|Manu}} (III. 156) included the {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} among {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇ it he should offer fuel-sticks in the evening and the morning as already directed ( in the gṛhyasūtra).as}} not to be invited at {{śrāddha|śrāddha}}. Elaborate discussions have been held why One should sweep round the fire that is burning red-hot with the hand and not with a broom (of kusa grass ).’ The Ap. Dh. S, I. 5. 15. 12 further prescribes that no fuel is to be placed on fire ( in srauta and {{smārta|smārta}} rites ) unless water has been sprinkled over they were so specially mentioned, when they were not on {{Manu’s|Manu’s}} own dictum {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}. Some like the author of the {{Samgraha|Saṁgraha}} held that the {{kunda|kuṇḍa}} and {{golaka|golaka}} forbidden by {{Manu|Manu}} in {{sraddha|śrāddha}} were those born under the ancient practice of {{niyoga|niyoga}}; while it. The student had not only to offer {{samidhs|samidhs}} on his own account into the fire, but he had to help his {{ācārya|ācārya}} in the latter’s worship of fire by bringing fuel and by offering oblations for his acārya when the latter was away on a journey or others repudiated the idea that those born under the practice of {{niyoga|niyoga}} had any taint attaching to them.[^707]

It is not necessary to go into the question of the {{upanayana|upanayana}} of mixed castes. {{Manu|Manu}} (X. 41) says that the six {{anulomas|anulomas was ill. The Āśv. gṛ. I. 9. 1 says ‘beginning from marriage a householder should worship gṛhya fire himself or his wife or son or maiden daughter or pupil may do so.’ The Chandogya Up. IV. 10 contains the story of Upakosala {{Kama layang|Kāmalāyana}} who}} are eligible for the rites of {{drijas|dvijas}} (and so for {{upanayana|upanayana}}) and the {{Mit.Pos|Mit.}} on {{Yaj.|Yāj.}} I. 90 and 95 says that the {{anulomas|anulomas}} have {{upanayana|upanayana}} performed was a student of Satyakama Jābala and looked after his teacher’s fires for twelve years and whom Satyakāma did not teach anything, though the wife of Satyakāma interceded on behalf of the dejected pupil. [[308]] A few words about {{samidhs|samidhs}} may be said here. The according to the rules of the {{oaste|caste}} of the mother and further mixed castes arising from the six {{anuloma|anuloma}} castes in the {{anuloma|anuloma}} order are also eligible for {{upanayana|upanayana}}. The {{Baud. gṛ. seṣasūtra|Baudhā {{samidh|samidh}} must be of {{palāśa|palāśa}} or some other {{yajñiya|yajñiya}} tree ( used in sacrifices ). Such trees are {{palaga|palāśa}}, {{asvattha|aśvattha}}, {{nyagrodha|nyagrodha}}, {{plakṣa|plakṣyana-gṛhyaśeṣasūtra}} II. 8 gives rules for the {{upana yana|upanayana}} of {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}}, {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}} and of mixed castes like {{rathakara|rathakāra}}, {{ambaṣtba|ambaṣṭha}} &a}}, {{vaikankata|vaikaṅkata}}, {{udumbara|udumbara}}, {{bilva|bilva}}, {{candana|candana}}, {{sarala|sarala}}, {{sala|śāla}}, {{devadaru|devadāru}} and {{khadira|khadira}}. The Vayupurāṇac. {{Gaut.|Gautama}}⁹⁴ IV. 21 made an exception in the case of the son of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} from a {{sūdra|śūdra}} woman. All {{pratilomas|pratilomas}} were like {{sūdra|śū quoted by Aparārka (p. 51 ) says that {{palāśa|palāśa}} {{samidhs|samidhs}} should be preferred, in their absence {{samidhs|samidhs}} of {{khadira|khadira}}, in the absence of the first two, of sami, rohitaka and {{dra}} according to {{Manu|Manu}} (IV. 41) and the offspring of a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} from a {{sūdra|śūdra}} woman, though {{anuloma|anuloma}}, was like {{pratilomas|pratilomas}}. A {{śūdra|śūdra}} isasvattha|aśvattha}} and in the absence of all these of arka and vetase. The Trikānda-mandana (II. 82-84 ) has several rules on this point. The principal trees for fuelsticks ({{samidh|samidh}}) are {{palāśa|palāśa}} and {{kh only {{ekajāti|ekajāti}} and not {{dvijāti|dvijāti}} ({{Gaut.|Gaut.}} X. 51) and for the {{pratilomas|pratilomas}} ({{88|as}} well as for the {{gūdra|śūdra}}) there was no {{upanayana|upanayana}}.

adirs|khadira}}, but {{samidhs|samidhs}} of {{kovidāra|kovidāra}}, {{bibbitaka|bibhītaka}}, {{kapittha|kapittha}}, {{karabha|karabha}}, {{rāja vṛkṣa|rājavṛkṣa}}, {{sakadruma|śāk{{Upanayana|Upanayana}} was so highly thought of that some of the ancient texts prescribe a method of {{upanayana|upanayana}} for the {{Asvattha treo|Aśvattha tree}}. Vide {{Baud. gs. seṣasūtra|Baudhāyana-gṛhyaśeṣasūtra}} II,adruma}}, {{nipa|nīpa}}, {{nimba|nimba}}, {{karañja|karañja}}, {{tilaka|tilaka}}, {{śleṣmātaka|śleṣmātaka}} or {{śālmali|śālmalī}} are not to be employed. The {{samidh|samidh}} was 10. In modern times {{algo|also}} rarely this {{upanayana|upanayana}} is performed. To the west of the {{Asvattha|Aśvattha}} tree {{homa|homa}} is performed, the {{samskāras|saṁskāras}} from {{pumsavana|puṁsav not to be thicker than the thumb, was to have its bark on it, was not to be worm-eaten nor divided, nor longer nor shorter than the span ({{prādesa|prādeśa}}) nor having two branches, it was to be without leaves and was to be strong. According to Hārita ‘when death wanted to seizeana}} are imitated but with the {{vyabrtis|vyāhṛtis}} only, the tree being touched with {{R&.|Ṛg.}} III.8.11 ‘{{vanaspate|vanaspate}} the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} formerly, Agni saved him from death and so a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should serve fire.

The number of {{samidhs|’. A piece of {{oloth|cloth}} is held between the tree and the performer, then eight auspicious verses are repeated ({{manga laṣtaka|maṅgalāṣṭaka}}), the cloth is removed andsamidhs}} varied as shown above and not only in the worship of Agni by the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}}, but also else where.

{{Bhikṣā|Bhikṣā}}:– then the hymn {{oalled|called}} {{Dhruva sūkta|Dhruvasūkta}} ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} X. 72. 1-9) is repeated. Other mantras (like {{The Āśv, gṛ. after {{presoribing|prescribing}} begging for food states (I. 22. 7-8) that the student should first beg of a man who would not refuse or ofRg.|Ṛg.}} X. 62-63) are also recited. Then a piece of cloth, {{yajñopavīta|yajñopavīta}}, girdle, staff and deer-skin are given with appropriate a woman who would not refuse and that in begging he should say ‘sir, give food’. More detailed rules are laid down by others.

The Hir. {{gs,|gṛ.}} ( S. B. E, vol. 30 p. 157) says “after giving the student the staff the teacher gives him a bowl( for mantras and lastly after touching the tree, the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} is repeated. {{Ia|In}} E. O. vol. III. Malavalli No. 22 there is a reference to the {{upanayana|upanayana}} of {{Aśvattha|Aśvattha}} trees performed by one {{Bāohappa|Bāchappa}} in 1358 A. D. [^7 collecting [[309]] alms) and says to him. ‘go out for alms’. Let him beg of his mother first, then in other families which are generously disposed; he brings the food to his guru and announces it to him with the words ‘( these are ) the alms’ and then the teacher accepts with the words ’ these are good alms!,” The Baud. gṛ. II. 5. 47-53 gives the same rules07]:

• Vide {{संस्काररत्नमाला|Saṁskāraratnamālā}} (II. pp. 399-400, Gharpure’s ed.) for this elaborate discussion; vide also {{संस्कारप्रकाश|Saṁskāraprakāśa}} pp. 397-398. and adds that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} student should beg with the words’ {{bhavati bhiksām dehi|bhavati bhikṣāṁ dehi}}’ (lady, give me food), a {{ksatriya|kṣatriya}} with the words ‘{{bhikṣām bhavati debi|bhikṣāṁ bhavati dehi}}’ and a {{vaisya|vaiśya}} with the words ‘{{de

• {{Bar Therarmigiat mirror Finistrator The face on T. I. 99 und po goranter ur e rquotatimit FROM arqu ite treaty ITU PENTTI FATTO on 91. I. 96.|{{Vide|Vide}} Mit. on Yāj. I.91bi bhiksām bhavati|dehi bhikṣāṁ bhavati}}.” {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} II. 5, Āp. Dh. 8. I. 1. 3. 28-30, Baud. Dh. 8. I. 2. 17, Manu II, and I.95 for an elaborate discussion.}}

• {{aa TAIFT WHATT:| 49, Yāj. I. 30 and others contain the same rules about addressing the ladies for alms. {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār. gṛ.}} II. 5 says that the student should first {{अनन्तरः सपिण्डाद् यस्-तस्य तस्य धनं भवेत्}} । — गौ.bog|beg}} of three women who would not refuse or of six, of twelve or of an unlimited number and that {{acoording|according}} to some he should first beg of his mother. Manu {{IL|II}}, 50 says XXVIII.21; {{werth THOTTEST TATTTTr rit|वर्णानामानुलोम that he should first beg of his mother, sister or mother’s sister. Ap. {{Dn|Dh}}. S. I. 1. 3. 26 says that if {{womon|women}} refuse to give्येनान्तर एकान्तरे द्व्यन्तरासु जाता अम्बष्ठोग्रपारशवाः}} — याज्ञ. I. alms to a devout {{brahmacarl|brahmacārī}} he {{snatohes|snatches}} away or destroys their merit arising from sacrifices, gifts and burnt offerings, progeny, cattle, spiritual glory (of their families ) and91.

[[299]] {{Savitryupadesa|Sāvitryupade food and quotes a Brāhmana passage ’therefore indeed one should not refuse to give food to a {{orowśa}} - It will be seen from the passage of the {{Sat. Br.|Śat.Br.}} quoted above (in note 625) that the sacred {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} verse was imparted in very {{d|crowd}} of students moving about (for alms ) for fear that among them there may be some one who is like this (a devout student), and who has carried out all the observances for students’. If a {{brahmapoient|ancient}} times to the student by the teacher {{8|a}} year, or six months, 24, 12 or 3 days after {{upanayana|upanayana}} and that the {{Sat.avārl|brahmacārī}} cannot get food elsewhere he may beg from his own family, from his elders (like maternal uncles), his relatives and lastly from his {{acārya|ācārya}} himself. As Br.|Śat.Br.}} prescribes that in the case of {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} students this must be done immediately. This ancient rule was probably due to the fact that students in those far-off times when they came to the to the persons from whom to beg for food, one sees how the growing strictness of {{oaste|caste}} rules about food during the lapse of centuries affected the {{brahmaoāri|brahmacārī}}. Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 3. 25 {{presoribes|prescribes}} that [[31 teacher at the age of seven or eight had hardly any previous instruction and so must have found it difficult to pronounce properly and {{correotly|correctly}} the sacred verse immediately on initiation. It is for this reason that so modern a work as the S. R. M. (p. 194) says that such mantras as ‘{{San-no devirabhiṣtaye|Śaṁ no devīr abhiṣṭaye}}’ ({{Rg.|0]] he could beg food from anybody except {{apapātras|apapātras}} (persons like {{capdālas|caṇḍālas}}) and {{abhiśastas|abhiśastas}} (i. e. those who are guilty of or suspected of grave sins). Gaut. II. 41 expressly says that a {{brahmacārs|brahmacārī}} may beg food from all the {{varṇas|varṇas}} except from those who are {{abhiśasta|abhiśasta}} and {{palita|patita}}. Manu (II. Ṛg.}} X. 9. 4) which have to be repeated by the {{brahmacārl|brahmacārī}} in the rites of {{upanayana|upanayana}} should be taught to him even before {{upanayana|upanayana}}, just as the wife (who being a woman had no {{upanayana|upanayana}} performed) was taught the Vedic mantras accompanying such acts as that of examining {{ajya|ājya}} in sacrifices.[^710] The same rule of postponing the instruction in {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} is stated in {{Sān. g183 and 185 ) says a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should beg for food at the houses of those who study the Veda and perform sacrifices, who are devoted to their duties and are virtuous in their conduct; if from such persons food cannot be had he may go about the whole village, but should avoid those who are {{abhisasta|abhiśasta}}. Yāj. I. 29 says ‘for his own maintenance a {{brahmacṛ.|Śāṅ.gṛ.}} II. 5, {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} I. 22. 15, {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} I. 9, {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} II. 3. The general practice however seems to have been to impart the {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} that very day. According to most of the {{sūtras|sūtras}} the teacher sits to the north of the fire facing theārl|brahmacārī}} should beg food from {{brāhma ṇas|brāhmaṇas}} who are blameless’ and the ancient commentator Viśvarūpa says that the best way is to beg at brāhmapa houses, the next best is to beg of {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaiśya|vaiśya}} houses and to beg of {{kūdras|śūdras}} is allowed only in {{āpad|āpad}} (time of distress or difficulty). {{Ausa nasa|Auśanasa}} east and in front of him the student sits facing the west and then the student requests the teacher to recite to him the Verse sacred to {{Savitr|Savitṛ}} and the {{toacher|teacher}} imparts to him first one {{pāda|pāda}} at a time, then two {{pādas|pādas}} and then the whole. According to {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} II. 5. 34-37 the student places on the fire four fuel sticks of the {{palāśa|palāśa}} or other {{saorificial|sacrificial}} tree anointed with clarified butter and repeats mantras to {{Agni|Agni}}, {{Vāyu|Vāyu}}, {{Aditya|Āditya}} and the lord of {{vratas| (Jiv. ed I. p. 505 ) says that a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should beg only from houses of {{bis|his}} own caste ( as the best way probably ) or he may beg at the houses of all {{varpas|varṇas}}, while {{Aögiras|Aṅgiras}} quoted in the {{Par. M.|Par. M.}} (1. 2, p. 41 ) says that even in a season of distress a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should not beg for cooked food from {{gūdras|śūdras}}, The Madanepārijāta p. 33 quotes a passage from the Bhaviṣyapurana to the effect that a {{brahmacāri|vratas}} with ‘{{svāhā|svāhā}}’ when offering {{til|to}} them.⁹⁵ Various intricate modes occur in the {{sūtras|sūtras}} and the commentaries thereon about how this first instruction in {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} is to be carried out. The differences are due to the place assigned to the {{vyābrtis|vyāhṛtis}}⁹⁶ ({{bbūḥ|bhūḥ}}, {{bhuvaḥ|bhuvaḥ}}, {{svaḥ|svaḥ}}). Two illustrations are set out below from {{Sudarśana|Sudarśana}}⁹⁷ on {{Ap. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} II. 11. The syllablebrahmacārī}} may beg food from anybody except a {{sūdra|śūdra}}.

Food obtained by begging was supposed to be pure as said by Manu II. 189, Baud. Dh. S. I, 5, 56 and Yāj. I. 187. It was further said that a {{brahmaoāri|brahmacārī}} who subsists on food obtained by begging is like ‘{{om|oṁ}}’ has been looked upon as very sacred from ancient times and is a symbol of the Supreme Being. The {{Tai. Br.|Tai.Br.}} II. 11 contains a eulogy of ‘{{omkara|oṁkāra}}’ and quotes {{Rg.|Ṛg.}} I. 164.39 in support “{{rco aksare parame|ṛco akṣare parame}} &c.’ taking the one observing a fast (Manu II. 183 and {{Bphat-Parāgara|Bṛhat-Parāśara}} p. 130 ). The {{brahmacārl|brahmacārī}} was to eat food collected from several houses and was not to take food at a single person’s house, except that when he was requested to dinner in honour of gods or the Manes he might do so by {{partak|partak-}}[[311]]ing of such food at such dinners as would not violate his {{TOWB|vows word ‘{{aksara|akṣara}}’ to mean the ‘{{omkara|oṁkāra}}’. The {{Tai. Up.|Tai.Up.}} I. 8. says (syllable) {{om|oṁ}} is Brahma; {{om|oṁ}} is all this (universe). A {{brahmana|brāhmaṇa}} about to begin the teaching (of the Veda) says ‘{{om|oṁ}}’ with the idea that}}. Vide Manu II. 188-189 and Yāj. I. 32.

Corresponding to the duty of the student to beg was the obligation cast on householders to serve food according to their ability to {{brahmacūrins|brahmacārins}} and {{yatis|yatis}} ( ascetics ). Gautama V. 16 prescribes that after performing the daily yajñas to gods ({{vaisvadeva|vaiśvadeva}}) he may reach {{pear|near}} {{brahmi|brahma}}. ‘{{Om|Oṁ}}’ is called {{pranava|praṇava}}. {{Ap. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I. 4. 13. 6 says ‘{{omkara|oṁkāra}} is the door to heaven; therefore one who is about to study the Veda, should start his study by first repeating {{om|oṁ}}’. and offering bali to {{bhūtas|bhūtas}}, the householder should offer alms (of food ) preceded by the word ‘{{svasti|svasti}}’ and by water. Manu III. 94, Yāj. I. 108 and others say that alıns should be given to ascetics and {{brahmavārins|brahmacārins}} with honour and welcome. The Mit. on Yāj. I. 108[^710]:

• {{merangkap retrofregaremont st marca TATEMTETTA स्मागेष शिक्षण कर्तप त्रनिकदम्पयज्ञातस्यात् । पल्या यथाऽवेक्षणादिमन्त्राणाम् । says that alms should be ordinarily one morsel of food as large as the egg of a pea-hen and quotes a verse of Śātātapa saying that’{{bhikṣā|bhikṣā}} is as much as one morsel, that {{puṣkala|puṣkala}} is equal to four {{morgels|mors सं. TART p. 194.|अतः प्रभृति कर्मान्तः कुमारः पठनीयान्els}}, {{hanta|hanta}} is equal to four {{puṣkalas|puṣkalas}} and agra is equal to three hantas.’[^735]

The idea that a {{bralmanāri|brahmacārī}} must beg for his food and {{offor|offer}} fuel-sticks every day was so मन्त्रान् श्रावणीयः, स्मात्-प्राग्-एव शिक्षणं कर्तव्यं यज्ञ-कर्मणि दम्पत्योर्-यज्ञाधिकारात् । पत्न्या यथा अवेक्षणादि-मन्त्राणाम् । — सं ingrained in ancient times that the Baud. {{Db|Dh}}. S. I. 2. 54 and {{Menu|Manu}} II. 187 ( = {{Viṣṇu|Viṣṇu}} Dh. S. 28. 52 ) prescribe that if for seven days continuously a {{brahma cārl. र. मा. p. 194.}}

• {{# Fr FETTATYTI 1, T. II. 6; at aftrat Forf um refrater Armani Fru|brahmacārī}} who was not ill failed to offer fuel-sticks and to beg for food he violated his vow and had to undergo the same penance as was prescribed for a {{brahmacārl|brahmacārī H I HTET T. I. 9.|{{vide|Vide}} Āp. gṛ. XI. 11}} having sexual intercourse. Even in modern times many {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} students (not only those who, Sān. gṛ. II. 5-6; Bhār. gṛ. I. 9, Pār. gṛ. II. 3.}}

• अग्ने व्रतपते सावित्रं व्र study the {{Ved&|Veda}} from orthodox teachers but even those learning English) begged for their daily food and byतं चरिष्यामि, तच्-छकेयं, तन्-मे राध्यताम्, स्वाहा । वा dint of hard discipline, patient industry and integrity rose to high positions in public life. However the practice of poor begging students attending English schools in this way is dying out, since English education does not now {{onsure|ensure}} for the poor {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} students even a bare maintenance.

Other important rules about the begging of foodयो व्रतपते… आदित्य व्रतपते… व्रतानां व्रतपते सावित्रं व्रतं चरिष्यामि, तच्-छकेयं, तन्-मे राध्यताम्, स्वाहा । — {{बी.ए.|Baud.gṛ.}} II.5.36-37.

• The mystic words भूः, भुवः, स्वः are sometimes called {{महाव्याति|mahāvyāh are that the student should not beg for his sake alone, should announce [[312]] to the teacher all that he has brought and eat only that which the teacher directs him to take; if the teacher is gone on a journey then he should announce it to the teacher’s family ( wife, son ); if even these are absent, then to other learned brahmanas and eat with their permission. Vide Āp. {{Db|Dh}}. S. I. 1. 3. 31-35, Manu II. 51. He should leave no residue in his dish and wash it afterṛti}} (vide Gobhila gṛ. II. 10. 40, Manu II. 81). They are also called simply {{ग्याहतिs|vyāhṛtis}}; vide {{ते. उप.|Tai.Up.}} I. 5. 1, where महः is said to be the 4th. The number of {{vyahrtis|vyāhṛtis}} is usually seven, भूः, भुवः, स्वः, महः, जनः, तपः, सत्यम् (Vasiṣṭha 25. 9 taking his meal therein. If he is not able to eat the whole that he has brought he should bury it underground or consign it to water or place that which is more than he can eat near an {{ārya|ārya}} or give it to a {{sūdra|śūdra}} who works for his teacher (Āp. Dh. S, I. 1. 3. 37-41). Ap. Dh. S. (I, 1. 3. 43-44) says that alms are held to be equal to sacrificial food, the teacher holds the place of the deity and of the {{ābavaniya|āhavanīya}} fire. , Vaik. VII. 9). Gautama (1. 52. and 25.8) speaks of only five, {{via|viz.}} भूः, भुवः, स्वः, पुरुषः, सत्य, while the {{व्याहृतिसाम|vyāhṛtisāma}} has the same five, but {{gris|giriḥ}} last.

• व्याहृतिभिर्-व्यस्ताः पादाः, व्यस्ताभ्यां अन्तेषु च तथार्धर्चयोर्-उत्तमां कृत्स्नायाम् । — आप. गृ. 11. 11; on which सुदर्शन says ‘ओं भूस्

Other miscellaneous acts that the students had to do were bringing water for the acārya in pots, collecting flowers, cowdung, earth, {{kus&|kuśa}} grass &o. ( vide Manu II. 182 ).

{{Sandhya|Saṁdhyā}}:-On the day of upanayana there is no morning {{saidhyā|saṁdhyā}}. Jaimini says ‘as long as there is no imparting of the Gayatri there is no {{sandhya|saṁdhyā}}.’ So the student begins his {{samdbya|saṁdhyā}} in the noon of the day of upanayana. As however on that day he knows no Vedic text except the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}}, his whole {{samdhyā|saṁdhy-तत्-सवितुर्-वरेण्यम् । ओं भुवः भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि । ओं सुवः धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात् । ओं भूस्-तत्-सवितुर्-वरेण्यं भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि । ओं भुवः धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात् । ओं सुवः तत्-सवितुर्-वरेण्यं भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात् ।’ this is one method; another is to put the {{vyahrtis|vyāhṛtis}} at the end e.g. ‘ओं तत्-सवितुर्-वरेण्यं भूः । ओं भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि भुवः । ओं धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात् सुवः । ओं तत्-सवितुर्… धीमहि भूः । ओं धियो योā}} worship consists of the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}},

The word ‘{{samdhya|saṁdhyā}}’ literally means ’twilight’, but also indicates the action of prayer performed in the morning and evening twilight. This act is generally styled ‘{{samdhyopāsana|saṁdhyopāsana}}’ or ‘{{samdhyāvandana|saṁdhyāvandana}}’ or simply ‘{{sandhya|saṁdhyā}}.’ This act of adoration is sometimes prescribed as necessary thrice a day viz. at day-break, in the noon and at sun-set e.g. Atri says’& twice born person possessed of the knowledge of the Self should perform three {{gamdhy&|saṁdhyā}} adorations.’ These are respectively named {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} ( morning one), {{Savitri|Sāvitrī}} ( noon) and Sarasvati [[313]] ( evening one) by Yoga-yājāavalkya. नः प्रचोदयात् भुवः । ओं तत्-सवितु… पात् सुवः ॥’; compare Bhar.gṛ. I. 9. {{पो. ग.|Baud.gṛ.}} II.5.40 is the same as {{आप. ग.|Āp.gṛ.}} 11. 11. {{स्व:|svaḥ}} is often pronounced as {{हवा|suvaḥ}}. ओम् इति ब्रह्म । ओम् इतीदं सर्वम् । … ओम् इति ब्राह्मणः प्रवक्ष्यन्न्-आह — ब्रह्म उपाप्नवानि इति । उपाप्नोति एव ब्रह्म । — {{ते. उ.|Tai.Up.}} I.8. {{योगपत्र|Yogasūtra}} I. 27 declares ‘तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः’. ओङ्कारः स्वर्ग-द्वारं तस्माद्-ब्रह्म अध्येष्यमाण एतद्-आदि प्रतिपद्येत । — {{आप. ध. सू.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I.4 Generally however the {{sandhya|saṁdhyā}} prayer is prescribed twice ( Aśv. gṛ. III. 7, Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 8, Gaut. II. 17, Manu II. 101, Yaj. I. 24-25 &o).

All prescribe that the morning prayer is to be begun before sunrise and should be carried on till the disc of the sun is seen on the horizon and the evening prayer begins when the {{diso|disc}} of the sun is about to set and goes on up to the appearance of stars. This is the most proper time; but a secondary time was allowed up to three {{ghaṭikās|ghaṭikās}} after sunrise and sun-set. The duration of the prayer each time was to be one {{muhūrta|muhūrta}} ( i. e. two {{ghaṭikās|ghaṭikās}}, according to Yoga-yājāavalkya ) whatever the length of the day may be. Manu (IV. 93-94) however recommends the prayer to extend as long as one could afford, since the ancient sages {{seoured|secured}} long life, intelligence, glory, fame and spiritual eminence by long {{samdhyā|saṁdhyā}} prayers.

According to most writers japa of Gayatri and other sacred.13.6. {{मेधा.|Medhā.}} on मनु II.74 ‘सर्वदा-महणं {{मापयनविधिमात्रधर्मों|प्रायण-विधि-मात्र-धर्मो}} यथा स्यात् । … अतो होम-मन्त्र-जप-शाखानुवचन-यज्ञादीनाम् आरम्भे नास्ति प्रणवोऽन्यत्रापि उदाहरणादिक-वाक्य-व्याहारे.’ In the {{माण्डक्योपनिष|Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad}} (12) and in {{गौरपाव’ कारिका|Gauḍapāda’s Kārikā}} (I. 24-29) ओङ्कार is identified with the supreme Brahma.

[[300]] {{Manu|Manu}} (II. 74) prescribes the repetition of {{pranava|praṇava}} at the beginning and at the end of daily Vedic study and further on (II. 76) says that the three letters ‘a’, ‘u’, ’m’ (in {{om|oṁ}}) and the three {{vyābftis|vyāhṛtis}} were distilled from the three {{vedas|Vedas}} by {{Prajāpati|Prajāpati}} as the essence. {{Medbātitbi|Medhātithi}} on {{Manu|Manu}} (II. 74 mantras is the principal thing in {{sandhya|saṁdhyā}} and other things such as {{mārjana|mārjana}} are merely subsidiary, but Medhātithi on Manu II. 101 ( where the words are ‘{{japanstiṣthet|japaṁs tiṣṭhet}}’ and not ‘* {{tiṣthan japet|tiṣṭhan japet}}’) says that japa is subsidiary or secondary and the place of the prayer and the posture of the praying person are the principal items. When it is said ‘one should perform the {{sandhya|saṁdhyā}}’ what is meant is that one should contemplate the deity called Aditya represented by the orb of the sun and should also contemplate on the fact that the same Intelligence dwells in his heart. The proper place for {{samdhyā|saṁdhyā}} prayer is outside the village ( Ap. Dh. 8. I. 11. 30. 8, Gaut. II. 16, {{Manava|Mānava}} gṛ. I. 2. 2), in a lonely place ( {{San. gṛ.|Śān. gṛ.}} II 9. 1 ‘araṇye’) or on a river or other sacred spot (Baud. gṛ. II. 4. 1). But this does not apply to the {{agnihotrin|agnihotrī}}, who has to perform {{vedio|vedic}} rites and repeat homa [[314]] mantras at sun-rise and who therefore may perform {{samdhyā|saṁdhy) says that ‘{{om|oṁ}} must be uttered at the {{begin.|beginning}} of the daily Vedic study by the student or by the house holder (when performing {{brahmayajña|brahmayajña}}), but it is not necessary in {{japa|japa}}’ &c. In the {{Mārkandeya-purāṇa|Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa}} chap. 40, {{Vayu|Vāyu}} chap. 20, {{Vṭddha-Harsta-smrti|Vṛddha-Hārīta-smṛti}} VI. 59-62 and in numerous other places there are hyperbolical or esoteric identifications of the three letters of {{om|oṁ}} with {{Viṣṇu|Viṣṇu}}, {{Lakṣmi|Lakṣmī}} and the {{jive|jīva}}, with the three Vedas, with the three worlds, with three fires &c. In the {{Kathopaniṣad|Kaṭhopaniṣad}} I. 2. 15-17 {{om|oṁ}} is said to be the end of all Vedas, the source of the knowledge of brahma and also its symbol.

The sacred {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} verse is {{Rg.|Ṛg.}} III. 62. 10 and {{oocurs|occurs}} in the other Vedas also. It is addressed to {{Savitr|Savitṛ}} (the sun) and may also be interpreted as a prayer to the Source and Inspirer of everything. It literally means ‘we contemplate that esteemed (longed for) refulgence (glory) of the divine {{Savitr|Savitṛ}} who may inspire our intellects (or actions)’. Some {{gṭhya sūtras|gṛhyasūā}} adoration in his house. Vasiṣtha quoted by Aparārka says that {{samdhyā|saṁdhyā}} performed in a cowpen or on a river or near the shrine of Viṣṇu ( or other deity ) respectively is ten times, 100000 of times or numberless times better than {{sandhyāvandana|saṁdhyāvandana}} in the house. All {{presoribe|prescribe}} that the morning {{samdhya|saṁdhyā}} is to be performed standing and the evening one in a sitting posture ( Āśv. gṛ, III. 7. 6, Śān. gṛ. II. 9. 1 and 3, Manu II. 102 ) and the morning {{samdhyā|saṁdhyā}} is to be performed facing the east and the evening one facing the northwest ( Āśv. gṛ. III. 7. 4, {{Sān. gṛ.|Śān. gṛ.}} II. 9. 1). He is to bathe, to sit in a pure spot on a seat of kusa grass, should have the sacred cord in the usual position and restrain his speech ( i, o, should be silent and not talk in the midst of {{samdhyā|saṁdhyā}}).

The principal constituents of {{samdhyopasana|saṁdhyopāsana}} are these : ācamanas (sipping of water ), {{prāṇāyāma|prāṇāyāma}}, {{mārjana|mārjana}} thrice ( sprinkling himself with water to the accompaniment of several mantras ), {{aghamarṣana|aghamarṣaṇa}}, offering of water to the sun (arghya ), japa of {{Gayatrl|Gāyatrī}}, and {{upasthāns|upasthānas}} ( reciting mantras by way of worship of the sun in the morning and generally of Varuṇa in the evening). Among the earliest references to {{Samdhyopāsana|Saṁdhyopāsana}} is the one in the {{Tai. Ar.|Tai. Ār.}} II. 2, where it is said thattras}} prescribe the same {{vorge|verse}} for all students, whether {{brāhmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}, {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} or {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}}. But others say that for {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} the {{Sāvitrl|Sāvitrī}} verse is the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}}, but for {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}} and {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}}, a {{sāvitri|sāvitrī}} (verse addressed to {{Savitr|Savitṛ}}) in the {{Triṣçubh|Triṣṭubh}} (having 11 syllables in each quarter) or {{Jagati|Jagatī}} (12 syllables in each quarter) should be the proper one. Here again there is difference. According to the commentators on the {{Kathaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (41.20), the {{verge|verse}} ‘{{adabdhebhiḥ savita|ādabdhebhiḥ savitaḥ}}’ ({{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} IV. 10) and the {{verge|verse}} ‘{{Viśvā rūpāpi|viśvā rūpāṇi}}’ ({{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} XVI. 8) are cited as the {{Savitri|Sāvitrī}} for a {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and a {{vaisya|vaiśya}} respectively; while the commentator on {{Sān. gṛ.|Śāṅ.gṛ.}} (II. 5. 4-6) says that the {{Trisṭubh|Triṣṭubh}} which is to be taught as the {{Sāvitri|Sāvitrī}} to the {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} students is ‘{{& kṛṣpena rajasā|ā kṛṣṇena rajasā}}’ ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} I. 35. 2) and the {{Jagati Savitri|Jagatī Sāvitrī}} for the {{valấya|vaiśya}} is ‘{{Hiranya pāṇiḥ savita|hiraṇyapāṇiḥ savitā}}’ ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} I. 35. 9) when {{brahmavādins|brahmavādins}} facing the east throw up water consecrated by the Gayatri, the evil spirits that fight with the sun are sent tumbling into the country (called) Mandeha Aruṇa (of the evil spirits). This shows that in ancient times {{samdhyā|saṁdhyā}} consisted principally of offering water (arghya ) to the sun in worship and japa of Gayatri. Āśv. gṛ. III.7.3-6, {{San. gṛ.|Śān. gṛ.}} II. 9,1-3 and others refer only to the japa of the Gāyatri mantra in [[315]] {{Samdhyopāsana|Saṁdhyopāsana}}. {{Manava|Mānava}} gṛ. (L. 2.1-5) refers only to the arghya offering to the sun and japa of {{Gāyatrl|Gāyatrī}}. It is in the Baud. Dh. S. II. 4 that we find an elaboration of {{samdhyopasana|saṁdhyopāsana}} into various components such as acamana, {{mārjana|mārjana}}, japa of Gayatri and {{upasthāna|upasthāna}} ( worship) of Mitra and Varuna ( respectively in the morning and evening with only two verses in each case ). Modern writers went on adding details e. g. it is now the practice in the Deccan to repeat the 24 names of Viṣṇu at the very beginning of the {{samdbyopāsana|saṁdhyopāsana}}, but this is hardly any where prescribed by any smrti or early commentator. Similarly elaborate rules are laid down about mystic {{nyāsas|nyāsas}} with the sixteen verses of the Puruṣasukta ( vide Apararka p. 140 ), of the {{nyāsa|nyāsa}} of the Nārāyapamantra of 25 letters on 25 parts of the body ({{Vṛddha-Hārita|Vṛddha-Hārīta}} VI. 16-19 ) and of the letters of the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} (Bṛhatparāśara chap. V. p. 83). In modern times ācamana {{ia|is}} performed with the three names of Viṣṇu, viz. {{Kośava|Keśava}}, Narayana and Madhava in the form ‘om {{Kesavāya namaḥ|Keśavāya namaḥ}}.’ The 24 names are given below.

A few words on each of the or ‘{{hamsaḥ śuciṣad|haṁsaḥ śuciṣad}}’ ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} IV. 40. 5). According to the {{Vārabagļhya|Vārāha-gṛhya}} (5) ‘{{devo yāti savita|devo yāti savitā}}’ and ‘{{yuñjate manaḥ|yuñjate manaḥ}}’ ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} V. 81.1) are the {{Triṣtubh|Triṣṭubh}} and {{Jagat|Jagatī}} meant as {{Savitri|Sāvitrī}} for the {{kṣatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaisya|vaiśya}} respectively. According to {{Satatapa|Śātātapa}} quoted in the {{Madanapārijāta|Madanapārijāta}} (p. 23) the verse ‘{{Deva savitaḥ|deva savitaḥ}}’ ({{Tai. S.|Tai.S.}} I. 7.7.1, {{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} XIII. 14) is the {{sāvitri|sāvitrī}} for the {{ksatriya|kṣatriya}}. According to {{Medbātithi|Medhātithi}} on {{Manu|Manu}} II. 38: ‘{{& krsñena|ā kṛṣṇena}}’ ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} I. 35. 2) and ‘{{visva rūpāṇi|viśvā rūpāṇi}}’ ({{Kathakam|Kāṭhakam}} XVI. 8) are the two {{Sāvitris|Sāvitrīs}} respectively for {{ksatriya|kṣatriya}} and {{vaibya|vaiśya}}.

[[301]] That all these rules about the {{Sāvitrī|Sāvitrī}} being in the {{Gāyatrī|Gāyatrī}}, {{Tristubh|Triṣṭubh}} and {{Jagatī|Jagatī}} metres for the three {{varṇas|varṇas}} respectively are probably very ancient follows from the text ‘{{gāyatrgā brāhmaṇamassajata triṣtubbā rājanyam|gāyatryā brāhmaṇam asṛjata triṣṭubhā rājanyam}} &c.’ (quoted in note 356 above). The {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}}, {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}}, and some other {{sūtras|sūtras}} are entirely silent on the point, while {{Pār, gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} II. 3 allows an option viz. all {{varṇas|varṇas}} may learn the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} or the {{Savitri|Sāvitrī}} verses in the {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}}, {{Tristubh|Triṣṭubh}} and {{Jagatī|Jagatī}} respectively.⁹⁸ Why the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} verse ({{Rg.|Ṛg.}} III. principal components of {{sandhyā|saṁdhyā}} may be said here. Elaborate rules about acamana are laid down in several {{smptis|smṛtis}} ; vide Gaut. I. 35-40, Ap. Dh. S. I. 5. 15. 2-11 and 16. 1-16, Manu II. 58-62, Yaj. I. 18-21. Such rules must have been elaborated from very ancient times. The {{Tai. Br.|Tai. Br.}} (I. 5. 10) prescribes that one should not perform ācamana with water that is in a cleft of the earth. Ap. Dh. S. (1. 5. 15. 5) says the same thing. One should perform [[316]] acamana in a sitting posture ( and not standing nor bent) in a pure spot, facing the north or east, one should sip water {{thriloo|thrice}} with water that is not hot and that is free from foam or bubbles, one should after sipping water wipe the lips twice (thrice according to Āp.)and should touch with the wet right hand one’s eyes, ears, nose, heart and head. The water for {{doamana|ācamana}} should be as much as would penetrate (or reach) to the heart in the case of {{brahmaṇas|brāhmaṇas}}, to the throat in the case of {{kṣatriyas|kṣatriyas}}, to the palate in the case of {{vaisyas|vaiśyas}}; women and {{sūdras|śūdras}} should sip on occasions of {{donmana|ācamana}} only once as much water as would reach the palate, Manu (II. 18) and Yāj. (I. 18) say that water should be sipped by the {{brāhmatirtha|brāhmatīrtha}} (i. e, from the root of the thumb). The further elaborate rules laid down in such {{smstis|smṛtis}} as Gobhila gṛ. (L 2.5-6), Saṅkhasmrti 10 are not set out here. The occasions for acamana are many. According to {{Gobbila|Gobhila}} gṛ. I. 1.2 one must do every gṛhya rite with {{yajñopevita|yajñopavīta}} worn in the usual way and after {{doamana|ācamana}}. Haradatta on Ap. Dh. S. I. 5. 15. 1 says that acamana is a subsidiary matter in all religious acts. There are several occasions when the sipping of water twice is necessary, the principal being before and after bhojana ( meals ); vide Gautama I, 40, Vas. 3. 38, Yaj. I. 196, Sm. O. I. p. 100, Madanapārijāta p. 57, Par. M. I. part 1. pp. 241-243. Both the {{Bṛ. Up.|Bṛ. Up.}} (VI. 1. 14 ) and {{Chan. Up.|Chān. Up.}} V. 2. 2 refer to the {{praotice|practice}} of sipping water before and after bhojana and the Vedantasūtra III. 3. 18 is based on these upaniṣad passages and says that water is looked upon as the garment of prāṇa. Numerous occasions when acamana is necessary are stated in Ap. Dh. S. I. 5. 16. 15-16, Manu V. 138 and 145, Yaj. I. 196 62. 10) came to be famous it is difficult to say. Its fame was probably due to its grand simplicity and to its adaptability to an idealistic conception of the world as emanating from an all-pervading Intelligence. The {{Gopatha Brābmana|Gopatha-Brāhmaṇa}} (I. 32-33) explains the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} in various ways. In the {{Tai. Ār.|Tai.Ār.}} (II. 11) it is stated that the {{mystio|mystic}} words ‘{{bhūḥ|bhūḥ}}. {{bhuvah|bhuvaḥ}}, {{svaḥ|svaḥ}}’ are the truth (essence) of speech and that {{Savita|Savitā}} in the {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} means ‘one who {{en. genders|engenders}} glory’.⁹⁹ {{Atharvaveda|Atharvaveda}} 19. 71. 1 calls it ‘{{vedamata|vedamātā}}’ and prays that it may {{confor|confer}} long life, glory, children, cattle &c, on the singer.¹⁰⁰ The {{Br. Up.|Bṛ.Up.}} V, 14. 1-6¹⁰¹ contains a sublime eulogy of {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} which word is there derived from ‘{{gaya|gaya}}’ meaning ‘{{prāṇa|prāṇa}}’, and the root ‘{{trai|trai}}’ (to save) and it is said that when the teacher repeats the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} for the benefit of the young student {{be|he}} thereby saves the boy’s life (from ignorance and the effects of sin). The {{Āp. Dh. S.|Āp.Dh.S.}} I. 1. 1. 10 {{montions|mentions}} a {{brahmana|brāhmaṇa}} text to the effect that the {{Savitri|Sāvitrī}} is recited for all the Vedas (i.e. by its recital all Vedas become recited as it is their essence). {{Manu|Manu}} II. 77 (={{Vispu Dh. S.|Viṣṇu-Dh.S.}} 55. 14) says that each {{pada|pāda}} of the {{Savitri|Sāvitrī}} was as if extracted from each of the three Vedas and that (II. 81={{Viṣṇu Dh. S.|Viṣṇu-Dh.S.}} 55, 15) the {{Savitri|Sāvitrī}} together with {{om|oṁ}} and the three mystic syllables ({{bhūḥ|bhūḥ}} &c.) is the mouth of Vedic lore ({{sinoe|since}} Vedic study starts with it, or ‘{{brabna|brahma}}’ may mean ’the Supreme Being’). {{Manu|Manu}} II. 77-83, {{Viṣṇu Dh. 8.|Viṣṇu-Dh.S.}} 55. 11-17, {{Saṅkhasmrti|Saṅkha-smṛti}} XII, {{Saṁvarta|Saṁvarta}} (verses 216-223), {{Bphat-Parāśara|Bṛhat-Parāśara}} chap. V (where the mystical significance of each of the 24 letters of the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} is explained) and numerous¹⁰² other works contain hyperbolical eulogies of {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}}. {{Parāśara|Parāśara}} V.1 calls it ‘{{Vedamata|Vedamātā}}’. The words ‘{{Apo jyoti rasonrtam brahina bhur-bhuvah svarom|Āpo jyotī raso’mṛtaṁ brahma bhūr-bhuvaḥ svar-oṁ}}’ are said to be the {{tiras|śiras}} (head) of the {{Gaya tri|Gāyatrī}} (vide {{Saṅkhasmrti|Saṅkha-smṛti}} XII. 12). {{Manu|Manu}} (II, Kūrmapurāṇa I. 2. 13. 1-8 &c.

[[317]] {{Prānāyāma|Prāṇāyāma}} (restraint of breath ) is defined by the Yoga sūtra (II 49 ) as the regulation of inhalation and exhalation of air. Gaut. I. 50 prescribes three {{prāṇāyāmas|prāṇāyāmas}}, each of which lasts for 15 matras (moras). Baud. Dh. S. IV. 1. 30 ( = Vas. Dh. 8. 25. 13={{Saṅkhasmrti|Saṅkhasmṛti}} VII. 14 ) and Yaj. I. 23 say that the Śiras of {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}}, the three {{vyābftis|vyāhṛtis}} each preceded by ‘om’ and the Gayatri verse are to be rehearsed mentally during the time of {{prāṇāyāma|prāṇāyāma}}. According to Yoga-yājñavalkya, one should first revolve in the mind the seven {{vyabftis|vyāhṛtis}}, each preceded by ‘om,’ then the Gayatri and then the {{diras|śiras}} of {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}}, {{Prānāyima|Prāṇāyāma}} has three components, {{pūraka|pūraka}} ( inhaling the outside air ), {{kumbhaka|kumbhaka}} ( keeping in the inhaled air i. e, neither taking in air nor giving it out) and {{reoaka|recaka}} (exhaling air from the lungs ). Manu VI. 70-71 highly praises the utility of {{prāṇāyāma|prāṇāyāma}} in purifying the mind of sin.

{{Mārjana|Mārjana}} is performed by means of kusa grass dipped in water kept in a vessel of copper or udumbara wood or earthen. ware and while doing so one is to repeat ‘om,’ the {{vyābrtis|vyāhṛtis}}, Gayatri and the three verses ‘{{apo hi ṣthā|āpo hi ṣṭhā}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X, 9,1-3). Baud. Dh. S. II. 4. 2 adds more Vedic mantras for {{mārjana|mārjana}}. {{Mānava|Mānava}} gṛ. I. 1.24, Yāj. I. 22 and others prescribe {{mārjana|mārjana}} only with the three verses {{apo bi ṣtha|āpo hi ṣṭhā}}’({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X, 9, 1-3).

{{Aghamarṣana|Aghamarṣaṇa}} (driving out sin) consists in taking water in the right hand formed in the shape of a cow’s ear, holding it {{noar|near}} one’s nose, breathing out from the nose on the water (with the idea of driving away sin from oneself) to the {{accom paniment|accompaniment}} of the three verses’ {{ftam ca|ṛtaṁ ca}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 190.1-3) and then casting the water away to one’s left on the ground.

Arghya ( offering water out of {{respeot|respect}} to the sun ) {{conaists|consists}} in taking water in one’s joined hands, repeating the Gayatri verse over it and standing {{faoing|facing}} the sun and casting [[318]] it up thrice. If a man cannot have water ( being at the time of {{Samdhyā|Saṁdhyā}} on a road or in jail &o.) he could use dust for water. The {{Tai. Ār.|Tai. Ār.}} II. 2 says that a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} contemplating the rising and setting sun and doing obeisance to it by going from left to right attains all bliss, since this Aditya is Brahma,

As to japa of Gayatri, vide above under {{Savitryupadega|Sāvitryupadeśa}} (p. 304). There is an extensive literature about the greatness of the japa of {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} and of other holy vedic mantras which are passed over bere and for which reference may be made to A parārka pp. 46–48, Sm, C. I. pp. 143–152, gṛ. R. pp. 241-250, {{Ahnikaprakāśa|Āhnikaprakāśa}} pp. 311-316. A few details will be given under {{āhnika|āhnika}},

{{Astoupasthāna|Upasthāna}} vide above(.104) and others prescribe that every day a {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} (as well as others) must perform {{japa|japa}} of {{Gayatrl|Gāyatrī}}, {{Baud. Dh. S.|Baud.Dh.S.}} II 4. 7-9 prescribes that in the evening {{Sandhyā|Sandhyā}} adoration one should murmur the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} a thousand times, or a hundred times with {{prāṇāyāma|prāṇāyāma}} each time or ten times with ‘{{om|oṁ}}’ and the seven {{vyahrtis|vyāhṛtis}}.¹⁰³ {{Vas. Dh. S.|Vas.Dh.S.}} 26. 15 {{proscribes|prescribes}} that a man desirous of purifying himself from sin should repeat the divine {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}} 1000 times (daily) as the maximum or 100 times (as the middle way) or at least ten times. There are mantras for invoking the {{Gāyatri|Gāyatrī}} and for taking leave of it.¹⁰⁴

• {{गायत्री पाह्मणापायावानेयो बामण इति भुलेनिभं सजन्यस्य जगतीं here peat moment|गायत्रीं ब्राह्मणाय दद्याद् आग्नेयो वै ब्राह्मण इति श्रुतेः । त्रैष्टुभं राजन्यस्य, जागतं वैश्यस्य । सर्व-वर्णानां गायत्रीम् एव एके ।}} — पार. गृ. II. 3.

• सत्या वै {{व्याहृतयस्ता|व्याहृतयः, ता}} उ वै {{वाचः सत्यं सविता श्रिया|वाचः सत्यम् । सविता श्रिया}} असविता । अथ सावित्री {{गायत्री निरस्वास पच्छोऽधर्मशोऽनवानं|गायत्री निरुक्ता । स पच्छोऽर्धर्चशोऽनवानं}} सविता श्रिया असविता । — {{ते. 3.|Tai.Ār.}} II.11.1-2 (anānaṁ means without stopping or break).

• {{FETT #91 TT RARTI Putarat rarit Ei my: pro fent og het afzet n i a neten a un|स्तुता मया वरदा वेद-माता प्रचोदयन्तां पावमानी द्विजानाम् । आयुः प्राणं प्रजां पशुं कीर्तिं द्रविणं ब्रह्मवर्चसं मह्यं दत्त्वा व्रजत ब्रह्म-लोकम्}} ॥ — अथर्ववेद 19. 71. 1.

• सा यद्-गयांस्-तत्रे प्राणा वै गयास्-तत्-प्राणांस्-तत्रे तद् यद्-गयांस्-तत्रे तस्माद्-गायत्री-नाम । स याम् एवैतां सावित्रीम् अन्वाह एषैव सा स यस्मा अन्वाह तस्य प्राणांस्-त्रायते । — {{बृ. उ.|Bṛ.Up.}} V.14.4.

• Vide Sm. C. I. pp. 143-152 for {{longthy|lengthy}} remarks on several matters connected with the {{Gayatrl|Gāyatrī}}; on p. 145 there is a {{dhyana|dhyāna}} of the 24 letters of the sacred verse. याज्ञ. I. 23 refers to the {{siras|śiras}} of {{Gayatri|Gāyatrī}}.

• {{विश्वरूप|Viśvarūpaḥ}} on या. I. 25 quotes a verse of हारीत ‘देवी सहस्रशीर्षा तु शतमध्या दशावरा । जपेद्-अतः सहस्रान्तां शतमध्यां दशावराम् ।’ and adds ‘तत्-तु कार्य-उपरोधाद्-अग्निहोत्रि-विषयम् अवगम्यम् । प्राक् सूर्योदयाद्-उपस्थानानुपपत्तेर्-उत्कर्ष इति केचित् । न तु एवं समाचारः ।’

• The {{आवाहनमन्त्र|āvāhanamantra}} acc. to गोभिल is ‘आयाहि वरदे देवि अक्षरे ब्रह्म-वादिनि । गायत्री छन्दसां मातर्-ब्रह्म-योने नमोऽस्तु ते ॥’ quoted in {{स्मृतिच|Smṛticandrikā}}, (p.315, note 748). According to Baud. the worship of the sun is done with the verses’{{udvayam|udvayaṁ}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 50.10), ‘{{Udu tyam|Udu tyaṁ}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 50.1),’{{citram|citraṁ}}’({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. I. 115.1), ‘{{tao-cakṣur|taccakṣur}}’ ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. {{VIL|VII}}. 66. 16), ‘{{ya udagat|ya udagāt}}’ ({{Tai. Ār.|Tai. Ār.}} IV. 42, 5). Manu II. 103 {{presoribes|prescribes}} that he who does not perform the {{Sardhyopāsana|Saṁdhyopāsana}} in the morning and evening should be excluded from all actions meant for the benefit or honour of dvijas. Gobhila smṛti II. 1 says the same and adds that {{brāhmanya|brāhmaṇya}} resides in the three {{sathdhyās|saṁdhyās}} and that he who has no concern for {{samdhyopasana|saṁdhyopāsana}} is not a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}}, Baud. Dh. 8. II. 4. 20 calls upon the religious king to make {{brābmapas|brāhmaṇas}}, who do not engage in {{samdhyopasana|saṁdhyopāsana}} thrice a day, perform the work peculiar to {{sadras|śūdras}}. The {{Kūrma-purāṇa|Kūrma-purāṇa}} goes so far as to say that even if a person engages in other actions which are religious but gives up the performance of {{samdhyopāsana|saṁdhyopāsana}}, in so doing he falls into numerous hells. Manu declares (II. 102) that sins committed at night through ignorance ( or oversight) are removed by the performance of [[319]] morning {{samdhyā|saṁdhyā}} and the sins committed in the day are removed by the evening {{sandhyā|saṁdhyā}}. Baud. Dh. 8. II. 4. 25-28, Yaj. III, 307 are to the same effect. When a person is impure owing to mourning or birth in the family, he is to perform {{sandhyd|saṁdhyā}} only up to arghya to the sun but not japa nor {{upasthāna|upasthāna}}.

In modern times the {{samdhyopasana|saṁdhyopāsana}} has become a lengthy business by the addition of materials from purāṇas and the tantras. But as observed by the {{Samskararatnamālā|Saṁskāraratnamālā}} rituals like {{nyāsa|nyāsa}} are non-Vedic and many do not perform them. For various {{nyāsas|nyāsas}} and {{mudrās|mudrās}} (postures of the fingers, hands eto.) one may consult the {{Smṛti-muktāphala|Smṛti-muktāphala}} ( āhnika pp. 328-333 ), Sm, C. I. pp. 146–148.

{{Nyāsa|Nyāsa}} means ‘mentally invoking god and holy texts to come to {{ocoupy|occupy}} certain parts of the body to render it a pure and fit receptacle for worship and contemplation. The sixteen verses of the {{Purusasūkta|Puruṣasūkta}} ({{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. X. 90) are respectively invoked to reside in the left and right hands, the left foot, the right foot, the left and right knees, the left and right sides, the navel, the heart, the throat, the left and right arms, the mouth, the eyes and the head ( vide Apararka p. 140 ). The Bhagavata (VI. 8. 4-5) recommends that one should perform {{nyāsa|nyāsa}} on the hands and limbs of one’s own body with the two mantras of Narayana and thus make Nārāyaṇa one’s armour when some danger arises and that one should perform {{nyāsa|nyāsa}} with ‘om’ and other syllables on one’s feet, knees, thighs, belly, heart, chest, mouth and head. The Sm. C. I. p. 144 quotes verses from Vyāsa and Brahmā as to the {{nyāsa|nyāsa}} of the letters of the Gayatri with ‘om’ and {{namaḥ|namaḥ}}’ on the several parts of the [[320]] body. {{Vśddha-Hārita|Vṛddha-Hārīta}} VI. 16-19 speaks of the {{nyāge|nyāsa}} of the twenty-five letters of the mantra about {{Nārdyana|Nārāyaṇa}} on the twenty-five parts of the body. The {{Nityaofrapaddhati|Nityācārapaddhati}} (pp. 578-579 ) describes the {{nyāga|nyāsa}} of the letters of the alphabet (51 in all ) from ‘Om {{Keśavāya namaḥ|Keśavāya namaḥ}}’ to ‘{{kṣam Nṛsimbaya namaḥ|kṣaṁ Nṛsiṁhāya namaḥ}}.’ One well-known mode is to assign Govinda, {{Mabidhara|Mahīdhara}}, {{Hṇśikeśa|Hṛṣīkeśa}}, Trivikrama, Viṣṇu, Madhava respectively on the tips of the thumb, the index finger, the middle finger, the ring finger, the small finger and the middle of the palm, Manu II. 60 enjoining the touching of the limbs and head with water appears to contain the germ of this practice of {{nyāsa|nyāsa}}.

The Sm. O. I. (pp. 146–148 ) quotes long passages about the {{mudrūs|mudrās}} (hand poses) to be made in the {{samI. p. 143) and the {{विसर्जनमात्र|visarjanamantra}} is ‘उत्तरे शिखरे जाता भूम्यां पर्वत-वासिनि । ब्रह्मणा समनुज्ञाते गच्छ देवि यथा-सुखम् ’ quoted in the {{गृहस्थररमाकर|Gṛhastharatnākara}} p. 241. The {{स्मृतिथ.|Smṛtic.}} (I. p. 151) quotes from गोभिल ‘महेश्वर-मुखोत्पन्ना विष्णोर्-हृदय-संभवा ब्रह्मणा… यथेच्छया’ and also ‘उत्तमे शिखरे जाते &c.’ These are recited in the modern Sandhya also.

{{Brahmacāri-dharmāḥ|Brahmacāri-dharmāḥ}}—Certain rules and observances are prescribed for all {{brahmacārins|brahmacārins}}¹⁰⁵. They are of two kinds, some are {{pregoribed|prescribed}} for a very short time and some have to be observed for all the years of studenthood. The {{Āśv.gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} I. 22.17¹⁰⁶ says “for three nights, or twelve nights or a year after {{upanayana|upanayana}} the {{brahmacāri|brahmacārī}} should not eat ‘{{kṣāra|kṣāra}}’ and ‘{{lavana|lavaṇa}}’ and should sleep on the ground”. The same rule is stated by {{Baud. gṛ.|Baud.gṛ.}} II. 5. 55 (adding the maintenance of the fire kindled at the {{upanayana|upanayana}} for three days), {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} I. 10, {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} II. 5, {{Kbūdira gṛ.|Khādira-gṛ.}} II. 4. 33 (adding avoidance of milk also for three days). {{Hir. gṛ.|Hir.gṛ.}} (I. 8. 2) specially prescribes for the first three days the avoidance of {{kṣāra|kṣāra}}, of {{lavana|lavaṇa}} and vegetables, and the duty of sleeping on the ground, of not drinking out of an earthen vessel, of not giving the remnants of his food to {{śūdras|śūdras}} and several other observances which he has to continue throughout the period of student-hood. These latter are briefly indicated in {{Manu|Manu}} II. 108 and 176 viz. offering {{samidhs|samidhs}} into fire, begging for food, not using a cot, working for the teacher, daily bath, {{tarpana|tarpaṇa}} of gods, sages and {{pitṛs|pitṛs}} &c.

• अध एवासीत, अधः शयीत, अधस्-तिष्ठेद्-अधो व्रजेत् । — {{गोपध|Gopatha-Br.}} 2. 4.

• अत ऊर्ध्वम्-अक्षार-लवण-अशी ब्रह्मचार्य्-अधः-शायी त्रि-रात्रं द्वादश-रात्रं संवत्सरं वा । — {{आश्व. गृ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} I.22.17; {{म्यहमेतमानि|त्र्यहम् एतानि व्रतानि}} धारयन्ति क्षार-लवण-वर्जम्-अधः-शय्यां च । — {{बो. ग.|Baud.gṛ.}} II.5.55; त्रि-रात्रं क्षार-लवण-दुग्धम् इति वर्जयेत् । — {{खादिर गृ.|Khādira-gṛ.}} II.4.33. There is great divergence of views on the meaning of क्षारलवण. According to Narayana on {{आश्व. ग.|Āśv.gṛ.}} I.8.10 क्षार means certain cereals ‘हेडिम्बका राज-माषा माषा मुद्रा मरिकाः । लाक्पाटक्याश्-च निष्पावास्-तिलाश्-च क्षार-संज्ञिताः’, मातृदत्त on {{हिरण्यकोशग.|Hiraṇyakeśi-gṛ.}} I.8.1 explains ‘{{एडादिरिक्षुविकारः कारः|गुड-आदिर्-इक्षु-विकारः क्षारः}}’, {{मेधा|Medhā.}} on मनु V.12 explains that क्षार means such salts as यवक्षार and लवण means सैन्धव. हरदत्त on {{आप. ध. पू.|Āp.Dh.S.}} II.6.16.12 explains ‘यद् भक्ष्यमाणं पश्यतो लालोत्पद्यते तत् क्षारं गुड-लिकुचादि ।’ {{कुहक|Kullūka}} on {{महV.|Manu V.}} 72 explains क्षारलवण as ‘manufactured salt’.

The observances that last throughout the period of student hood are first seen in the passage of the {{Sat. Br.|Śat.Br.}} (quoted above in note 625). The same are laid down in {{Aśv, gṛ,|Āśv.gṛ.}} I. 22.2 (quoted on p. 283 above), {{Pār. gṛ.|Pār.gṛ.}} II. 3, {{Āp. Mantrapātha|Āp.Mantrapāṭha}} (II. 6. 14), {{Kathaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} (41. 17) and other texts. These are principally {{acamana|ācamana}}, {{guruśusrūṣā|guruśuśrūṣā}}, {{vāksaiyama|vāksaṁyama}} (silence), {{samidādhāna|samidhādhāna}}. When the teacher says in the {{upanayana|upanayana}} ‘drink water, do work &c’, the student is to reply with the word ‘yes’ (’{{bādham|bāḍham}}’ or {{om|oṁ}}). But the {{sūtras|sūtras}} and {{emptis|smṛtis}} lay down many rules about these and other observances; vide {{Gaut.|Gaut.}} II, 10-40, {{Sān. gṛ.|Śādhyā|saṁdhyā}} adoration. The Samgraha quoted in the Pūjāprakāśa (p. 123 ) states that the {{mudrās|mudrās}} are to be made in worship, at the time of japa, {{dhyāna|dhyāna}} (contemplation) and when starting on {{kāmya|kāmya}} rites ( performed for securing some desired object) and that they tend to bring the deity worshipped near to the worshipper. The names and number of {{mudrās|mudrās}} differ considerably. For example, the Sm. O. and {{Smr. Mu.|Smṛ. Mu.}} (abnika pp. 331-332 ) quote passages defining the following {{mudrās|mudrās}} viz. {{sammukha|sammukha}}, {{sampuṭa|sampuṭa}}, {{vitata|vitata}}, {{vistirna|vistīrṇa}}, {{dvimukha|dvimukha}}, {{trimukha|trimukha}}, {{adhomukba|adhomukha}}, {{vyāpakāñjalika|vyāpakāñjalika}}, {{yamapasa|yamapāśa}}, {{grathita|grathita}}, {{sammukhonmukha|sammukhonmukha}}, {{vilamba|vilamba}}, {{muștika|muṣṭika}}, {{mina|mīna}}, {{kūrma|kūrma}}, {{varāha|varāha}}, {{simbākrānta|siṁhākrānta}}, {{mahākrānta|mahākrānta}}, {{mudgara|mudgara}} and {{pallava|pallava}}, The {{Nityācārapaddhati|Nityācārapaddhati}} p. 533 derives the word {{mudrā|mudrā}} from ‘mud’ (joy) and the root ‘rā’ (to give ) or ‘{{drāvay|drāvayati}}’ (causal of dru, to put to flight) and says that “{{nudra|mudrā}}” is 80 called because it gives delight to the gods and also puts to flight asuras (evil beings). That work and the Pūjā-prakasa (pp. 123-126 ) give the names of {{mudrās|mudrās}}. They are {{dvahani|āvāhanī}}, {{sthāpini|sthāpinī}}, {{samnidhāpani|sannidhāpanī}}, {{samrodhini|saṁrodhinī}}, {{prasādamudrā|prasādamudrā}}, {{avagun. thana-mudrā|avagunthana-mudrā}}, {{sammukba|sammukha}}, {{prarthana|prārthanā}}, {{sankha|śaṅkha}}, {{cakra|cakra}}, {{gadā|gadā}}, {{abja|abja}}, (or {{padma|padma}}), {{musala|musala}}, {{khadga|khaḍga}}, {{dhanus|dhanus}}, {{bāpa|bāṇa}}, {{nāraca|nārāca}}, {{kumbha|kumbha}}, {{vighna|vighna}} (for Vighneśvara ), {{saura|saura}}, {{pustaka|pustaka}}, {{lakṣml|lakṣmī}}, {{saptajihva|saptajihva}} ( for Agni Vaiśvānara ), {{durgā|durgā}}, {{namaskara|namaskāra}} (bringing together both hands from the wrist to the tips of the fingers ), {{añjali|añjali}}, {{samhara|saṁhāra}} (in all 32). The {{Nitydoārapaddhati|Nityācārapaddhati}} (p. 536 ) says that {{sankha|śaṅkha}}, {{cakra|cakra}}, {{gada|gadā}}, {{padma|padma}}, {{musala|musala}}, {{khadga|khaḍga}}, srivatsa and kaustubha are the eight {{mudrās|mudrās}} of Viṣṇu. The Sm. C. quotes a [[321]] work {{oalled|called}} Mahasamhita that the {{mudrās|mudrās}} are not to be performed in the presence of a crowd and if so performed the deities become angry and the {{mudrās|mudrās}} become fruitless. The Sāradatilaka (23. 106 ) states that all deities are gladdened by the {{mudrās|mudrās}} and in verses 107-114 describes the following {{mudrās|mudrās}}, viz. {{dvahani|āvāhanī}}, {{stbāpani|sthāpanī}}, {{samnidhāpani|sannidhāpanī}}, {{saṁrodbini|saṁrodhinī}}, {{sammukha|sammukha}}, {{Bakala|Sakala}}, {{avagunthana|avagunthana}}, {{dhenu|dhenu}}, {{mabāmudra|mahāmudrā}}. The Acara-dinakara of Vardhamana-sūri composed in samvat 1468 ( 1411-12 A. D.) for Jainas enumerates 42 {{mudrās|mudrās}} and defines them ( 1923, part II. pp. 385-386 ).

The influence of these {{mudrās|mudrās}} spread outside India and they are still practised in the island of Bali. Miss Tyra de Kleen has brought out a very interesting book on the ‘mudrās (the hand poses ) practised by Buddhist and Śaiva priests’ (called pedandas ) in Bali, with 60 full page drawings (1924, New York ).

Study af the Veda :–A detailed examination of the educa tional system from {{anoient|ancient}} times onwards, together with its methods, courses of study and kindred topics will require a volume by itself. The works mentioned in the note below may be read for that purpose. Here a few salient features {{alono|alone}} can be set out.

The pivot of the whole educational system of ancient India was the teacher (variously called {{acārya|ācārya}}, guru, u pādhyāya). The instruction was oral. {{Ṛg|Ṛg}}. VII. 103.5 ( speaking of frogs ) says ‘when one of these frogs follows another in making noise just as a learner repeats the words of the teacher’. Vide the quotations from the Atharvaveda and the {{Sat. Br.|Śat. Br.}} cited above (f. n. 622 and 625 ). In the beginning the father alone may have taught his son. The story narrated in the {{Br. Up.|Bṛ. Up.}} V. 2. 1 and the story of Svetaketu {{Aruṇeya|Āruṇeya}} who was taught by his father everything he knew ({{Br. Up.|Bṛ. Up.}} VI. 2. 1 and 4 ) illustrate this (vide f. n. 633 ). But even from very ancient times the practice [[322]] of sending boys to learn from an {{acārya|ācārya}} had become usual. The {{Chan. Up.|Chān. Up.}} itself says in one passage (VI. 1) that {{Svetaketus Āruñeya|Śvetaketu Āruṇeya}} was placed by his father for twelve years as a student with a teacher. The saine upaniṣad (III. 11. 5 ) says that the father should impart the ‘madhuvidya’ to his eldest son or to a wortby pupil only. As the boy stayed with the teacher in the latter’s house and all instruction was oral, the teacher’s position assumed the greatest importanceṅ.gṛ.}} II. 6.8, {{Gobhila gṛ.|Gobhila-gṛ.}} III. 1.27, {{Khādira gṛ.|Khādira-gṛ.}} II. 5. 10-16, {{Hir. gṛ.|Hir.gṛ.}} 8.1-7, {{Ap. Dh. S,|Āp.Dh.S.}} I. 1. 3. 11-I. 2.7. 30, {{Baud. Dh. S.|Baud.Dh.S.}} I. 2, {{Manu|Manu}} II. 49-249, {{Yāj.|Yāj.}} I. 16-32 &c. The rules centre principally round {{agnipa ricaryā|agniparicaryā}} (worshipping fire), {{bhikṣā|bhikṣā}} (begging for food), {{samdhyopāsana|saṁdhyopāsana}}, study of Veda and its methods and duration, avoidance of certain foods and drinks and other matters like singing &c., {{guruśusrūṣa|guruśuśrūṣā}} (including honouring him and his family and other elders), and the special {{vratas|vratas}} of the {{brabma cāri|brahmacārī}}. These principal topics will be dealt with in some detail now. Before doing so some other matters will have to be briefly disposed of.

On the 4th day after {{upanayana|upanayana}} a rite was performed called {{Medbājangna|Medhājanana}}¹⁰⁷ (generation of intelligence) by virtue of which it was supposed that the student’s intellect was made capable of mastering Vedic lore.

• Compare {{mura in of|mūrdhan}} above (on p. 233). {{ROTATRE g aUTET T AVAT afrafa FTTH Fr|शौनकः — प्राच्याम् उदीच्यां वा दिशि अप्रतिहते भूमौ स्थण्डिलेषु च}} quoted in {{##.|Saṁ.Pra.}} p. 446. Three directions viz. south, south-east and south-west are objectionable (निन्दित); the rest are unobjectionable. शौनक (quoted in {{संस्कारप्रकाश|Saṁskāraprakāśa}} p. 445) {{OTHÙ fi fost arat karqi fracat fettsfattauts ज्यस्यां दिशि स्थितम्|ओषधि-द्रुम-गेहाणां त्रिषु कोणेषु संस्थितान् । यस्यां दिशि स्थितम् ॥}}

[[302]] {{A$v. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} I. 22. 18-19 deals with this. The teacher makes the student sprinkle water in an unobjectionable direction thrice from the left to the right with a pot of water round about a {{palāśa|palāśa}} tree that has one root, or round a bunch of {{kuśa|kuśa}} grass if there is no {{palāśa|palāśa}}, and makes him repeat the mantra ‘Oh glorious one, thou art glorious. As thou, glorious one, are glorious, thus, glorious one, make me full of glory. As thou art the preserver of the treasure of sacrifice for the gods, thus may I become the preserver of the treasure of Veda among men’.¹⁰⁸ The {{Bhār. gṛ.|Bhār.gṛ.}} (1. 10) also prescribes this rite on the fourth day after {{upanayana|upanayana}} and says that a {{palāśa|palāśa}} tree with one root is to be anointed with {{ājya|ājya}} and the mantra ‘{{suśravaḥ|suśravas}}’ (the same as in {{Āśv.|Āśv.}}) is to be muttered. {{Kathaka gṛ.|Kāṭhaka-gṛ.}} 41. 18, {{Mānava gṛ.|Mānava-gṛ.}} I. 22. 17 also refer to this. The {{Sam. Pr.|Saṁ.Pr.}} (pp. 444-446) gives a more elaborate description. In addition to what is stated in {{Āśv. gṛ.|Āśv.gṛ.}} it quotes from {{Saunaka|Śaunaka}} and adds a few more details, viz. the student deposits at the root of the {{palāśa|palāśa}} his garments already worn, the staff and the girdle and then wears new ones and then when the boy returns to the house, a stream of water is poured before him. The teacher takes the garments &c. left by the boy. The {{Āp. gṛ.|Āp.gṛ.}} 11. 24 says that on the fourth day the teacher takes the garments worn on the day of {{upanayang|upanayana}} by the student and the boy wears new ones. {{Sudarsana|Sudarśana}} on {{Ap.|Āp.}} 11. 24 speaks of {{palāśa-karms|palāśa-karma}} on the fourth day. The boy goes out with his {{ācārya|ācārya}} to the east or north and three {{sthapdilas|sthaṇḍilas}} are prepared to the north or east of a {{palāsa|palāśa}} tree and on these three {{pranava|praṇava}} ({{om|oṁ}}), {{sraddhā|śraddhā}} and {{medha|medhā}} are invoked, are worshipped with unguents, flowers, lamp &c. (as in the regular worship of an image), then the {{pranava|praṇava}} is worshipped with the formula ‘{{yas-chandasām|yaś-chandasām}}’ to ‘{{śrutam me gopaya|śrutaṁ me gopāya}}’ ({{Tai. Up.|Tai.Up.}} I.4.1), {{sraddha|śraddhā}} with the hymn ‘{{sraddhayāgniḥ|śraddhayāgniḥ}}’ {{Rg.|Ṛg.}} X. 151 and {{Medhā|Medhā}} with the {{anuvāka|anuvāka}} ‘{{Medhā devi|Medhā devī}}’ ({{Tai. Ār.|Tai.Ār.}} X. 39). Then the staff is deposited at the foot of the {{palāśa|palāśa}}, another staff is taken and the student returns to the house with the {{acārya|ācārya}}. In modern times in the Deccan a similar ceremony is gone through under the (Marathi) name ‘Palasula’.

• {{ay: bas two meaning:|Suśravas has two meanings:}} (1) ‘glorious,’ (2) ‘who hears well’ (i. e. who learns the Veda well by hearing it from the teacher). This occurs in {{94. . Tr.|Āp.Dh.S.}} II. 5.1 also (but in {{179. q. XI. 14|Āp.gṛ. 11.14}} it is the {{free|rite}} for taking the staff).

We have seen above that the student has to offer {{samidh|samidh}} (fuel stick) into the fire on the day of {{upanayana|upanayana}}. The fire kindled at the time of {{upanayana|upanayana}} was to be kept up for three days and the fuel-sticks were offered in that fire during those days. Afterwards {{samidh|samidh}} was to be offered in the ordinary fire (vide {{Baud.. Satyakama Jābāla says to his teacher (in {{Chan|Chān}}. IV. 9.3) ‘I have heard from persons like your revered self that knowledge when learnt from an {{acārya|ācārya}} reaches the highest excellence. The {{Svetāśva. taropaniṣad|Śvetāśvataropaniṣad}} ( VI. 23 ) places the guru almost on a level with God and inculcates the highest devotion to him. The Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 6. 13 says the pupil should wait upon the {{acārya|ācārya}} as if he were “God.’ The story of Ekalavya, whom Droṇa refused to take as a pupil because he was a {{niṣāda|niṣāda}} and who by worshipping the image of {{Dropa|Droṇa}} is alleged to have become an adept in archery, illustrates two points viz. the prevailing notion of the greatness of a guru and the necessity of single minded devotion to him for attaining {{proficienoy|proficiency}} (vide Adiparva 132 for the story and also Droṇaparva 181. 17). The Mahābhārata condemns him who learns the Vedas at home and says that Raibhya became superior to Yavakrita because the former learnt from a guru, while the other did not do {{8o|so}}. In Manu and other {{smstis|smṛtis}} there is some divergence about the [[323]] greatness of the {{ādārya|ācārya}}. Manu II. 146 ( = {{Viṣṇu|Viṣṇu}} Dh. 8. 30. 44 ) says that both the father ({{jangka|janaka}}) and the teacher are {{oalled|called}} father ({{pilā|pitā}}) but the father (i, e. {{ācārya|ācārya}}) who imparts the sacred Veda is superior to the father that gives (physical) birth, since the birth in spiritual learning is for a {{brāhmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} of eternal benefit here and hereafter. But in II. 145 Manu says that an {{ācārya|ācārya}} is ten times superior to an {{upādhyāya|upādhyāya}}, the father is superior to a hundred {{ācāryas|ācāryas}}, while the mother is thousand-fold superior to the father. Gaut. II. 56 declares that the {{ācārya|ācārya}} is the highest among all gurus while according to some the mother {{js|is}} the highest. Yāj. I. 35 also places the mother higher than the {{ācārya|ācārya}}. Gaut. I. 10-11, Vas. Dh. S. III. 21, Manu II. 140, Yaj. I. 34 define the {{ācārya|ācārya}} as one who performs the {{upana yana|upanayana}} of the student and im parts the whole Veda to him. The Nirukta ( I. 4) derives acārya as follows: ‘he makes the student understand the proper course of conduct, or he collects wealth (i. e. fee) from the student (or gathers together the meanings of words ), or he increases the intelligence ( of the student)’. Āp. Dh. S. I. 1.1. 14 says ‘The {{ācārya|ācārya}} is so called since the student gathers his duties from him.’ Manu II. 69 says that the teacher, after performing {{upa nayana|upanayana}}, teaches his pupil the rules about {{sauca|śauca}} (bodily purity), {{ācāra|ācāra}} (rules of conduct in every day life), the offering (of fuel-stick) in fire and {{sandhya|saṁdhyā}} adoration. Yāj. I. 15 is to the same effect. Though the words {{ācārya|ācārya}}, guru and {{upādhyāya|upādhyāya}} are very often used as synonyms, {{anoient|ancient}} writers made a distinction between them. According to Manu II. 141 and 142, an {{upadhyāya|upādhyāya}} is one who teaches to a student a {{por tion|portion}} of the Veda or the Vedāngas (subsidiary lores of the [[324]] Veda ) as a means of his own livelihood and a guru is one who performs the {{samgkāras|saṁskāras}} and who maintains the child. This latter definition shows that guru means the father here. Vas. Dh. 8. (III. 22-23), Viṣṇu Dh. S. 29. 2, and Yāj. I. 35 define {{upādhyāya|upādhyāya}} in the same way as Manu. {{Aooording|According}} to Yāj. I. 34 the guru is one who performs the {{samskāras|saṁskāras}} and imparts the Voda. This corroborates the statement made above that originally the father himself taught the Veda to his son. The word guru is often used in the sense of any elderly person, male or female, who is entitled to respect. {{Viṣṇu Dh.|Viṣṇu Dh.}} S. ( 32.1-2 ) {{asys|says}} that the father, the mother and the {{acārga|ācārya}} are the three highest gurus of a person and Manu II. 227-237 contain the most sublime glorification of these three, Devala says that among gurus five deserve special honour, viz. father, mother, {{acarya|ācārya}}, eldest brother and husband ( in the case of women)’. Manu (II. 149 ) says that whoever confers on another the benefit of knowledge, whether great or small, is the latter’s guru.

Upanayana and qualifications of the ācārya

devoted to the {{Veda|Veda}}, who knows dharma, is born of a good family, who is pure, is a śrotriya that has studied his Vedic {{sākha|śākhā}} and who is not lazy. Śrotriya has been defined above (f. n. 290). Āp. Dh. S. II. 3. 6. 4 and Baudh. gṛ. I. 7. 3 define a śrotriya as one who has studied one {{śālchā|śākhā}} of a Veda. Vide {{Vāyupurias|Vāyupurāṇa}} vol. I. 59, 29 also.¹⁰⁹ The {{āoārya|ācārya}} in {{upanayang|upanayana}} must be a brāhmaṇa; as to the study of veda one should ordinarily learn the Veda from a brāhmaṇa teacher; in times of difficulty (i. e. when a brāhmaṇa is not available) one may learn the Veda from a {{ksatriya|kṣatriya}} or {{vaibya|vaiśya}} teacher; but in such circumstances the only service that a {{brābmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} student rendered to the guru would be following after the non-brāhmaṇa teacher; he had not to render bodily service (such as shampooing or washing the feet &c). Vide Āp. Dh. S. II. 2. 4. 25-28 (quoted above in note 299), Gaut. 7.1-3, Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 40-42, Manu II. 241. Manu II. 238 allows even a {{brālmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} to learn {{subhā|śubhā}} vidyā (visibly beneficial knowledge) even from a {{sūdra|śūdra}}, {{Santiparva|Śāntiparva}} 165.31 does the same.¹¹⁰ The Mit. on Yāj. I. 118 remarks that a kṣatriya or vaiśya should teach a {{brahmana|brāhmaṇa}} only when urged by him and not at his sweet will. Aparārka (p. 160) says that Manu II. 241 allows only teaching to a kṣatriya, but does not allow him to make it a means of his livelihood.¹¹¹

We saw above (p. 321) that the instruction was entirely oral. The first thing that was taught to the boy was the praṇava and the {{vyābṛtis|vyāhṛtis}} and the Gāyatrī. Then the boy was to be taught other parts of the Veda. It is desirable to get out briefly the method of teaching the Veda followed in ancient times. The {{Sān.|Śāṅkh.}} gṛ. (IV. 8) describes the method as follows: the teacher sits facing the east or north, while the other (i. e. the student) sits to his right facing the north or two students may sit in that way; but if there are more than two they should sit as the available space will allow.¹¹² The student should not sit on a high {{soat|seat}} [[326]]

before the teacher nor on the same seat with him; he should not {{stretoh|stretch}} out his feet, nor should he sit seizing his knees with his arm, nor should he lean against a support, nor should he place his feet on his lap nor should he hold his feet like an axe. After the student utters “Recite, Sir,”¹¹³ the teacher should urge him to pronounce ‘oṃ’; the other (i. e. the student) should reply ‘oṃ’. Thereafter he (the student) should recite continuously. After reciting he should clasp the teacher’s feet and say ‘we have finished, Sir’ and go away to his business. Some teachers say that the teacher should say ‘Leave, let us stop’. In the {{Rk Prātisakhya|Ṛk-prātiśākhya}},¹¹⁴ 15th paṭala, there is a description of the method of teaching the Veda, which closely agrees with the above quotation from the Śāṅkh. gṛ. It adds that the teacher may also sit facing the north-east. When the teacher recites two words or more, the first pupil (to the right of the teacher) repeats the first of the two or more words and the other pupils repeat the rest afterwards. The teacher recites one word if it is a compound, two words if they are un-compounded; the teacher also clearly explains how to recite the words if there is any difficulty; in this way the whole praśna is finished and all the pupils repeat again the whole of it. A praśna generally has three mantras and each {{adhydya|adhyāya}} has about sixty praśnas. Manu (II. 70-74) also prescribes certain rules: the student should sip water (ācamana) when about to begin Vedic study, should face the north, should fold both hands¹¹⁵ together (and place them on his knee), should wear light (pure) {{olothes|clothes}}, should at the beginning and end of Vedic study clasp the feet of the teacher with crossed hands

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Upanayana and method of teaching

and should touch the right foot of the teacher with his own right hand and left foot with the left hand, should repeat ‘oṃ’ at the beginning and at the end of Vedic study. The teacher should say to the pupil ‘repeat’ and should stop from teaching with the words ’let there be a pause’. Gaut. (I. 49-58) gives similar rules. The Gopatha Br. I. 31 uses the expression ‘{{Barve veda mukhato gļhitāḥ|Sarve vedā mukhato gṛhītāḥ}}’, which is current even in modern times (it means all Vedas were committed to memory by word of mouth).

The study of the Veda was the first duty of every twice born person (dvijāti). Vedic Literature had grown to vast proportions even in the times of the Tai. Br. (III. 10.11), as the story of Indra and Bharadvāja cited above (p. 271) shows. The ideal was set up by Manu II. 165, viz. that the whole Veda together with secret doctrines (Upaniṣads) was to be learnt by every dvijāti. The Śat. Br. XI. 5. 7 {{oontains|contains}} a eulogy of Veda study (svādhyāya) and the injunction ‘svādhyāyo ‘dhyetavyaḥ’ (one must study the Veda) occurs there very frequently. The Āp. Dh. S. (I. 4. 12. 1 and 3) quotes¹¹⁶ the Taitt. Ā. II. 14. 3 that the study of the Veda (svādhyāya) is austerities and also the {{Sat. Br. XI. 5. 6. 8.|Śat. Br. XI. 5. 6. 3}}. The Mahābhāṣya (vol. I. p. 1) quotes a Vedic text ‘a {{brāhmans|brāhmaṇa}} should study and understand without any purpose (or desire of reward) dharma and the Veda with its six {{angas|aṅgas}}’.¹¹⁷ The Mahābhārata says that a brāhmaṇa may be deemed to have completely accomplished his duty by the study of the Veda.¹¹⁸ Yāj. I. 40 says that it is Veda alone that confers the highest bliss upon dvijātis by enabling them to understand and perform sacrifices, austerities and auspicious {{sots|acts}} (like saṃskāras). The Mahābhāṣya (vol. I. p. 9) contains the traditional extent of the four Vedas, viz. that there were 101 {{śākhāg|śākhās}} of the Yajurveda, 1000 of the Sāmaveda, 21 of the {{Rgvoda|Ṛgveda}} and nine of the Atharvaveda.¹¹⁹

[[328]]

Concessions had to be made to the shortness of human life and the weakness of the human mind. Therefore Gaut. II. 51, Vas. Dh. S. VII. 3, Manu III. 2, Yāj. I. 52 and others allowed a person to study only one Veda. After a man studied his own Veda, he could if so minded study another śākhā of another Veda or other Vedas. The rule laid down by many smṛtis is that one should study the {{sakhā|śākhā}} of the Veda which his ancestors studied and should perform religious rites with mantras derived from that {{sākha|śākhā}}. Vide Medhātithi on Manu III. 2 and Viśvarūpa on Yāj. I. 51.¹²⁰ That person who does not study a Vedic Śākhā studied by his ancestors and studies another śākhā altogether was called ‘{{śakhāraṇḍa|śākhāraṇḍa}}’. Whatever religious rites a man did with the procedure and {{inantras|mantras}} of another śākhā giving up his own {{sakha|śākhā}} becomes fruitless. But an exception was made to the effect that if some¹²¹ religious rite was omitted in one’s śākhā, but was dealt with in another śākhā and was not opposed to the teaching of one’s śākhā, it may be performed as in the case of Agnihotra (which is not dealt with in all śākhās, but is to be performed by all).

Teachers mostly confined themselves to one place. But we find that even in ancient times there were teachers who wandered from one country to another. In the Kauṣ. Br. Up. IV. 1 we find that the famous Bālāki Gārgya moved about in the countries of {{Usinara|Uśīnara}}, Matsya, {{Kuru-Pancāla|Kuru-Pañcāla}} and {{Kāśivi deba|Kāśi-Videha}}. In the {{Bs.|Bṛ.}} Up. III. 3. 1 Bhujyu Lāhyāyani tells {{Yajnavalkya|Yājñavalkya}} that he and others wandered about in the country of Madra for study. Students generally stuck to one teacher; but it appears that they sometimes flocked to renowned teachers as waters flow down a slope¹²² (Tai. Up. I. 4. 3). There were also students who wandered from teacher to teacher and were therefore derisively called ‘{{tirthakaka|tīrthakāka}} (crows at a sacred place),’ as the {{Mahabhaṣya|Mahābhāṣya}} states.¹²³

As the study of the Veda was a duty enjoined upon a {{brahmana|brāhmaṇa}}, so teaching Veda to another was a duty. Medhātithi on Manu (II. 113) quotes a Vedic text¹²⁴ ‘He who having studied the Veda would not teach one who requests him to do so would be one who destroys his own good acts (i.e. would lose the benefit thereof), would shut the door leading to happiness; therefore he should teach; it leads to great glory’. When Satyakāma Jābāla did not teach his pupil Upakosala anything for twelve years, though the latter served {{asaiduously|assiduously}} by attending to the sacred fires of the teacher, the teacher’s wife remonstrated with the husband by saying ’this student has worked hard and attended the fires, may the fires not {{congure|censure}} you and order you to teach him the vidyā he desires’ (Chān. Up. IV. 10. 1-2). The Praśna Up.¹²⁵ VI. 1 gives expression to the view that if a teacher keeps back anything he knows he dries up entirely. The Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 2-3 expressly prescribes ’the teacher whom a student asks for instruction should not refuse him, if he finds no defect in the student.’¹²⁶ Āp. Dh. S. (I. 2. 8. 25-28) lays down certain excellent rules for the teacher “the teacher, anxious for the welfare of the student as if he were his son, should attentively impart learning to the student without hiding anything from him in all matters of duty; nor should the teacher restrain the student for his own work in such a way as to cause obstacles in his study except in seasons of distress. A teacher becomes no teacher if he avoids giving instruction’ (i. e. he may be abandoned). The {{Dronaparva|Droṇaparva}} (50.21) says that a pupil comes only after the son according to the idea of those [[329]]

Upanayana and duty to teach Veda

who know dharma. If a teacher does not teach a pupil any thing even after his pupil has stayed with him for a year, the former receives all the sins of the pupil. A teacher¹²⁷ who did not teach or was sinful was to be abandoned. Similarly a teacher, who became puffed up, did not care for what should or should not be done and took to a sinful path was to be abandoned.¹²⁸ Āp. I. 1. 1. 13 lays down that a student must stay with his teacher who performs his upanayana till he completes his study, unless the teacher himself swerved from the path of dharma and became a sinner and (I. 2. 7. 26) that if the teacher cannot teach the subject, the pupil may resort to another teacher.

The smṛtis lay down rules about the qualifications of a student who deserves to be taught. In the Vidyāsūkta quoted in the Nirukta¹²⁹ (II. 4) we see that the teacher was not to impart vidyā (knowledge) to one who was jealous (or who treated vidyā with contempt), was crooked and was not self-restrained and that learning was to be imparted to one who was pure, attentive, intelligent and endowed with brahmacarya (celibacy), who would never prove false (to his teacher) and who would guard what he learnt as a treasure. Manu (II. 109 and 112 also) says that ten persons deserve to be taught viz. the son of the teacher, a student who serves his guru, one who gives some knowledge in exchange, one who knows dharma or who is pure (in body and mind), who is truthful, who is able to study and retain it, who gives money (for teaching), who is well-disposed and who is one’s near relative (agnate). Yāj. I. 28 mentions all these and adds that the student must be grateful, not {{inolined|inclined}} to hate or prove false to the teacher, healthy and not disposed to find fault. The student should always be dependent on [[330]] History of {{Dharmalasira|Dharmaśāstra}}

and under the control of the teacher (as Āp. Dh. S.¹³⁰ I. 1. 2. 19 and Nārada say) and should stay with no one but the teacher. We saw above (p. 274) that from ancient times the student had to serve the teacher by tending his cattle (Chāndogya IV. 4. 5), had to beg for food and announce it to the teacher (ibid. IV. 3. 5) and to look after his sacred fires and to learn the Veda only in the time that would be left after doing work for the guru.¹³¹ Besides these, the rules concerning his conduct towards the teacher, the teacher’s wife and son, concerning the method of salutation and showing respect, the food, drinks, and actions allowed or prohibited to students are too numerous to be set out in detail. A few important ones from Gautama, Āp. Dh. S., Manu II and Yāj. I. 33 are stated below. Gaut. (II. 13, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25) says that the student should speak the truth, bathe everyday, should not look at the sun; should avoid honey, flesh, perfumes, the wearing of flowers, sleeping by day, rubbing oil on the body, putting collyrium in the eyes, going in a cart,¹³² wearing shoes and holding an umbrella, love affairs, anger, covetousness, infatuation, vain discussions, playing on musical instruments, luxurious baths with hot water, {{metioulous|meticulous}} cleansing of the teeth, {{eostatic|ecstatic}} states of mind, dancing, singing, calumny of others, dangerous places, gazing at women or touching young women, gambling, serving a low person (or doing very low work), injury to animals, obscene or {{barsh|harsh}} talk, wine. Manu (II. 198 and 180-181) prescribes that he should not sleep on a cot and should observe complete celibacy, but if he suffers from night emissions he should bathe, worship the sun and repeat thrice the mantra ‘punar mām…’ (Taitt. Ār. I. 30). The Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1. 2. 21-30, I. 1. 3. 11-24) contains similar rules of conduct. Āp. says (I. 1. 2. 28-30) that the student should not wash his limbs with hot water (generally), but he may do so if they are smeared with dirty and impure matter provided he does it out of the sight of the teacher and that he should not bathe in water in a sportive manner, but

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Upanayana-qualifications of a good student

¹³³ should not laugh, but if he could not help laughing he should do so covering his face with his hands (says Āp.).

Gautama and Baudh. Dh. S. (I. 2. 34 and 37) say that the student is to serve his teacher by following after him when he goes anywhere, he should help the teacher in his toilet and bath and should shampoo his body and take food left by him (ucchiṣṭa);¹³⁴ {{lio|he}} should be diligent in doing work that would be pleasing and beneficial to the teacher; he was to study when the {{toacher|teacher}} called him, he was not to cover his throat with a piece of cloth, or was not to sit in the presence of his teacher with his feet on his lap, was not to stretch his feet, he was not to clear loudly his {{tbroat|throat}}, nor to laugh, yawn or crack the knuckles; he was when called by the teacher to reply at once leaving his seat or bed and was to approach the teacher even when he called from a distance; he should always occupy a seat lower than that of his teacher and should go to sleep after his teacher and rise before him (Gautama II. 20-21, 30-32). Manu II. 194-198 and Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 26 and I. 2. 6. 1-12 contain similar rules. Manu (II. 199) says that a pupil should

[[332]]

not mimic the gait, the manner of speech and the actions of the teacher. Manu (II. 200-201) calls upon the pupil to close his ears (with his hands or fingers) or to leave the place where somebody indulges in calumnies about the teacher or points out the faults in him, and states that if the pupil himself finds fault with his teacher or calumniates him, the pupil (in the next life) is born as an ass or a dog. Viṣṇu Dh. S.¹³⁵ 28. 26 says the same.

Some rules are laid down as to how the brahmacārin is to deal with the hair on his head. Even the {{Rg.|Ṛgveda}} speaks of boys with several {{sikbās|śikhās}} (topknot). Vide note 598 above. Gaut. I. 26 and Manu II. 219 say that a brahmacārin may either shave his entire head, or may allow all the hair to grow as matted or should keep only a {{tult|tuft}} of hair on the head (and shave the rest).¹³⁶ Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 2. 31-32, Vas. VII. 11 allow only two alternatives viz. growing all the hair or keeping a tuft of hair, while Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28. 41 says that a student may either shave the entire head or grow matted hair. One was not to untie one’s {{sikha|śikhā}}, while on the public road.¹³⁷

One of the rules for the student was that he was not to pronounce the name of his teacher even when the teacher was not present without prefixing or affixing an {{honorifio|honorific}} addition (such as {{srl|śrī}}, {{bhatta|bhaṭṭa}}, {{Mcārya|ācārya}}). Gaut. ordains that the student should not speak of his teacher, the teacher’s son or wife or of a man who has been initiated for a srauta sacrifice by their bare names¹³⁸ and then says that when it is absolutely necessary

[[333]]

Rules of conduct for a student

to refer to {{thege|these}} by name the student should not pronounce the name and gotra of his teacher as they are, but by means of a synonym (e. g. if the teacher’s name is Haradatta or {{Deves. vara|Deveśvara}} the pupil should respectively say Devarāta or Sureśvara). Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 8. 15 says that even after returning home a snātaka should avoid touching his former teacher with his fingers (to call his attention), frequent muttering of something in his {{care|ears}}, laughing into his face, calling him out loudly, taking his name, ordering him about. Manu II. 128 and Gaut. VI. 19 say that a man who has been initiated for a srauta sacrifice should not be addressed by his name, even though he be younger than the person addressing, but that one should use the words ‘{{bhoṛ|bhoḥ}}’ and ‘bhavat’ when addressing him or speaking about him and may refer to him by words like dīkṣita &c. There are other rules about addressing or referring by name which may be set out here for the sake of completeness. The Sm. C. (I. p. 45) and Haradatta on Gaut. II. 29 quote a smṛti¹³⁹ that one should not mention by name only one’s teacher, teacher’s son and wife, a {{dikṣit&|dīkṣita}}, any other guru, father, mother, paternal and maternal uncles, one’s benefactor, a learned man, one’s father-in-law, one’s husband, one’s mother’s sister. The Mahābhārata says that one should not mention by name or address as ’tvam’ (thou) one’s elders, but one may speak of one’s contemporaries or those who are younger by their names.¹⁴⁰ Another verse says that one should not mention one’s own name, the name of one’s guru, the name of a mean person, of one’s wife and one’s eldest child.

[[334]]

Rules about saluting ( abhivadana )

Upasaṅgrahaṇa consists in repeating one’s gotra and name, saying ‘I salute’, touching one’s ears, {{olasping|clasping}} the feet (as stated above) and bending one’s head while so doing. In abhivādana there is no clasping of the feet with the hands; one may or may not touch the feet of the person to be honoured. Abhivādana must always be preceded by pratyutthāna.¹⁴¹

Very detailed rules were laid down about pratyutthāna (rising from one’s seat to receive a person), abhivādana (saluting a man), {{u pasamgrabana|upasaṃgrahaṇa}} (saluting by clasping the feet of the teacher or another with one’s hands), pratyabhivāda (returning a salutation), and namaskāra (bowing with the word ’namaḥ’). According to Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 19 and I. 3. 10. 17 the student must, when he meets his teacher after sunrise, clasp his teacher’s feet and also before beginning the day’s lesson of Vedic study and also after finishing it. Manu II. 71 says the same. Gaut. (I. 52-54) prescribes the clasping of the feet every day in the morning and at the beginning and at the end of a lesson in the Veda. {{Acoording|According}} to Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 20 on other {{oocasions|occasions}} whenever the student meets the teacher only abhivādana is sufficient, though according to some teachers (Āp. I. 2. 5. 21) clasping the teacher’s feet is necessary on each {{oocasion|occasion}}. Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 22 states that in {{upasamgrabaṇa|upasaṃgrahaṇa}} the teacher’s right foot is to be stroked below and above with the student’s right hand and the foot and ankle are both to be taken hold of, while according to some teachers, the student must press each foot of the teacher with both hands and clasp them. Manu II. 72, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28.15, and Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 24 say that the student is to clasp the feet of the teacher with crossed hands, {{touobing|touching}} the right foot with the right hand and the left foot with the left hand. Kullūka on Manu II. 72 quotes Paiṭhīnasi that the student should {{olasp|clasp}} the teacher’s feet with his hands turned upwards. Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 28 adds that clasping should not be done when either the teacher or the pupil is seated, or is lying down or impure. {{Acc ording|According}} to Gaut. VI. 1-3 one must clasp every day on the first meeting and particularly on his or their return from a journey, the feet of one’s parents, of the blood relations of parents (e. g. paternal and maternal uncles), of the elder brother, of the guru (i. e. ācārya, upādhyāya) and of persons venerated by one’s gurus. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 4. 14. 7-9) says that even after finishing [[335]]

[[336]]

one’s studies and returning home a man must every day clasp the feet of gurus (father, mother, teacher and other venerable persons) and of elder brothers and sisters according to their seniority.

Abhivādana is of three kinds, viz, nitya (obligatory every day), naimittika (to be done only on certain {{ocoasions|occasions}}) and kāmya (to be done only if a person has certain rewards in view). As examples of nitya abhivādana one may instance the rules of Āp. Dh. S.¹⁴² (I. 2. 5. 12–13) “every day a student should get up from bed in the last watch of the night and standing near his teacher salute him with the words ‘I so and so, {{ho’|bhoḥ}}’ (salute thee); and the student should also salute other very aged (and learned brāhmaṇas) who may reside in the same village before his morning meal.” Yāj. I. 26 also speaks of the latter. The occasional {{abbivā dana|abhivādana}} is done on certain occasions such as return from a journey (Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 14). A person may salute elderly persons whenever he chooses, if he is desirous of long life or (bliss in) heaven (Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 15 and Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 26). Manu¹⁴³ (II. 120 and 121) says ’the prāṇas (vital breaths) of a young man mount upwards when an old man approaches; but by rising to meet him and salutation (to him), he (the young man) recovers them. He who habitually salutes and constantly pays reverence to the aged obtains an increase of four things viz. length of life, knowledge, fame and strength’. Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 11,¹⁴⁴ Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 44, Manu II. 130 and Vas. Dh. S. 13. 41 prescribe that a person must honour by rising and mentioning one’s name an officiating priest, one’s father-in-law, paternal and maternal uncles, even though these may be younger than oneself in years.

[[337]] Gaut. (VI. 9) however says that in the case of these one need only rise from his seat to receive them; but it is not necessary to salute them (abhivādana is not necessary). Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 4 expressly says that in the case of officiating priests and others specified by Āp. and Gaut. and who are younger, rising from one’s seat is tantamount to abhivādana. Manu II. 117 says that one must perform abhivādana to a person from whom one learns secular, Vedic or spiritual knowledge of any kind. There is some difference in the words used at the time of abhivādana. Usually the words are ‘abhivādaye {{devadatte śarma-ham|devadatta-śarmā-ham}}¹⁴⁵ bhoḥ’ (vide Āp. I. 2. 5. 12, Gaut. VI. 5, Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 27, Vas. XIII. 44, Manu II. 122 and 124). But this mode is appropriate only if the person addressed knows how to return the salutation. Manu II. 123 and 126 and Vas. Dh. S. 13. 45 declare that in the case of those who do not know how to return a salutation (pratyabhivādana, and according to Manu in the case of women also) one should omit the word ‘bhoḥ’ and simply say ‘abhivādaye aham’ (omitting one’s name). Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 20 similarly says that in saluting women, a kṣatriya or a vaiśya one should use a pronoun and omit one’s name.¹⁴⁶

The manner of abhivādana was as follows:¹⁴⁷ ‘A brāhmaṇa shall salute stretching forward his right arm on a level with his ear, a kṣatriya holding it on a level with the chest, a vaiśya holding it on a level with the waist and a śūdra holding it low (up to his feet) and that the salutation shall be by joining one’s hands’ (Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 16-17). The Madanapārijāta adds that abhivādana is with both hands when the person to be saluted is learned, but with one hand only if he is not learned (p. 27) and the Sm. C. (I. p. 36) quotes Viṣṇu and Atri to the same effect.

The stretching of the hands up to the ear &c. indicates how far the head is to be bent in each case. [[338]]

There were also other rules about honouring one’s elders in the presence of one’s teacher or honouring the teacher’s teacher or about one’s behaviour when a gentleman comes to see one’s {{doārya|ācārya}} and leaves him, which are here passed over for want of space. Vide Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 6. 29-32, Manu II. 205.

A {{brahmapa|brāhmaṇa}} who does not know the form of returning a {{Halutation|salutation}} must not be saluted by a learned man; he is like a śūdra (Manu II. 126). Similarly a brāhmaṇa was not to perform abhivādana to a kṣatriya or a vaiśya however learned the latter may be, but one should simply say ‘svasti’; those who are of the same caste should do abhivādana.¹⁴⁸ The Mit. on Yāj. III. 292 and Aparārka p. 1188 quote sūtras of Hārīta prescribing as {{prāyasoitta|prāyaścitta}} a fast of one, two or three days respectively for a {{brahmaṇa|brāhmaṇa}} saluting a kṣatriya, vaiśya or śūdra and also for saluting when the persons saluted or the man saluting are in such a condition as to make them unfit for abhivādana. One should not salute with the shoes on or when one’s head is wrapped up or one’s hands are full (Āp. {{Dk.|Dh.}} S. I. 4. 14. 19); or if one carries a load of fuel-sticks or holds a pot of flowers or food in one’s hands one shall not salute, nor shall one salute on occasions similar to the preceding (such as one being engaged in worship of manes, of fire or other gods or when one’s teacher is so engaged), nor should one salute a teacher standing very close to him (Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 31-32). When one is impure or the person he meets is impure (owing to aśauca or other causes) no salutation is to be made or returned (Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 17). Gaut. IX. 45 says that one should not occupy a seat or perform abhivādana and namaskāra with shoes on. One need not salute a person who is not a guru or who stands in a lower or higher place than oneself (Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 14). Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 23, Manu II. 135 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 17 say that a brāhmaṇa ten years old is like a father to a kṣatriya even 100 years old and so deserves salutation from the kṣatriya.

[[339]] Āp. Dh. S. (I. 4. 14. 12) gives a special rule that a friendship kept for ten years as fellow citizens, a friendship contracted at school for five years, the fact of a śrotriya being three years older entitles the friend or śrotriya to a salutation. But Gaut. (VI. 14-17) and Manu II. 134 give somewhat different rules viz. contemporaries who are born in the same year are to be addressed with the word ‘bhoḥ’ or ‘bhavat’ and a fellow citizen who is ten years older than oneself and an artist who is five years older than oneself and a {{brotriya|śrotriya}} studying the same Vedic school as oneself who is three years older are to be addressed similarly. Manu adds blood relations to the list when the difference in age is very small. The {{Smartyarthasara|Smṛtyarthasāra}} p. 7 gives a long list of persons whom one should never salute viz. an heretic, a person guilty of grave sins, an atheist, gamblers, thieves, ungrateful persons, drunkards. Vide also Manu IV. 30 and Yāj. I. 130 (as to showing no respect even by words to heretics &c).

In the case of certain persons one was to show honour only by rising from his seat and not by abhivādana. Gaut. (VI. 9) mentions some such persons who are already referred to in note 815. He adds that (VI. 10-11) even a śūdra of eighty years or more must be honoured by rising by one (even though the latter be of a higher varṇa) young enough to be his son (but there will be no abhivādana) and that an ārya (i. e. one belonging to the three higher castes) must be honoured by rising by a {{gūdra|śūdra}} even if the latter be older (and so a vaiśya must honour a kṣatriya though the latter be younger). Haradatta explains that the word {{kūdra|śūdra}} in Gaut. VI. 10 is only illustrative and that an old {{vaibya|vaiśya}} must be honoured by a young kṣatriya or brāhmaṇa by simply rising from his seat and an old kṣatriya by a young brāhmaṇa in the same way. Āp. Dh. S. (II. 2. 4. 16-18) lays down that if a brāhmaṇa who has not studied the Veda comes as a guest one may give him a seat, water and food but one should not rise to receive him, but should rise to receive him if he is entitled to abhivādana on account of age (as stated in Āp. I. 4. 14. 12, and Manu II. 134); similarly a brāhmaṇa need not rise to receive a kṣatriya or vaiśya (except on the same ground of age).

The rules about returning a salutation (about pratyabhivāda) are made somewhat intricate and obscure by the varying interpretations of commentators. Pratyabhivāda consists in {{pronou noing|pronouncing}} a benediction in the proper form given by a guru or other person who has been saluted. [[340]] Among the oldest¹⁴⁹ is the rule in Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 18 ‘when returning the salute of one belonging to the first three castes, the (last syllable of the) name (of the person whose salutation is to be returned) shall be lengthened to three moras’. Vasiṣṭha’s rule (XIII. 46) is ‘when the salute is returned, the last vowel (of the noun standing) in the vocative is protracted to the length of three moras and if it is a diphthong (i. e. e or o but not of the dual number) it becomes ‘āy’ or ‘āv’; e. g. ‘bho’ becomes bhāv’. Manu II. 125 prescribes “a brāhmaṇa should be thus saluted in return, ‘mayst thou be long-lived, O gentle one!’ and the vowel ‘a’ or any other vowel at the end of the name (of the person addressed) should be made pluta (i. e. lengthened to three moras) and if the name ends in a consonant, the preceding vowel is made pluta.”

That these rules are very ancient follows from Pāṇini’s sūtra (VIII. 2. 83) ‘when the salutation of a person who is not a śūdra is returned by the person saluted, the final vowel in the name (that occurs at the end of the sentence of pratyabhivāda) becomes pluta’. The Mahābhāṣya comments on this and two vārtikas thereon say that this rule does not apply when it is a woman to whom the salutation is returned and it applies optionally when the person whose salutation is returned is a kṣatriya or vaiśya. All these rules are exemplified in the foot-note below.¹⁵⁰ Āp. Dh. S. agrees with this rule of the ancient grammarians. The verse of Manu (II. 125) also really means the same thing; but there the word ‘akāra’ is only illustrative and stands for all vowels.

[[341]]

Rules about pratyabhivāda

The ancient commentator Medhātithi interprets Manu so as to agree with Pāṇini and says ‘in the realm of the use of words and their senses Pāṇini has higher authority than Manu, that the pratyabhivāda words containing the benediction about long life are not stereotyped, that when a kṣatriya returns the salutation of a kṣatriya or a vaiśya of a vaiśya, the same rules hold good’.¹⁵¹ As a person of a higher varṇa was not to do abhivādana to one of lower varṇa (vide note 819 above) there would be no occasion for pratyabhivāda from the side of the latter. The verse of Manu is interpreted by Haradatta and a few others in a different manner. According to them the last vowel in the name of the person whose salutation is to be returned is pluta and then ‘a’ is added to it, and that if the vocative ends in e or o, it becomes aya or āva (with ‘a’ added).¹⁵² This view is opposed to Pāṇini, the Mahābhāṣya, the Kāśikā, Āpastamba and several writers of digests. Aparārka and the Sm. C. condemn the interpretation put upon Manu’s verse by commentators like Haradatta.¹⁵³

What great importance was attached to the correct utterance of the return salutation can be seen from the fact that one of the miscellaneous reasons assigned for the necessity of grammatical studies in the Mahābhāṣya is that (as stated in a verse) a person who returns from a journey will perform salutation to ignorant persons (who do not know how to utter pratyabhivāda) as if to women with the words ‘abhivādaye ayam-aham’¹⁵⁴ (i. e. grammar is to be learnt by men for fear that they may be treated as women when a person salutes them).

Āp. Dh. S. (I. 2. 7. 27) prescribes that the student shall behave towards his teacher’s wife as towards the teacher himself, but he shall not clasp her feet or eat the residue of her food.¹⁵⁵ Gaut. (II. 31-32) also says the same thing and adds that the student shall not assist the wives of the teacher at their toilet or bath nor wash their feet nor shampoo them. Manu II. 211, Baudh. Dh. S. I. 2. 37, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 6 have the same rule. [[342]] But Gaut. II. 33 states an exception that on return from a journey the student shall clasp the feet of the wives of his teacher (also Manu II. 217 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 15). Manu (II. 210) gives special directions ’the wives of the teacher who belong to the same caste must be treated as respectfully as the teacher but in the case of those who belong to a different caste he need only rise from his seat and salute’ (Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 5 also is similar), and a student who is full twenty years old shall not honour the young wife of a teacher by clasping her feet (Manu II. 212 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 13); but even a young student may prostrate himself on the ground for honouring the young wife of his teacher without clasping her feet (with the words ‘abhivādaye {{amukasarmā-ham|amuka-śarmā-ham}} bhoḥ’).

As regards women who are not wives of the teacher, the following rules deserve attention. The first rule is that married women, whatever their age may be, deserve honour (and so he must salute &c.) according to the ages of their husbands¹⁵⁶ (Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 18 and Vas. Dh. S. 13. 42). {{Viṣpu|Viṣṇu}} Dh. S. 32. 2 gives the same rule, but restricts it to wives of the same caste. Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 6 prescribes that the same honour must be shown to the mother and father as to a teacher i. e. their feet must be clasped on those occasions on which a teacher’s feet are to be clasped and Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 9 extends the rule to elder sisters. Gaut. (VI. 4-8) states that the feet of the wives of (elder) brothers or of one’s mother-in-law need not be clasped on any occasion;

[[343]]

Abhivādana to women

and the feet of a paternal uncle’s wife or of elder sisters need not be clasped except when one returns from a journey. But Manu (II. 131-132) gives different rules. A maternal or {{poternal|paternal}} aunt, a maternal uncle’s wife, a mother-in-law are equal to one’s teacher’s wife and must be honoured like her; one’s elder brother’s wife’s feet must be clasped every day if she is of the same caste, but the feet of the wives of one’s other paternal and maternal relatives need only be clasped on one’s return from a journey. Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 3 places a maternal or paternal aunt and the eldest sister on an equality with the teacher’s wife. As already stated above in the case of all women the salutation is simply ‘I salute’ (abhivādaye aham)’ without mentioning one’s name. Devala says ’the mother, mother’s mother, teacher’s wife and the full brothers and sisters of one’s parents, paternal grand-mother, mother-in-law, elder sister and the foster mother are women who are (to be honoured like) gurus’.¹⁵⁷

Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 7. 30, Vas. Dh. S. XIII. 54, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28. 31, Manu II. 207 require that the student will behave towards the teacher’s son as towards his teacher. That this rule is very ancient follows from a passage¹⁵⁸ in the {{Mahābhāṣyai|Mahābhāṣya}} where it is stated and a proviso is added that the student will not however clasp the son’s feet nor eat the leavings of his food. Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 7. 30 only mentions as prohibited the eating of the leavings of food, but Viṣṇu Dh. S. (28. 32-33) prohibits also the washing of the son’s feet. Manu (II. 208) gives a restrictive rule that the son of the teacher deserves the same honour as a teacher, if he imparts instruction in place of the teacher (because the latter is otherwise engaged), whether the son be younger or of the same age as the student, but that the student in any case must not shampoo the limbs of the son nor assist him in his bath nor wash his feet nor eat the leavings of his food.

From Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 7. 28 and I. 4. 13. 12¹⁵⁹ it appears that the system of pupil teachers (who were called ‘{{samādista|samādiṣṭa}}’) obtained in ancient times and Āp. prescribes that the student shall behave towards a pupil teacher who teaches him at the teacher’s command as towards the teacher and shall honour him also by clasping his feet, as long as he is giving instruction.

Further rules are laid down about showing courtesy to a person who is not a relative or who is not a teacher &c. [[344]] Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 26-29 and Manu II. 127 lay down that one should, on meeting a brāhmaṇa, ask after his health with the word ‘kuśala,’ a kṣatriya about his health using the word ‘anāmaya’, a vaiśya by using the word kṣema (or anasta according to Āp.) and a śūdra by employing the word ārogya. Thus one who is older (according to the rule in Manu II. 134 cited above on p. 339) should be saluted, while one who is of the same age or younger should simply be asked ‘kuśala’ &c. Gaut. V. 37-38 gives similar directions.¹⁶⁰ Manu (II. 129) enjoins that one should address a woman who is the wife of another man and who is not a blood relation as ’lady’ (bhavatī) or ‘beloved sister’ and (Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 30) that one should not pass a learned brāhmaṇa without addressing him nor a woman whom he meets in a forest or other lonely place and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 32. 7 says that in such circumstances he must address her (in order to assure her) as ‘sister’ (if she is of the same age as himself) or ‘daughter’ (if she is younger) and ‘mother’ (if she is older than himself).

It is stated in the {{Udvahatattva|Udvāhatattva}}¹⁶¹ (p. 141), that the word ‘{{grl’|śrī}}’ is to be prefixed when referring by name to a deity or a teacher, to the place of one’s teacher, to a holy place or to the presiding deity of a holy place, to one who has secured Yogic siddhis or to those who have secured by sacrifices the worlds of bliss; and Raghunandana adds that according to the usage of respectable people ‘{{ārt’|śrī}}’ is prefixed to names of such persons while they are alive. The same work also tells us that women of the dvijātis were to have the honorific suffix ‘devī’ added to their names and of the śūdra caste the word ‘dāsī’.

This is still the practice particularly in Bengal and Northern India.

The works on {{Dharmajāstra|Dharmaśāstra}} give very interesting rules about the grounds on which respect was to be shown to a person. [[345]]

Grounds for showing respect

Honour¹⁶² consists in saluting a person, or rising to meet him or allowing him to walk in front of one or giving him a garland, sandal-wood paste on festive occasions and the like. Manu (II. 136) and Viṣṇu Dh. S. (32. 16) say that wealth, kindred, age, (performance of) religious rites and sacred knowledge confer title to respect, but each succeeding one out of these five is superior to each preceding one. Gaut. (VI. 18-20) is slightly different; he says ‘wealth, relations, occupation, birth, learning and age must be honoured; each later named is more important than each preceding one; but Vedic learning is more important than all (the rest)’. Vas. Dh. S. 13. 56-57 also says that learning, wealth, age, relationship and religious actions are titles to respect, but each preceding one is more important than each succeeding one. Yāj. I. 116 puts the order as vidyā, karma, age, relationship and wealth (i. e. wealth is the least ground for giving honour). Viśvarūpa on Yāj. I. 35 says that if respect is not paid to guru (parents), ācārya, upādhyāya and ṛtvik (they are arranged in descending order) one incurs sin, but if honour is not shown on the ground of learning, wealth &c. there is no sin but one loses happiness and success. Manu II. 137 says that a śūdra who is beyond 90 years is still a child to a learned brāhmaṇa. In order to show that Vedic learning is superior to seniority of age Manu (II. 151-153) narrates the story of a young scion of the Aṅgiras gotra who taught his pitṛs and addressed them as ’little sons’ and whose action was supported by the gods with the remark that a man destitute of knowledge was a child and he who taught him the Veda was his father. This story is referred to expressly by Baudh. Dh. S. I. 4. 47 and tacitly by Gaut. VI. 20. It is borrowed from the Tāṇḍya Mahābrāhmaṇa¹⁶³ (13. 3. 24).

Manu II. 155 clinches the argument by saying ’the seniority of brāhmaṇas springs from (sacred) knowledge, of kṣatriyas from valour, of vaiśyas from (the possession) of corn and other wealth and only among śūdras is age a ground of seniority’.

{{Kaut.|Kauṭilya}} says that men deserve honour according to their learning, intelligence, valour, high birth and eminent deeds.¹⁶⁴

One has to distinguish between {{abhipādana|abhivādana}} and namaskāra. [[346]] In the former one not only bows but utters words like ‘abhivādaye &c.’, while in the latter one only bows and folds one’s hands. The latter is done only to images of gods, brāhmaṇas, {{sampyāsins|sannyāsins}} and the like. The Smṛtyarthasāra p. 8 prescribes a fast for one day as a penance for not bowing to images of gods, sannyāsins &c. Viṣṇu¹⁶⁵ (quoted in the Sm. C.) says that one should not salute (abhivādana) a brāhmaṇa, but should only perform namaskāra in all public assemblies, in sacrifices or in palaces or royal courts. The posture of the hands in namaskāra is stated as follows: ‘One should join the hands in the shape of a shegoat’s ear in namaskāra to a learned man, one should fold the hands together in bowing to an ascetic, one should salute an ignorant man with one hand and should not perform abhivādana to one who is younger.¹⁶⁶

One had to show respect by circumambulating¹⁶⁷ from left to right temples or images of gods, bulls, cowpens, cows, ghee, honey, sacred trees that had brick or stone platforms built round them (like aśvattha) and squares (where four roads meet), a teacher who is very learned, a learned and religious brāhmaṇa, clay from sacred places.

One was not to approach empty-handed one’s parents, ācārya, sacred fires, houses and the king, if the latter has not heard of him before.¹⁶⁸

[[347]] A matter closely connected with the showing of respect is that of the rules about the preference to be given on the road. This has already been dealt with in speaking of the privileges of brāhmaṇas above pp. 146–147.

Learning from books

One striking point about the imparting of knowledge (particularly Vedic) in the ancient educational system of India was the great prejudice against learning from books. The greatest importance was attached to handing down the Veda intact and various devices were discovered and employed for securing this end, such as the various modes of repeating the Veda only in padas, in the krama, jaṭā and other formations. Great care was taken to preserve the proper accentuation of the Vedic texts. There is a well known story how Tvaṣṭṛ repeating the words ‘Indraśatrur vardhasva’¹⁶⁹ in wrong accents caused the fire to be extinguished instead of inflaming it against Indra as he intended. This story is alluded to in the Pāṇinīyaśikṣā. The same work (in verse 32) condemns one who learns from a manuscript as among the worst of learners. The Veda was to be recited not only with proper modulation of the voice to convey the accents, but the accents were indicated also by the movements of the fingers (vide verses 43-45 of the Pāṇinīya-śikṣā). All these intricate matters could be learnt only by oral instruction.

Great controversies have raged round the question whether the art of writing was known in India in very ancient times, whether it was used for literary purposes in the times of Pāṇini and whether the Brāhmī alphabet was an indigenous product or whether it was imported into India from some foreign land. Max {{Muller|Müller}} in his ‘History of ancient Sanskrit Literature’ started the astounding and absurd theory that writing for literary purposes was unknown to Pāṇini (p. 507). Later on that position was given up.

[[348]] Then {{Būhler|Bühler}} wrote his famous work ‘on the origin of the {{Brahmi|Brāhmī}} alphabet’ mainly relying on the resemblances of a few letters of the Aśokan script with an ancient Semitic alphabet and came to the conclusion that the {{Brahmi|Brāhmī}} alphabet was derived from a Semitic script sometimes about 800 B. C. It never occurred to that learned scholar to advance and carefully examine the other possible hypotheses which any unbiased and cautious scholar should have ordinarily advanced viz. that the Semitic script might have been derived from the Brāhmī alphabet and was later on developed or both might have been derived from some unknown ancient script. All these theories are now in the melting pot on account of the seals bearing writing in some undeciphered script found at {{Mohenjo daro|Mohenjo-daro}} and Harappa, some of which are at least 5000 years old. So if the Brāhmī alphabet was at all borrowed, it is clear now that it was not necessary for Indians to travel so far as Westernmost Asia for that purpose.

Oral instruction was the cheapest and most accurate method of imparting learning. In ancient times writing materials were not easily available and written texts could not be handled easily and would have been extremely costly. Therefore the method of oral instruction was resorted to and having been hallowed by the lapse of thousands of years it has been persisted in to the present day. Even in the 20th century after writing has been known for not less than 3000 years according to scholars like Bühler there are hundreds of brāhmaṇas who learn not only the whole of the Ṛgveda (about 10580 verses) by heart, but also commit to memory the pada¹⁷⁰ text of the Ṛgveda, the Aitareya {{Brābmapa|Brāhmaṇa}} and Āraṇyaka and the six Vedāṅgas (which include the 4000 aphorisms of Pāṇini and the extensive Nirukta of Yāska) without caring to understand a word of this enormous material.

Par. M. (I. 1. p. 154) quotes a verse of Nārada to the effect¹⁷¹ “what is learnt from reliance on books and is not learnt from a teacher does not shine in an assembly”.

[[349]] Vṛddha Gautama¹⁷² condemns to hell those who sell the Veda, who condemn the Veda and those who write it down. Aparārka (p. 1114 on Yāj. III. 267-268) quotes verses from the {{Caturvinsatimata|Caturviṃśatimata}} which prescribe various {{prāgascittas|prāyaścittas}} for selling the Vedas, the aṅgas (of the Veda), the smṛtis, itihāsa and purāṇa, the secret {{pañoarātra|pāñcarātra}} (system), gāthās, {{nitiśāstras|nītiśāstras}} &c. The prejudice against using books for learning was carried so far that among the six obstacles in the path of the acquirer of knowledge, reliance on books is mentioned as one.¹⁷³ Aparārka (p. 390) quotes a long passage from the {{Bhavisyottarapurāṇa|Bhaviṣyottarapurāṇa}} about the rewards of gifts of books of the epics and purāṇas to a brāhmaṇa or to a maṭha for the use of the public. A grant of the Valabhi king Guhasena I dated 559 A. D. refers to a collection of books on the true dharma.¹⁷⁴ In the Kādambarī (para 88) the queen Vilāsavatī is described as surrounded by ascetic women who held books in their hands and read itihāsa.¹⁷⁵ Vide under dāna and maṭha-pratiṣṭhā.

The teacher was expected to make the student understand by explanations in Sanskrit or in the prākrits or even by employing the current languages of the various countries.¹⁷⁶

The Duration of studenthood (brahmacarya)

It appears from certain passages of the Upaniṣads that the usual duration of brahmacarya was 12 years.¹⁷⁷ Śvetaketu Āruṇeya is said to have become a brahmacārī when he was twelve and to have mastered all the Vedas at the age of 24 (vide Chān. Up. VI. 1. 2 quoted in f. n. 634).

Similarly Chān. IV. 10. 1 appears to suggest that students left their teacher after twelve years of study. But a long period of brahmacarya was not unknown to the sages of the Upaniṣads. [[350]] Chāndogya (VIII. 11. 3) declares that Indra remained as a student with Prajāpati for 101 years (three periods of 32 years plus five). The story of Bharadvāja narrated in the Taitt. Br. quoted above (at p. 271) states that Bharadvāja studied the Vedas three parts of his life (at least till 75 years). The Gopatha Brāhmaṇa¹⁷⁸ (II. 5) states that the period of studenthood for learning all the Vedas is 48 years; that distributing that period in four portions among the vedas student-hood is for 12 years (for mastering one Veda), that period (12 years) is the shortest (for brahmacarya) and that one should learn of the Veda as much as one can before he is about to return from his teacher.

Some of the gṛhya and dharma sūtras contain these very words of the Gopatha Brāhmaṇa e. g. Pār. gṛ. II. 5 says ‘one should observe brahmacarya forty-eight years for the (four) Vedas, or twelve years for each Veda or until one has learnt one or more Veda’.¹⁷⁹ The Baudh. gṛ. (I. 2. 1-5) has a very suggestive passage “the ancient period of studenthood was forty-eight years for (the four Vedas) or 24 years, or 12 years for each Veda or at least one year for each kāṇḍa (section of the Vedic saṃhitās like the Taitt. S.) or until the student learnt (one Veda), as life is fleeting and as there is a Vedic text ‘one should consecrate (the three) sacred fires, while his hair is still dark”. On Jaimini I. 3. 3 Śabara states the objection (among other similar matters) that the smṛtis speaking of brahmacarya for forty-eight years are opposed to the Vedic injunction that a man who has a son and whose hair is still dark should consecrate the three (srauta) fires (i. e. he must do so in middle life, not when his hair is turning grey). Śabara gives his opinion that such smṛtis being opposed to śruti are to be disregarded¹⁸⁰ and makes fun of them by saying that some persons desirous of concealing their lack of manhood observed brahmacarya for forty-eight years and the prescriptions in those smṛtis to that effect are due to this fact.¹⁸¹

[[351]]

Duration of brahmacarya

The very orthodox Kumārilabhaṭṭa could not tolerate this light-hearted statement of Śabara and rebukes the latter by saying that there is really no contradiction between the śruti text and the smṛti passage, since the smṛtis themselves prescribe other lesser and alternative periods, since it is possible to hold that smṛtis speak of brahmacarya for 48 years only with reference to him who wants to become a {{samay sin|sannyāsin}} immediately after brahmacarya or who desires to become a perpetual student.¹⁸²

As the Vedic literature had grown to vast proportions and as it was thought necessary to preserve this ancient heritage, the ancient sages hit upon the plan of enlisting the whole population of the three varṇas in the task of preservation by making it as their duty to devote as much time as they could to the study and conservation of the Vedic literature. Therefore various alternatives were proposed viz. studying all the four Vedas for 48 years, three of them for 36 or if a man was very clever he may finish the study of three Vedas in 18 years or in 9 years or he should devote as much time as he would require for learning one Veda or more. Vide Manu III. 1-2 and Yāj. I. 36 and 52 for the various alternatives. Spending 12 years for Vedic study must have been found even in ancient times impossible for many among the brāhmaṇas and therefore the Bhāradvāja gṛhyasūtra (quoted above in note 850) allowed the alternative that one should study the Veda till the Godāna ceremony (which as we shall see later on) took place in the 16th year. [[352]] {{Akv. 87. sutra|Āśv. gṛ. sūtra}} I. 22. 3-4 also prescribes only two alternatives for brahmacarya viz. for 12 years or as long as one could learn the Veda (so Āśv. contemplated brahmacarya for less than 12 years). Haradatta remarks on Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 2. 16¹⁸³ that reading Āp. I. 1. 2. 12-16, II. 11. 3. 1 and Manu III. 1 together it follows that every one must observe brahmacarya for three years at least for each Veda and when it is said that one may observe brahmacarya till one learns the Veda, that means beyond three years for each Veda. This appears somewhat opposed to the words of Āśv. and Bhāradvāja.

Not only was the study of the Veda made an absolute duty for all persons belonging to the three higher varṇas, but the study of Veda was essential for the performance of the solemn Vedic sacrifices. Jaimini¹⁸⁴ lays down that it is only he who knows the Vedic portion necessary for a Vedic sacrifice, that is entitled to perform that sacrifice.

Subjects of Study

The study of the Veda means the study of the Mantras and the Brāhmaṇa portion of the particular śākhā or śākhās.¹⁸⁵ The Veda was deemed to be eternal and not composed by any human author (i. e. it is apauruṣeya). Jaimini in I. 1. 6-23 establishes that the relation of word and sense is eternal and that (in I. 1. 27-32) the Vedas are apauruṣeya. This is not the place to set out or examine the arguments. All dharmaśāstra writers proceed on this axiom of the eternity of the Veda. The Vedāntasūtra (I. 3. 28-29) says that the Vedas are eternal and the whole universe (including the gods) emanates from the Veda and reliance is placed on certain Upaniṣad passages and on Manu I. 21, Śānti-parva 232. 24 and other smṛtis.

The Bṛ. Up. IV. 5. 11 says that the Vedas are the breath of the great Being (i. e. the Supreme Spirit, God); in Bṛ. Up. I. 2. 5 the Creator (Prajāpati) is said to have evolved all this viz. Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda, yajñas and so forth. The Śvetāśvatara Up. VI. 18 says that the Supreme Being evolved Brahmā and imparted the Vedas to him.¹⁸⁶ The Śāntiparva¹⁸⁷ says that speech in the form of Veda is without beginning and without end, from which all activities and creation proceed, and that the Vedas become latent at the periodical dissolution of the world and become manifest to the great sages again when the world is recreated. [[353]]

Greatness of the Veda

But the eternity of the Veda and apauruṣeyatva of the Veda were interpreted in various ways e. g. the Mahābhāṣya says that, though the purport of the Veda is eternal, yet the arrangement of words is non-eternal and therefore there are various śākhās (branches or recensions) of the Veda, named Kāṭhaka, Kālāpaka &c.¹⁸⁸

From very ancient times the literature to be studied appears to have been vast. Vide Tai. Br. quoted above (at p. 271) where the Vedas have been declared to be endless. In the Ṛgveda itself (X. 71. 11) reference is made to the verses learnt by the four principal priests (hotā, adhvaryu, udgātā and brahmā), it is also said that persons who studied together showed great disparity in their mental advancement (Ṛg. X. 71. 7) and that co-students feel elation when their friend wins in a debate in an assembly. The Śat. Br. (XI. 5. 7. 4-8, S. B. E. vol. 44, pp. 97-98) enumerates under ‘svādhyāya’ ṛks, yajus formulae, sāmans, Atharvāṅgirasaḥ (Atharvaveda), itihāsa-purāṇa, gāthās in praise of heroes (called Nārāśaṃsīs)’. The Gopatha Brāhmaṇa II. 10 also says ‘in this way all these Vedas were created together with kalpa, rahasya (secret doctrines), Brāhmaṇas, Upaniṣads, itihāsa, anvākhyāna, purāṇa, anuśāsanas, vākovākya &c’. In the Upaniṣads frequent mention is made of the literature studied by persons before they became seekers for the knowledge of brahma. [[354]] For example, in Chān. Up. VII. 1. 2 Nārada tells Sanatkumāra that he had studied the four Vedas, Itihāsa-purāṇa as the fifth Veda, the Veda of Vedas (grammar), pitrya (treatise on śrāddhas), rāśi (arithmetic), daiva (portents), nidhi (finding out hidden treasures), vākovākya (dialogue or dialectic), ekāyana (politics), devavidyā (Nirukta), brahmavidyā (metres and phonetics), bhūtavidyā (exorcising ghosts), kṣatravidyā (dhanurveda), nakṣatravidyā (astronomy), sarpavidyā (snake charms), devajanavidyā (arts like dancing, singing, preparing unguents &c.). The same list is repeated in Chān. Up. VII. 1. 4 and VII. 7. 1. In the Bṛ. Up.¹⁸⁹ II. 4. 10 and IV. 5. 11 there is a similar smaller list. In the Muṇḍaka Up. I. 1. 5 it is said that the ācārya Aṅgiras told Śaunaka who was a great householder that the four Vedas and the six aṅgas (mentioned in note 775 above) are inferior knowledge and that the highest knowledge is that by which the Imperishable One is apprehended. Gaut. XI. 19 exhorts the king to rely upon the Veda, dharmaśāstras, the aṅgas, Upavedas and Purāṇa for regulating the conduct of his subjects. Āp. Dh. S. (quoted above in note 775), Viṣṇu Dh. S. 30. 34-38, Vas. III. 19 and 23, VI. 9-4 mention the aṅgas of Veda. Pāṇini shows acquaintance not only with the Veda and Brāhmaṇas but he knew ancient Kalpasūtras, Bhikṣusūtras and Naṭasūtras, secular works on various subjects (IV. 3. 87-88, 105, 110, 111, 116). Patañjali¹⁹⁰ (2nd century B. C.) mentions how vast the field of Sanskrit literature had become. Yāj. I. 44-45 calls upon the student to study every day according to his ability also Vākovākya, Purāṇa, {{Narasamsı|Nārāśaṃsī}} gāthās,¹⁹¹ itihāsa, vidyās if he desired to please the gods and manes.

Fourteen vidyās are generally enumerated as in Yāj. I. 3 (= Matsya 53. 5-6), Vāyupurāṇa vol. I, 61. 78, Vṛddha-Gautama (p. 632) and other works, viz four vedas, 6 aṅgas, purāṇas, nyāya (logic), mīmāṃsā and dharmaśāstra. [[355]]

Extent of ancient learning

Some added four more to these, viz. the Upavedas of Āyurveda, Dhanurveda, Gāndharvaveda and Arthaśāstra (which were affiliated respectively to the four Vedas) and thus the vidyās are also spoken of as 18.¹⁹² Kālidāsa in the Raghuvaṃśa (V. 21) expressly says that Varatantu taught his pupil 14 vidyās. In E. I. vol. VIII. p. 287 (in an inscription of 199 Gupta-saṃvat i. e. 517-18 A. D.) it is said about Suśarman, an ancestor of Mahārāja Saṃkṣobha, that he knew the highest truth because of his proficiency in the 14 vidyā-sthānas’. Kumārila¹⁹³ in his Tantravārtika (p. 201) says that vidyā-sthānas that are looked upon as authoritative in knowing dharma are 14 or 18. The {{Vārāhagrhya|Vārāhagṛhya}} (6) refers to different preparations for different people, viz. a yājñika had to study mantra and Brāhmaṇa, kalpa (vedic ritual) and mīmāṁsā and one could study at his option grammar, the smṛtis and vaktra (?) and the śrotriya only committed to memory the Veda; the first two were called snātakas. Numerous grants and inscriptions testify to the provision made by kings and well-to-do donors for all branches of study. In E. C. vol. III. T N. 27 there is a grant made by the minister Perumāl under the Hoysala king Vīranarasiṃhadāva in 1290 A. D. which provided that each teacher of the Ṛgveda and the other Vedas was to receive a salary of six gadyāṇakas of gold a year and the teacher who taught the boys to read Nāgara, Kannaḍa, Tiguḷa (Tamil) and Ārya (Marathi) was to receive the same salary. The Gadag inscription of the time of Vikramāditya VI. (1098 A. D.) refers to the founding of a school for teaching Prabhākara’s system of Mīmāṃsā at Lakkiguṇḍi (E. I. vol. 15 p. 348). Vide E. I. vol. I. p. 338 (for endowment for teaching an astronomical work of Bhāskara).

Even in early times a very extensive literature on Dharma-sāstra had come into existence. The literature of the epics, of kāvyas, drama, fables and romances, astrology, medicine and several branches of speculation had grown to an enormous extent. [[356]] On account of this vast literature many portions of which appealed more to the emotions and intellect than the Vedas could, the study of the Veda receded in the background and the study of subsidiary works became more popular. Therefore the smṛtis again and again raise their voice and try to impress it upon all that the first duty of a dvijāti is to study the Veda. The Maitri Up. VII. 10, though comparatively a late work, inveighs against brāhmaṇas studying non-vedic texts.¹⁹⁴ Manu (II. 168) says that the dvija who, without studying the Veda, bestows labour upon another lore, is quickly reduced to the status of a śūdra in this very life together with his descendants. Kullūka on this verse cites the aphorism of Śaṅkha-Likhita¹⁹⁵ ‘one should not, without studying the Veda first, study another lore, except the Vedāṅgas and smṛtis’. Vas. Dh. S. III. 2 expressly quotes the verse of Manu II. 168 as Mānava śloka. The Tai. Up. I. 9 speaks of svādhyāya (study of the Veda) and pravacana (teaching it or daily repeating it) as tapas and joins these two with ṛta, satya, tapas, dama, śama, fires, agnihotra and progeny in order to emphasize that these two are the most important and it also exhorts the student on the eve of his return home not to neglect his study of the Veda.¹⁹⁶

The study of the Veda did not merely consist in learning the mantras by heart. Śaṃkara in his bhāṣya on Vedāntasūtra I. 3. 30 quotes a Brāhmaṇa text to the effect that he who teaches a mantra or officiates at a sacrifice with mantras of which he does not know the seer, the deity or the Brāhmaṇa (i. e. viniyoga, employment or use) falls on a stump or in a pit.¹⁹⁷ The Mit. on Yāj. III. 300 quotes a verse of Vyāsa to the same effect. Not only was the Veda to be committed to memory (i. e. not only was there to be pāṭha) but one had also to understand the meaning.

[[357]]

Meaning of Veda study

The Nirukta (I. 18) quotes two verses¹⁹⁸ which condemn in very strong language one who only commits to memory the Veda and does not know the meaning ’that man, who having studied the Veda, does not know its meaning, is indeed a tree, a stump, a mere carrier of a load; he alone who knows the meaning secures all happiness; his sins being shaken off by knowledge, he reaches heaven’. Dakṣa¹⁹⁹ II. 34 says that the study of Veda involves five things viz. first committing to memory the Veda, then reflection over its meaning, keeping it fresh by repeating it again and again, japa (inaudibly muttering by way of prayer) and imparting it to pupils. Manu XII. 103 says ’those who have committed to memory the Veda are superior to those who are ignorant of it, those who retain their Veda (i. e. who do not allow it to be forgotten) are superior to those who only studied it (and then forgot it), those who know its meaning are superior to those who simply retain it in memory, those who perform what the meaning of the Veda dictates are superior to those who know its meaning’. Śabara²⁰⁰ says that the real purpose of the study of the Veda is the knowledge about religious actions that it conveys and that from the mere memorizing of the Veda, no rewards are promised by those who know the lore of the sacrifices. Viśvarūpa²⁰¹ on Yāj. I. 51 says that he alone is really vedapāraga who has made the Veda his own as to the spirit (the meaning). Aparārka (p. 74) quotes a long passage from Vyāsa condemning the mere memorizing of the Veda.²⁰² Vide also Medhātithi on Manu III. 19.

[[358]] In spite of these excellent precepts it appears that from very ancient times the Veda was only committed to memory and most men learned in the Veda never cared to know its meaning. The Mahābhārata²⁰³ speaks disparagingly of the śrotriya as having an intellect dulled by the constant repetition of the anuvākas of the Veda. Further there was always an under-current of the belief that the mere memorizing of the Vedic texts conferred great sanctity on the memorizer and removed all sins. As time went on these ideas became supreme and the neglect of the meaning of the Veda has gone so far that among many modern orthodox brāhmaṇas there is a belief that the meaning of the Veda cannot be known and it is futile to try to find its meaning. The Tai. Br. says that a man’s sins are destroyed by the Veda and by svādhyāya. In Vas. Dh. S. 27. 1, Manu XI. 245, Yāj. III. 310 and in numerous other places it is said that sins do not affect a man who studies the Veda and that the study of Veda destroys sin. Vas. Dh. S. 28. 10-15 speaks of about 35 groups of Vedic hymns (like the Aghamarṣaṇa, Ṛg. X. 190) by silently muttering which a man is purified of his sins; but Vas. Dh. S. 27. 4 is careful to add that Veda study only removes such sins as are committed through ignorance or carelessness.²⁰⁴ Similar provision for removal of sins by the muttering of the Vedic mantras is made in Viṣṇu Dh. S. 56. 1-27, Yāj. III. 307-309, Manu XI. 248-260 &c.

Not only was the Veda to be committed to memory, but when learnt it was not allowed to slip from one’s mind. Āp. Dh. S. I. 7. 21. 8 makes ‘brahmojjha’ (i. e. abandoning what is learnt) a grave sin along with drinking wine and others. Similarly Manu XI. 56 and Yāj. III. 228 also treat it as equal to drinking wine or the murder of a brāhmaṇa.

Similarly Manu IV. 163 forbids nāstikya²⁰⁵ (holding that there is no soul or no Hereafter) and the reviling of the Veda and in XI. 56 regards the latter as a grave sin equal to drinking wine, while Yāj. III. 228 treats it as grave as brahmahatyā.

[[359]]

Reviling the Veda

Gaut. 21. 1 mentions the nāstika among patitas along with brāhmaṇa murderer and drinker of wine. Viṣṇu Dh. S. 37. 4 includes the reviling of Veda among upapātakas (lesser sins). Manu II. 11 says that he who disrespects veda and smṛti by relying on syllogistic reasoning is a reviler of Veda and a nāstika (atheist) and should be excluded from social intercourse by good men. Vas. Dh. S. XII. 41 says ’to hold the Vedas as unauthoritative, to carp at the words of the sages, and to be wavering on all points lead to one’s destruction’. Vide Viṣṇu Dh. S. 71. 83 and Anuśāsanaparva 37. 11 for the same (in the latter the 2nd pāda is ‘{{śāstrāṇāṃ cābhilaṅghanam}}’).

Another striking feature of the ancient educational system was the total absence of any prior agreement about fees for teaching students. So early as Bṛ. Up. IV. 1. 2 we find Yājñavalkya saying to king Janaka who offered to give him a thousand cows, an elephant and a bull (or as Śaṃkara explains an elephant like bull), ‘my father was of opinion that without fully teaching a pupil one should not receive any reward from him’.²⁰⁶

Gaut.²⁰⁷ (II. 54-55) says that at the end of his studies the student should request the teacher to accept the wealth that he could offer or ask the teacher what should be given and after paying or doing what the teacher wants or if the teacher allowed him to go without demanding anything, the student should take the ceremonial bath (i. e. return home). The Āśv. gṛ. (III. 9. 4) has almost the same words. The Āp. Dh. S.²⁰⁸ (I. 2. 7. 19-23) requires the student to offer at the end of his studies, whatever their extent may be, a dakṣiṇā obtained from proper sources to his teacher according to his abilities and that if the teacher is in straightened circumstances, to offer him a fee even by begging from a person who is of the ugra caste or from a śūdra and that after offering a fee or doing even a very strikingly good turn to his teacher he should not boast of it to others nor should he ever dwell in his mind over it. The ideal was that the dakṣiṇā (fee) offered to the teacher at the end of study was simply for pleasing or propitiating the teacher and was not a complete equivalent of or compensation for the knowledge imparted.

[[360]] Manu (II. 245-246) says that the student need not give anything to the teacher till his snāna; when he is about to return home, he may offer to his guru some wealth; that the gift of a field, gold, a cow, or a horse, of even shoes or an umbrella, of a seat, corn, vegetables and clothes (either singly or together) may engender pleasure in the teacher. The Chān. Up.²⁰⁹ III. 11. 6 eulogises brahmavidyā by declaring it to be more valuable than the gift of the whole earth together with all its wealth. The smṛtis²¹⁰ declare that even if the guru teaches a single letter to the pupil, there is nothing in this world by giving which the pupil can get rid of the debt he owes.

Guru when and how remunerated

The Mahābhārata says ({{Advamedhika|Āśvamedhika}} 56. 21) that the teacher’s satisfaction with the student’s work and conduct is indeed the proper dakṣiṇā.²¹¹ Yāj. I. 51 says that one should give to his teacher what he chooses to ask as {{dakpiṇā|dakṣiṇā}} and Kātyāyana²¹² quoted by Aparārka (p. 76) prescribes that a brāhmaṇa pupil may give a cow, a princely one a village, a vaiśya a horse (if able to do so).

It has been shown above (p. 355) how kings and others made gifts of lands or provided for salaries to teachers. One of the earliest records about university scholarships is contained in the Bahur (near Pondicherry) plates of Nṛpatuṅgavarman in which we find a grant to a Vidyāsthāna (a seat of learning) for promotion of learning (E. I. vol. 18 p. 5). In E. I. vol. 15 p. 83 there is provision of 30 mattars of land for professors lecturing to ascetics and of eight mattars to teachers giving lessons to the youths in a monastery (in the times of Cālukya Someśvara I at Sūdi in Dharwar District in śake 981). The Peshwa distributed to learned brāhmaṇas every year dakṣiṇā which rose to 4 lakhs of rupees a short time before 1818 A. D. It may be stated that even in the 20th century there are numerous brāhmaṇa teachers of the Veda and the śāstras who teach pupils for years without stipulating for any fee or even receiving anything from them. [[361]] According to Manu II. 141, Śaṅkhasmṛti III. 2 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 29. 2 a teacher who teaches the Veda or the Vedāṅgas for money or for his livelihood is called an Upādhyāya. Yāj. III. 235 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 37. 20 and others include teaching for money (and also learning from a paid teacher) among upapātakas (lesser sins). Manu III. 156, Anuśāsana 23. 17 and Yāj. I. 223 say that he who is a hired teacher (bhṛtakādhyāpaka) and he who learns from such a teacher are not fit to be invited at a śrāddha. But {{Medbātithi|Medhātithi}} (on Manu II. 112 and III. 146), the Mit. (on Yāj. III. 235), the Sm. C. and others say that a person does not become a hired teacher by accepting something from a pupil, but that what is condemned is making a stipulation before hand that one would teach only if a certain sum or if so much were paid or delivered.²¹³

In distress, Manu X. 116 and Yāj. III. 42 allow even such stipulations for the purpose of securing one’s livelihood.

The Mahābhārata (Ādi. 133. 2-3) shows that when Bhīṣma appointed Droṇa as the teacher of the Pāṇḍava and Kaurava princes he bestowed on him wealth and a well-furnished house full of corn; but there was no stipulation.

It has been shown above (p. 113) that it was the king’s duty to support learned men and students and to see that no brāhmaṇa died of hunger in his kingdom (vide Gaut. X. 9-12, Viṣṇu Dh. S. III. 79-80, Manu VII. 82-85, Yāj. I. 315, 333). So a student, when the teacher demanded a heavy fee at the end of studies, could theoretically at least approach a king for the fee. Kālidāsa draws in Raghuvaṃśa V a graphic picture how Varatantu demanded a dakṣiṇā of 14 crores from his pupil Kautsa who approached Raghu for the same and would not take more than his requirements. Sometimes the teacher or his wife, according to legends, demanded fanciful dakṣiṇās. For example, Uttaṅka was asked by his teacher’s wife, when he urged her to take something, to bring the ear-rings of the queen of the reigning king (vide Ādiparva chap. 3 and Āśvamedhikaparva 56). [[362]]

It would be interesting to see how far corporal punishment of pupils was allowed in ancient India. Gaut.²¹⁴ (II. 48-50) lays down that pupils are to be regulated (ordinarily) without beating; but if it is not possible to control the pupil (by words &c.) then he may be struck with a slender rope or with a split bamboo; that if the teacher struck (the pupil) in any other way (e. g. with the hand &c.) the teacher should be punished by the king. The Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 8. 29-30 calls upon the teacher to censure (by words) a pupil when he commits a fault and to employ according to the gravity of the offence any one or more of the following punishments till the pupil desists, viz. threatening (the pupil), refusing to give him food, drenching him in cold water and not allowing him to come in his presence.²¹⁵

Corporal punishment of students

The Mahābhāṣya²¹⁶ (vol. I. p. 41) refers to the fact that when a pupil pronounced a wrong accent (e. g. anudātta in place of udātta) the upādhyāya slapped him (on the back probably). Manu VIII. 299-300, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 71. 81-82, Nārada (abhyupetyāśuśrūṣā, verses 13-14) follow Gautama as to corporal punishment, but add that beating should be on the back only and never on the head nor on the chest, while Nārada further rules that the beating should not be excessive. Manu (VIII. 300) says that the punishment in case of violation of these rules by the teacher is that for a thief and (VIII. 299) extends the same rules to the son and the wife. Manu II. 159 recommends that in imparting instruction about the right path of conduct, one should use sweet persuasive (not high-toned) words.

A few words must now be said about the education of kṣatriyas, vaiśyas and śūdras. According to Gaut. XI. 3 a king should be well-grounded in the three Vedas and in Ānvīkṣikī (i. e. metaphysics) and in XI. 19 Gaut. says that the king has to rely for carrying out his duties on the veda, the dharmaśāstras, the subsidiary lores of the veda, the upavedas and purāṇas. Manu VII. 43 and Yāj. I. 311 say that a king should be proficient in the three Vedas, in metaphysics, in daṇḍanīti (the art of government and statecraft) and in vārtā (economic life and production of wealth). These directions were probably meant to be an ideal and very few kings ever went through all this. If any conclusions are to be drawn from the stories in the Mahābhārata, we may say that princes at least hardly ever went to a guru’s home, but teachers were engaged to teach them (as Droṇa was engaged by Bhīṣma) and they became proficient in military skill. Alberuni (tr. by Sachau 1888, vol. I p. 125) says that brāhmaṇas taught the veda to kṣatriyas, but he is probably drawing only on the rules given in the smṛtis. Kings left ecclesiastical matters to their purohita and were always to rely on him for advice. [[363]] Gaut.²¹⁷ XI. 12-13 and Āp. Dh. S. II. 5. 10. 16 require that the purohita was to be a learned man of good birth, endowed with polished speech, a fine form, middle age and high character and that he was to be well-versed in dharma and artha. Aśv. gṛ. III. 12 describes how the purohita is to prepare the king for battle. {{Kaut|Kauṭilya}} in his Arthaśāstra after stating several views gives his own opinion that the vidyās for a prince are four (the same as those of Manu and Yāj. above), that after the caula is performed the prince should learn the alphabet and arithmetic and when upanayana is performed he should learn the four vidyās till he is 16 years old and may then marry (I. 5), that in the first part of the day he should have instruction in elephant riding and horse riding, riding in chariots and in arms and the latter part of the day he should devote to hearing purāṇas, stories, dharmaśāstra and arthaśāstra (politics). In the Hāthīgumphā Inscription (2nd century B. C.) there is a reference to rūpa (currency), gaṇanā (finance and treasury accounts), lekha (official correspondence) and vyavahāra (law and judicial administration) as the subjects which Khāravela mastered as heir-apparent from his 15th year to his 24th (vide E. I. vol. 20 p. 71 at p. 81, J. R. A. S. 1918 p. 545, I. H. Q. vol. 14 for 1938 p. 459 ff.). In the Kādambarī also Bāṇa shows that prince Candrāpīḍa did not go to a teacher’s house but that a school was built for him outside the capital where he learnt from his 7th to the 16th year.

As to the education of kṣatriyas in general we have hardly any directions in the dharmaśāstra works. But that there were several learned kṣatriyas and vaiśyas who sometimes became teachers cannot be denied. Kumārilabhaṭṭa says (on Jaimini I. 2. 2) that adhyāpana²¹⁸ is not a special characteristic for recognising that a man is a brāhmaṇa, since certain kṣatriyas and vaiśyas who have given up the observation of the caste rules also do so.

About the education of vaiśyas there is still less material. Manu X. 1 lays down generally that the three varṇas (including vaiśyas) are to learn the Veda, (X. 79) that trade, cattle rearing and agriculture are the means of the vaiśya’s livelihood and that (IX. 328-332) the vaiśya should never think of giving up cattle rearing, that he should know the prices of jewels, coral and pearls, of metals and clothes, of perfumes and salt, the sowing of seed, the qualities and defects of soils, measures and weights, the different grades of qualities of goods, the profit and loss in trade, the rates of pay for servants, various alphabets and the places where saleable articles are produced or manufactured.

Yāj. II. 184, Nārada (abhyupetyāśuśrūṣā 16-20) indicate that boys were apprenticed with master artisans to learn several śilpas (crafts) like preparing ornaments²¹⁹ of gold or for learning dancing, singing &c. An apprentice was to stipulate how long he would stay with the master craftsman, that even if he learnt the craft earlier than the stipulated time he was still to stay with the teacher and work for him till the period was over, that the teacher was to give food and lodging to the apprentice and to appropriate the proceeds from his work, that if the apprentice left the teacher before the time fixed even though the teacher was ready to teach him, he was to be compelled to stay with the teacher and to be imprisoned or sentenced to whipping by the king if he would not stay.

As for the education of the śūdra, there are hardly any rules in the dharmaśāstras. He gradually, as stated above (at pp. 120-121), rose in status and was allowed to engage in crafts and agriculture and so the same rules might have been applied to him as to vaiśya apprentices. The śūdra could listen to the recitation of the Mahābhārata and the purāṇas as shown above (at pp. 155-156).

It appears that in very ancient times the status of Indian women as to education was much higher than in medieval and modern times in India. Several women are stated to have been the composers of Vedic hymns; e. g. Ṛg. V. 28 is ascribed to {{Vibyavārā|Viśvavārā}} of the Atri family; Ṛg. VIII. 91 to Apālā of the same family and Ṛg. X. 39 to Ghoṣā Kākṣīvatī. The Bṛ. Up. II. 4. 1 shows that Maitreyī, one of the two wives of Yājñavalkya, the great philosopher of ancient India, was herself a very earnest seeker after true knowledge and she prayed to Yājñavalkya that he should impart to her such knowledge as would make her immortal.²²⁰ In the same Upaniṣad (III. 6 and 8) we find that among the several interlocutors in the court of Janaka, king of Videha, who propounded several questions for solution before Yājñavalkya, Gārgī Vācaknavī occupies a very prominent position. She pursued Yājñavalkya with subtle and searching questions till ultimately he was forced to warn her not to probe too much into the nature of the First Principle which was beyond mere human reason and logical questioning or otherwise she might die by the fall of her head. Then she desisted, but her unquenchable thirst for philosophical knowledge again swelled up and she put two questions to Yājñavalkya hoping to confound him. In the same Up. (Bṛ. Up. VI. 4. 17) there is a rite prescribed²²¹ for one who desires to have a learned daughter. As in the very preceding sentence a prescription is given for one desirous of having a son who would master the three Vedas, it naturally follows that the learning of the daughter must refer to the same topic. But Śaṃkara, in whose day women were debarred from learning the Vedas, could not but explain the word ‘paṇḍitā’ as referring to proficiency in domestic work. It has been shown above (p. 294) that upanayana and veda study were allowed to women by Hārīta.

In the daily ṛṣitarpaṇa (Āśv. gṛ. III. 4) among a host of sages water is offered to three women as teachers viz. Gārgī Vācaknavī, {{Vadavā Pratitheyl|Vaḍavā Prātitheyī}} and Sulabhā Maitreyī. The very fact that the Kāśikā on Pāṇini IV. 1. 59 and III. 3. 21 teaches the formation of ācāryā and upādhyāyā as meaning a woman who is herself a teacher (and not merely the wife of a teacher) establishes that the ancient grammarians were familiar with women teachers. Patañjali teaches²²² how and why a brāhmaṇa woman is called Āpiśalā (one who studies the grammar of Āpiśali) and Kāśakṛtsnā (one who studies the mīmāṃsā work of Kāśakṛtsna). He also states the formation of the appellation ‘Audameghāḥ’ (meaning the pupils of a woman teacher called Audameghyā). Gobhila²²³ gṛ. II. 1. 19-20 prescribes that when the bride pushes forward with her foot a mat the bridegroom should make her repeat the mantra ‘may the way which my husband goes by be also assigned to me’ and that if she does not repeat this mantra (through bashfulness &c.) he should repeat it substituting the words ’to her’ for ’to me’.

In the Kāṭhaka²²⁴ gṛ. 25. 23 it is said that the Anuvāka beginning with ‘sarasvati predam-ava’ (of 21 verses) was to be recited both by the bride and the bridegroom according to some teachers. All this shows that women could recite Vedic mantras in the sūtra period. The Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyana,²²⁵ a remarkable though in some places a filthy work, prescribes that women should study the Kāmasūtra and its subsidiary aṅgas (viz. the 64 kalās such as singing, dancing, painting &c.) before they attain youth (i. e. in their father’s house) and after marriage with the husband’s consent. In the 64 kalās enumerated in that work (I. 3. 16) are included prahelikās (riddles of words), pustakavācana (chanting from books), kāvyasamasyāpūraṇa (composing a suitable portion of a verse to fit in with a portion given), knowledge of lexicons and metres &c. We read in the epics and the dramas like the Śakuntalā of women writing messages to their lovers. In the Mālatīmādhava Bhavabhūti tells his readers that the fathers of the hero and the heroine studied in their youth together with Kāmandakī at the feet of the same master. From anthologies like Rājaśekhara’s Sūktimuktāvalī we learn that there were poetesses like Vijjā, Sītā &c. All these facts tend to indicate that literary attainments among women were not totally unheard of in ancient India.

But gradually the position of women became worse and worse. In the Dharmasūtras and Manu woman is assigned a position of dependence and even women of higher classes came to be looked upon as equal to śūdras so far as Vedic study and several other matters were concerned. Gaut. 18. 1, Vas. Dh. S. VI. 1, Baudh. Dh. S. II. 2. 45 and Manu IX. 3 say that women have no independence and in all stages depend upon men. We have seen (at p. 265) also that all the saṃskāras (except marriage) were performed in the case of girls without Vedic mantras. Though according to the Pūrvamīmāṃsā the husband and wife were to perform Vedic sacrifices together (Jaimini VI. 1. 17-21) still women²²⁶ were only associated with their husbands and all the actions to be done by the sacrificer (yajamāna) were to be done only by the husband except where the texts expressly requested the wife to do certain things such as examining the ājya or repeating certain mantras (VI. 1. 24).

Jaimini says that the husband and wife were not equal and Śabara explains that the yajamāna is a male and is learned, while the patnī is a woman and has no vidyā. Medhātithi²²⁷ on Manu II. 49 raises the interesting question why brahmacārins when begging for alms used a Sanskrit formula (bhavati bhikṣāṃ dehi) which language ladies do not know. He replies that women can understand that vernacular words which they use being similar to Sanskrit words must be derived from them and that these few well known Sanskrit words they can easily grasp. Besides even in Vedic times there was a tendency as in many other countries to make sarcastic references to women. The Ṛgveda²²⁸ VIII. 33. 17 says “Even Indra said ’the mind of woman cannot be controlled; and also her intellect (or power) is slight’”; in Ṛg. X. 95. 15²²⁹ ’there is no truth in the friendship of women; they have the hearts of hyenas’. The Śat. Br. XIV. 1. 1. 3 exhorts a person studying the Madhu-vidyā not to look at ‘woman, śūdra, the dog and the black bird that are all untruth’. In Manu II. 213-214, Anuśāsanaparva chap. 19. 91-94, chap. 38 and 39 there is severe condemnation of women. Such ideas, and ideas about pollution and the early marriage of girls are probably responsible for the great lack of literacy among women in medieval and modern times.

As literary education among women was in a languishing state or almost nil, the question of co-education hardly arises. There are no doubt faint indications that when women could at all devote themselves to learning, they must have been taught with male pupils. Poets like Bhavabhūti (in the Mālatīmādhava) envisage a state of society in which a woman (like Kāmandakī) learnt at the feet of the same master along with male students (like Bhūrivasu and Devarāta, who later on became ministers of states). []

Education in ancient India

The house of the ācārya where the student learnt was called ācāryakula (vide Chān. Up. II. 23. 2, IV. 5. 1., IV. 9. 1, VIII. 15. 1). The teacher who presided over a large establishment of pupils was called kulapati (e. g. Kaṇva is so referred to in the Śākuntala, vide note 134 above).

It is outside the scope of this work to show from the numerous inscriptions and copper-plate grants that have been published so far, how ancient kings and rich private persons made substantial grants to famous schools, colleges and universities. There were famous universities at Takṣaśilā (modern Taxila), Valabhi, Benares, Nālandā, Vikramaśilā &c. For an account of the university of Nālandā in the 7th century reference may be made to the accounts given by the two Chinese travellers Yuan Chwang (vide Watters vol. II, pp. 109, 246) and I-tsing (‘Records of the Buddhist Religion’ by Dr. Takakusu pp. 154, 177 &c.). Most of those seats of learning were endowed. One of the earliest of such grants is that of the Pallava Nṛpatuṅgavarman (Bahur Plates, E. I. 18 p. 5) whereby three villages were bestowed as a source of revenue (vidyābhoga) for the promotion of learning to the residents of a seat of learning (vidyāsthāna, a college) at Vāgūr. The Kāvyamīmāṃsā of Rājaśekhara (in chap. 10) calls upon the king to hold assemblies of poets and learned men, to arrange for their examination and to distribute rewards to them in the manner of such ancient kings as Vāsudeva, Sātavāhana, Śūdraka, Sāhasāṅka. It also says that in Ujjayinī such poets as Kālidāsa, Meṇṭha, Bhāravi, Haricandra were examined and in Pāṭaliputra (modern Patna) such famous śāstrakāras as Pāṇini, Vyāḍi, Vararuci, Patañjali, Varṣa, Upavarṣa, and Piṅgala were examined.

The salient features of the educational system outlined in the Dharmaśāstra works are the high and honourable position assigned to the teacher, the close personal contact of the pupil with the teacher and individual attention, the pupil’s stay with the teacher as a member of his family, oral instruction and the absence of books, stern discipline and control of emotions and the will, cheapness (as no fees were stipulated for). The Indian system compares most favourably with any system of education of the West, whether in Greece or Rome or any other country. It gave to the students a more or less literary education, particularly of the Vedic literature and of philosophy, grammar and other subjects ancillary thereto. [] The principal effort was directed towards the conservation of the ancient literature rather than to the creation of fresh literature. In these respects it was similar to the Grammar Schools of England and to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge as they were till about the middle of the 19th century. The defects of the Indian system were that it was too literary, there was too much memorizing, boys under it had hardly any instruction in useful manual arts and crafts, the studies were not brought in contact with practical life. The discipline was rigorous and joyless. Many of these defects were due to the exigencies of the caste system which assigned particular avocations to particular castes. We cannot and should not compare the system with the systems of education prevalent in the 20th century, when several subjects such as literature, music and the fine arts, handicrafts, mathematics, science, history and geography are taught in the schools to all boys and when it has been recognised that education is a prime concern of the State.

The four Veda-vratas

Among the saṃskāras enumerated by Gautama there are four Veda-vratas (Gaut. VIII. 15). These four are also included in the 16 saṃskāras by several smṛtis. Their names and procedure differ considerably in the several gṛhyasūtras. Some gṛhyasūtras like Pār. do not describe them. A brief reference will be made to them here. The Āśv. gṛ. I. 22. 20²³⁰ says in general words that in the vratas all the ceremonies beginning from shaving the head up to paridāna (i. e. Āśv. gṛ. I. 19. 8 to I. 20. 7) that are performed at the upanayana are repeated each time with each vrata. And the four vratas according to the Āśvalāyana smṛti (in verse) were Mahānāmnī vrata, Mahāvrata (Ait. Ār. I. and V), Upaniṣadvrata and Godāna. Each vrata is to be performed for a year. Vide Laghu Āśvalāyana 11th section (Ānan. Ed). The Śāṅ. gṛ. (II. 11-12) describes, after the student is instructed in the sacred Gāyatrī, four vratas (observances) called Śukriya (which precedes the study of the main part of the Ṛgveda), the Śākvara, Vrātika and Aupaniṣada vratas (which three precede the study of the different sections of the Aitareya Āraṇyaka). The observance of the first of these (viz. Śukriya) lasted for three days or twelve days or one year or as long as the teacher liked and the observances of the other three were to be kept for one year each (Śāṅ. gṛ. II. 11. 10-12, S. B. E. vol. 29 p. 77).

At the beginning of each of these three vratas there is a separate upanayana, followed by a ceremony called Uddīkṣaṇikā (giving up the preparatory observances) and then the vrata is to be performed for one year. The Āraṇyaka is to be studied in the forest out of the village. Manu II. 174 prescribes that at the time of the beginning of each of these vratas the student shall have to put on a new deer skin, a new yajñopavīta and a new girdle. The Gobhila gṛhya III. 1. 26-31 (which is connected with the Sāmaveda) mentions the vratas as Godānika, Vrātika, Āditya, Aupaniṣada, Jyeṣṭhasāmika, each lasting for one year. It adds that some do not observe the Āditya-vrata. The godāna vrata is connected by the Gobhila with the saṃskāra of godāna (to be described below) and it prescribes certain observances for it such as removing all hair on the head, chin and lips; avoiding falsehood, anger, sexual intercourse, perfumes, dancing and singing, collyrium, honey and meat; not wearing shoes in the village. It also prescribes that wearing the girdle, begging for food, carrying a staff, daily bath, offering a fuel-stick, and clasping the teacher’s feet in the morning are common to all vratas. The Godānika enabled the student to study the Pūrvārcika of the Sāmaveda (i. e. the collection of verses sacred to Agni, Indra and Soma Pavamāna). The Vrātika was introductory to the study of the Āraṇyaka (excluding Śukriya sections); the Āditya vrata to the study of the Śukriya sections; the Aupaniṣada-vrata to the study of the Upaniṣad-brāhmaṇa; the Jyeṣṭhasāmika to the study of the Ājyadohas. The Kh. gṛ. II. 5. 17 ff. speaks of the same vratas as Gobhila. Those who observe the Ādityavrata wore one garment, did not allow anything to come between them and the sun (except trees and the roofs of houses) and did not descend into water more than knee-deep. The Śākvara vrata was kept for one year, or for three or six or nine. Those who observe this vrata study the Śākvarī or Mahānāmnī verses. Vārtika²³¹ on Pāṇini V. 1. 94 (tadasya brahmacaryam) mentions the Mahānāmnīs and teaches the derivation of Mahānāmnikam (as the period of brahmacarya devoted to the vrata of the Mahānāmnīs).

There were certain peculiar observances for this such as bathing thrice a day (Gobhila III. 2. 7-46, Kh. gṛ. II. 5. 23 ff.), wearing dark clothes, partaking of dark food, standing by day, sitting by night, not seeking shelter when it is raining, not crossing a river without bathing in it (the virtue of the Mahānāmnīs is centred in water). After the student has kept his vow for one-third of the time prescribed the teacher is to sing to the student the first stotriya of the Mahānāmnīs²³² (viz. the three mantras, vidā maghavan, abhiṣṭvam, evāhi śakro) and in the same way the two other stotriyas (each consisting of three mantras). [] They are to be sung to the student who has fasted, has closed his eyes, has dipped his hand in a brass vessel full of water in which all sorts of herbs are thrown and whose eyes are veiled with a new piece of cloth, the student is to keep silent and abstain from food for one day and night (or three), to stand in the forest till sunset (and return to the village in the night), should sacrifice with mahāvyāhṛtis; look at fire, clarified butter, the sun, a brāhmaṇa, a bull, food, water and curds; then salute the teacher, break his silence and give a fee to the teacher and offer a mess of cooked food to Indra and give a dinner to the teacher and all co-students. The same rules apply to the Jyeṣṭhasāmika vrata (introductory to the study of the three Ājyadohas²³³ viz. ‘mūrdhānaṃ divaḥ, tvāṃ viśve, nābhiṃ yajñānām’). The student who undergoes this has to observe certain rules throughout his life viz. he cannot marry or have sexual intercourse with a śūdra woman, cannot eat bird’s flesh, he should not restrict himself to one kind of corn or one country and should always wear two garments, should bathe in water drawn with a vessel and should not eat in an earthen pot or drink water from it.

The Baudh. gṛ. III. 2. 4 ff says that there are vratas of one year each which precede the study of certain brāhmaṇa texts (of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda); they are hotāraḥ,²³⁴ śukriyas, upaniṣadaḥ, godānam and sammitam and it describes them in detail.

For want of space all these are passed over. The Saṁskārakaustubha (pp. 571-580) gives in some detail the procedure of the Mahānāmnī vrata, Mahāvrata, Upaniṣadvrata and Godānavrata. It states that the Mahānāmnīvrata is performed in the 13th year from birth and Godānavrata in the 16th. It appears, however, that these vratas gradually fell into desuetude and medieval writers often pass them over altogether or barely mention them and emphasize only the general observances of brahmacārins viz. celibacy, begging for food, avoiding honey, wine and singing &c. For example, the Smṛtyarthasāra²³⁵ (p. 6) refers to Sāvitrīvrata, then the vrata for Vedic study and then the Āraṇyaka vratas. The Mit. on Yāj. I. 52 (vedaṃ vratāni vā pāraṃ nītvā) explains ‘vratam’ as simply the duties of the student already enumerated by Yāj. (among which the specific vratas of Mahānāmnī &c. do not figure).

If the student failed in observing the specific vratas, he had to perform prāyaścitta by undergoing the prājāpatya penance thrice or six times or twelve times. If the brahmacārī is guilty of failing in his daily duties of observing śauca and ācamana, of the performance of saṃdhyā prayer, of using darbha, of begging for food, of offering fuel stick to fire, of avoiding the touch of śūdras and the like, of wearing the cloth (for covering his private parts), the loin thread, the yajñopavīta, the girdle and the staff and deerskin, of not sleeping by day, of not holding an umbrella over his head or of not wearing shoes, or not putting on garlands, of avoiding luxurious bath, sandal paste, collyrium, of not sporting in water, of avoiding gambling, and addiction to dancing, singing and music, of not engaging in conversation with heretics, he had to undergo the penance of three kṛcchras (according to Baudhāyana) and to perform a homa with the vyāhṛtis separately and together (i. e. four oblations of clarified butter were to be offered).²³⁶ If he was guilty of other more serious lapses he had to undergo heavier penance.

The most reprehensible act in a brahmacārin was to have sexual intercourse with a woman. The Taitt. Ār. II. 18 speaks of the prāyaścitta for such a brahmacārin who is called avakīrṇin. Gaut. 23. 1-2 quotes the Taitt. Ār.²³⁷ “they (the sages) say ‘in how many (deities) the avakīrṇin enters; (the answer is) he enters the Maruts with his breath, Indra with his strength, Bṛhaspati with his spiritual eminence and fire with the rest (of his senses)’” and Gautama further provides that he should kindle fire at midnight on a new moon day and then offer two ājya oblations by way of penance with the two mantras “kāmāvakīrṇo’smi” and “kāmābhidrugdho’smi” &c., place a fuel stick on fire, sprinkle water round the fire, offer the yajñavāstu oblation (for which see Gobhila gṛ. I. 8. 26-29) and standing near the fire should worship fire thrice with the verse ‘saṃ mā siñcantu’.

Baud. Dh. S. (IV. 2. 10-13) contains the same rules. Jaimini²³⁸ (VI. 8. 22) prescribes that ordinary (laukika) fire is to be used for the paśu to be sacrificed (viz. ass to Nirṛti, which is symbolic of the stupid lapse the student is guilty of) and Śabara quotes a Vedic passage that ‘a brahmacārin who has become avakīrṇin should sacrifice an ass to Nirṛti’. Āp. Dh. S. I. 9. 26. 8, Vas. 23. 1-3, Manu XI. 118-121, Yāj. III. 280 contain similar provisions (Vasiṣṭha allowing in the absence of an ass oblations of boiled rice with the mantras mentioned by Gautama). Manu XI. 122–123 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28. 49-50 prescribe that the brahmacārī so guilty should for one year wear the skin of the ass, should beg for food at seven houses announcing to them his lapse, should take food only once, should bathe thrice and then only he becomes pure. Manu II. 187 (=Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28. 52) prescribes similar penance for a brahmacārī who without being ill gives up begging for food and offering fuel to fire continuously for seven days. Prāyaścitta is prescribed for loss of yajñopavīta or its being torn, or its being polluted by impure things like blood &c. It consists in offering homa and wearing a new one. Vide Saṁskāra-ratnamālā pp. 365-367 for details.

Naiṣṭhika brahmacārin (perpetual student)

Brahmacārins were of two kinds, upakurvāṇa (the student who offered some return to the teacher, vide Manu II. 245, for the word upakurvīta) and the naiṣṭhika²³⁹ (the student who remains so till his death). These two names occur in Hārīta Dh. S., Dakṣa I. 7 and in several smṛtis. The word ’naiṣṭhika’ occurs in Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28. 46, Yāj. I. 49, Veda-Vyāsa I. 41. The idea of perpetual studenthood is very ancient. In the Chāndogya²⁴⁰ Up. II. 23. 1 we read that the third branch of dharma is the (status of a) student who stays with his teacher’s family and who wears out his body to the end in the family of the teacher. Gaut. III. 4-8, Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 4. 29, Hārīta Dh. S.,²⁴¹ Vas. VII. 4-6, Manu II. 243, 244, 247-249, and Yāj. I. 49-50 say that if the student likes he may stay with his teacher till life lasts and should serve his guru and in the rest of the time repeat the Veda; that if the teacher be dead he may stay with and serve the teacher’s son if he is worthy or the teacher’s wife or he may worship the fire kindled by his deceased guru; he should thus wear out his body; he obtains the highest worlds of bliss and is not born again. He has to perform throughout his life the duties of offering fuel sticks, Veda study, begging for food, sleeping on the ground (not on a cot), and of self-restraint (Bṛhaspati quoted in Sm. C. I. p. 62).

According to Viṣṇu quoted in Aparārka (p. 72) and the Sm. C.²⁴² (I. p. 63) quoting the Saṃgraha persons who are dwarfs, ill-formed, congenitally blind, impotent, cripples and those suffering from incurable diseases should become perpetual students, as they are not entitled to perform the Vedic rites and are not entitled to inherit.

We saw above that Kumārilabhaṭṭa accepted this view (vide note 852a). But this does not mean that the blind and other partially defective people could not marry at all. They could marry if they had sufficient wealth. For example, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, though congenitally blind, married and had sons. Aparārka (p. 72), the Sm. C., the Madanapārijāta (p. 111), the Par. M. (I. 2. p. 51 ff) and others say that perpetual student-hood is not restricted only to the blind and the cripple, but it may be resorted to by even able-bodied men at their choice (vide Manu II. 243-44).

Atri (VIII. 16) says²⁴³ that if a person undertakes to be a perpetual student, but falls from that ideal, there is no prāyaścitta for that lapse. Some interpret this as applying to one who becomes a sannyāsin and then gives up that mode of life; while others like the Saṁskāra-prakāśa (p. 564) interpret it as meaning that the prāyaścitta is double of what the upakurvāṇa would have to undergo.

Patitasāvitrika

(those for whom there has been no upanayana and therefore no instruction in Gāyatrī and who are therefore sinful and outside the pale of Aryan society). The gṛhya and dharma sūtras are agreed that the time for upanayana has not passed till the 16th, 22nd and the 24th year in the case of brāhmaṇas, kṣatriyas and vaiśyas respectively, but that after these years are past without upanayana taking place they become incompetent thereafter for learning the Sāvitrī (the sacred Gāyatrī verse). Vide Āśv. gṛ. I. 19. 5-7,²⁴⁴ Baudh. gṛ. III. 13. 5-6, Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 22, Vas. XI. 71-75, Manu II. 38-39, Yāj. I. 37-38. Such persons are then called patitasāvitrika or sāvitrīpatita and also vrātya (Manu II. 39 and Yāj. I. 38 call them so). These works also declare that the consequences of this are that no upanayana is to be thereafter performed for them, they are not to be taught the Veda, nor is any one to officiate at their sacrifices and there is to be no social intercourse with them (i. e. no marriage takes place with them).

Āp. Dh. S. (I. 1. 1. 24-27) prescribes that after the 16th or 24th year, the person should undergo the rules of student-hood for two months just as those who meant to study the three Vedas and whose upanayana has been performed observe (viz. begging for food &c.), then his upanayana should be performed, then for one year he should bathe (thrice if possible) every day and then he should be taught the Veda. This is a somewhat easy penance. But others prescribe heavier penalties. Vas. Dh. S. XI. 76-79 and the Vaikh. smārta II. 3 prescribe that one who is patitasāvitrika should either perform the Uddālaka vrata or should take a bath along with the performer of an Aśvamedha sacrifice or should perform the Vrātyastoma sacrifice. Both Vasiṣṭha²⁴⁵ and the Vaikh. smārta explain that the Uddālaka vrata consists in subsisting on barley gruel for two months, for one month on milk, for half a month on āmikṣā (the whey that arises by pouring curds in hot milk), for eight days on ghee, for six days on alms obtained without begging, for three days on water and in observing a total fast for one whole day.

The Sm. C. (I. p. 28) says that this vrata is so called because it was promulgated by Uddālaka. Manu XI. 191 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 54. 26 prescribe a mild prāyaścitta for patitasāvitrikas, viz. three prājāpatya²⁴⁶ penances; while Yāj. I. 38, Baudh. gṛ. III. 13. 7, Veda-Vyāsa I. 21 and several others prescribe only the Vrātyastoma for those who are patitasāvitrikas.

Viśvarūpa²⁴⁷ (on Yāj. III. 262) tries to reconcile these contradictions by saying that the easy penance prescribed by Manu applies to a brāhmaṇa whose upanayana is not performed before the 16th year, but whose upanayana is sought to be performed before the 22nd year, while the Vrātyastoma is to be performed for him whose upanayana is not performed for forty-eight years from the first prescribed period (viz. 8th year, 11th year or 12th).

The Mit. on Yāj. III. 262 also tries to introduce vyavasthā (order) in the contradictory dicta of the smṛtis. According to Gaut. 21. 11, Yāj. III. 234 and others vrātyatā (being patitasāvitrika) is only an upapātaka and Manu XI. 117 prescribes an easy penance for all upapātakas.

Āp. Dh. S.²⁴⁸ says ‘if a person’s father and grandfather also had not the upanayana performed for them, then they (i. e. the three generations) are called ‘slayers of brahma’ (holy prayers or lore); people should have no intercourse with them, should not take their food nor should enter into marriage alliances with them; but if they desire then penance should be administered to them’. It then prescribes that they have to perform the penance (observing rules of student-hood) one year for each generation (that had not the upanayana performed), then there is upanayana and then they have to bathe (thrice or once) every day for a year with certain mantras viz. the seven Pāvamānī verses beginning with ‘yad anti yacca dūrake’ (Ṛg. IX. 67. 21-27), with the Yajuṣpavitra (Taitt. S. I. 2. 1. 1 = Ṛg. X. 17. 10), with the sāmapavitra and with the mantra called Āṅgirasa (Ṛg. IV. 40. 5) or one may pour water only with the vyāhṛtis.²⁴⁹ After all this is done, one may be taught the Veda.

Āp. Dh. S. goes further (I. 1. 2. 5-10) and says if the generations²⁵⁰ beginning with the great-grandfather had not the upanayana performed on them, they are called ’the cemetery’ and that if there is desire they may observe the rules of student-hood for twelve years, then upanayana may be performed and then the person so desirous of upanayana will have to bathe with the Pāvamānī and other verses (as stated above), then instruction in the duties of the householder may be imparted to him (i. e. to the 4th); he cannot, however, be taught the Veda; but his son may have the saṃskāra performed as in the case of one who is himself patitasāvitrika and then his son will be one like other āryas’.

Haradatta²⁵¹ remarks that Āp. does not declare the prāyaścitta for him whose great-grandfather’s father also was without upanayana, but that those who know the dharmaśāstra should find out a proper prāyaścitta even in such cases. It is clear that Āp. contemplates cases where for three generations there had been no upanayana and the fourth generation also had not the upanayana performed at the right time and desired to have it performed for him. Pār. gives a brief rule ‘when three generations are patitasāvitrika, their offspring (i. e. the fourth generation) is excluded from the sacrament of upanayana and he cannot be taught the Veda’.²⁵² So Pār. is more restrictive than Āpastamba.

There is a famous historical example of the application of these rules. Gāgābhaṭṭa, a profound scholar of Benares, officiated at the coronation of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire, in 1674 and performed the upanayana of Shivaji before the coronation, when Shivaji was about 45 years old and had even two sons. Some eminent scholars like the late Mr. Justice Telang²⁵³ have found fault with Gāgābhaṭṭa and the other brāhmaṇas of that time; but these scholars are wrong and Gāgābhaṭṭa had behind him weighty and ancient authorities like Āp., Pāraskara, Viśvarūpa and Haradatta as shown above.

The Vaikh. sūtra (II. 3) adds that in the case of the man who is himself patitasāvitrika the saṁskāras (from Garbhadhāna) have to be again performed (with Vedic mantras) and then the upanayana is performed.

One very important question that exercised the minds of some writers in medieval times was whether kṣatriyas and vaiśyas existed in the kali age. In some of the purāṇas it is said in a prophetic vein that Mahāpadma Nanda will destroy the kṣatriyas and thereafter rulers will be of the śūdra caste. For example, the Viṣṇupurāṇa IV. 24. 4-5 says “Mahāpadma Nanda, the son of Mahānandi, born of a śūdra woman would be extremely greedy (of power) and will destroy the whole kṣatriya race as if he were another Paraśurāma; thereafter śūdras will be kings’. The Matsya 272. 18-19 and the Bhāgavata-purāṇa XII. 1. 6-9 declare the same prophecies. The Viṣṇupurāṇa IV. 24. 44 remarks that Devāpi, descendant of Pūru, and Manu, descendant of Ikṣvāku, stay in Kalāpagrāma, are endowed with great yogic powers, will revive the kṣatriya race when the kṛta age will start again after the present kali age comes to an end and that some kṣatriyas exist on the earth like seed even in the kali age. [] Vāyu (vol. I. 32. 39-40), Matsya (273. 56-58) have similar verses. Relying on such passages some medieval writers stated that there were no kṣatriyas in their times. The Śuddhitattva²⁵⁴ of Raghunandana (p. 268) after quoting the Viṣṇupurāṇa IV. 24. 4 and Manu X. 43 declares that kṣatriyas existed till Mahānandi, that the so-called kṣatriyas of his day were śūdras and that similarly there were no vaiśyas also. In the Śūdra-Kamalākara occurs this verse ‘The varṇas are brāhmaṇas, kṣatriyas, vaiśyas and śūdras, the first three being twice-born; all these exist in the several yugas; but in the kali age only the first and the last remain’. Nāgeśabhaṭṭa (first half of 18th century²⁵⁵) in his Vrātyatāprāyaścittanirṇaya (Chaukhambā Series) examines all the relevant Purāṇa passages and states as his conclusion that real kṣatriyas do not exist and so those, in whose families no upanayana had been performed for ten or twenty generations, are not kṣatriyas even though they rule over kingdoms and no upanayana can be performed for such kings. It must be stated that such views, though held by some rigidly orthodox writers of extreme views, were not shared by most writers. All the smṛtis speak of the duties of the four varṇas even in the kali age. Parāśara-smṛti which is said to be the smṛti par excellence for the kali age (as stated in I. 24) does so. Almost all nibandhakāras (authors of digests and commentaries) discuss the privileges and duties of all varṇas. The author of the Mitākṣarā, who is rightly described as the best of all nibandhakāras, nowhere says that kṣatriyas do not exist in the kali age. Numerous kings claimed to be descended from the Sun and the Moon. Hemādri in his Caturvargacintāmaṇi states that his patron was a scion of Somavaṃśa (vide H. Dh. vol. I p. 356 for quotations). The princes of Rajputana and Central India claimed to have sprung from the Agnikuṇḍa on Mount Abu, viz. of the four clans of Chohān, Parmār (or Paramāra), Solankī (or Cālukya), Padihār (or Pratihāra). Vide Tod’s Rajasthan (Madras ed. of 1873) vol. I chap. VII pp. 82 ff. This theory of the Agnikulas is at least as old as 1000 A. D., since it is referred to in several inscriptions of the 11th century A. D. Vide the Vasantagadh Inscription of Paramāra Pūrṇapāla dated saṃ. 1099 (1042-43 A. D.) in E. I. vol. IX p. 10 and the inscription of Camuṇḍarāja dated saṃ. 1136 (1079-1080 A. D.) in E. I. vol. XIV. p. 295.

This question is now largely of academic interest. Whether a person is a śūdra or a member of the regenerate classes assumes great importance in adoption, inheritance and succession. Therefore the question, whether kṣatriyas exist in modern times, came before the British Indian courts over a hundred years ago. In Chouturya Run Murdun Syn v. Sahub Purhulad Syn 7 Moore’s Indian Appeals 18 this question was argued and the Privy Council citing the authorities on both sides set the question at rest by remarking (p. 46) ‘Their Lordships have nevertheless no doubt that the existence of the Khatri caste as one of the regenerate tribes is fully recognised throughout India and also that Rajputs in central India … are considered to be of that class … The courts in all cases assume that the four great classes remain’. The only question that is now permissible is whether a particular caste belongs to the regenerate classes or to the śūdra class. On this the courts often differ. Vide p. 75 under Kāyastha. In Maharaja of Kolhapur v. Sundaram Ayyar 48 Mad. 1 it was held (in an exhaustive judgment extending over 229 pages) that the Tanjore Maratha princes descended from Venkaji, the step-brother of the founder of the Maratha Empire, were śūdras and not kṣatriyas. The learned judges (at p. 51) quote Telang’s dictum criticized by me above (note 923), but refrain from expressing any decided opinion about the claim of Shivaji to be of kṣatriya descent. In Subrao v Radha 52 Bom. 497 it was held after a careful examination of authorities that the Marathas of Mahārāṣṭra are sub-divided into three groups, viz. (1) the five families, (2) the ninety-six families and (3) the rest and that the first two groups are kṣatriyas. It was further held that the tests to be applied in determining the class (varṇa) of a particular caste are three viz. the consciousness of the caste itself, the acceptance of that consciousness by other castes, and lastly its customs and usages.

We have already seen (in note 118) how even in the Vedic age there were non-Āryan tribes like the Kirātas, Āndhras, Pulindas, Mūtibas, that were described as dasyus by the Ait. Br. []

Mlecchas

One word that is of striking importance is mleccha. The Śat. Br. (III. 2. 1. 23–24, S. B. E. vol. 26 p. 32) states that the asuras were defeated because they spoke an incorrect and corrupt dialect and that a brāhmaṇa should not, therefore, utter such a corrupt²⁵⁶ speech and so should not become a mleccha and an asura. Gaut. IX. 17 enjoins that one should not speak with mlecchas, impure or irreligious persons and Haradatta explains that mlecchas are the inhabitants of Ceylon and similar countries where there is no system of varṇas and āśramas. Viṣṇu Dh. S. 64. 15 is to the same effect. Viṣṇu Dh. S. 84. 1-2 and Śaṅkha 14. 30 prescribe that one should not perform śrāddha in a mleccha country nor should one visit such a country (except on a pilgrimage). Viṣṇu Dh. S. 84. 4 states that that country where the system of the four varṇas is not in vogue is mleccha territory and Āryāvarta is beyond it, while Manu II. 23 states that the mleccha country is beyond Āryāvarta which land is fit for sacrifices and in which the black deer wanders naturally. Viśvarūpa on Yāj. I. 15 quotes Bharadvāja to the effect ‘one should not study the language of the mlecchas, for it is declared (in the Brāhmaṇas) that a corrupt word is indeed mleccha’. Vas. Dh. S. VI. 41 also enjoins that one should not learn the mleccha dialect. Manu X. 43-44 knew that many of the tribes called Puṇḍrakas, Yavanas, Śakas spoke mleccha languages and also the language of the Āryas (mlecchavācaścāryavācaḥ sarve te dasyavaḥ smṛtāḥ). In Parāśara IX. 36 mlecchas are referred to as eaters of cow’s flesh. That the mlecchas had affected the Sanskrit language by lending to it certain words follows from the discussion in Jaimini I. 3. 10 whether words like pika (a cuckoo), nema (half), sata (a wooden vessel), tāmarasa (a red lotus) are to be understood in the sense in which mlecchas use them or certain meanings are to be assigned to them by deriving them from some root according to the rules of grammar, Nirukta and Nighaṇṭu and Jaimini’s conclusion is that they are to be understood in the same sense in which mlecchas employ them.²⁵⁷ Pāṇini derives the word yavanānī and Patañjali speaks of the siege of Sāketa and Madhyamikā by the Yavana by whom scholars generally understand Menander.

Aśoka in his Rock Edict No. 13 refers to Yona kings and it appears from his reference that brāhmaṇas and śramaṇas were not found in the Yona country. A Yavanarāja Tuṣāspha is mentioned as the governor of Kāthiāwār under Aśoka in the inscription of Rudradāman at Junagadh (E. I. vol. VIII at p. 43). In the Prakrit Inscriptions the Yavanas are referred to as Yavana (vide E. I. vol. VII. pp. 53-55 at Karle No. 7 and 10) or Yona or Yonaka (E. I. VIII. 90 Nasik cave No. 18). In Kharavela’s inscription also the form is Yavana (E. I. 20 p. 79). In the Mahābhārata the words Yavana and Śaka occur very frequently. Vide notes above on these words. In the Droṇaparva 119. 45-46 Yavana, Kamboja, Śaka, Śabara, Kirāta and Barbara are mentioned as one group fighting against Sātyaki. In Droṇa 119. 47-48 they are referred to as dasyus and as having long and flowing beards. In the Strīparva 22. 11 Jayadratha is said to have had Kamboja and Yavana women in his harem. The word Yavana is generally taken as referring to the Greeks. But there are dissenting voices also. Dr. Otto Stein in ‘Indian Culture’ denies that the word ever means Greeks and Dr. Tarn in his recent work on ‘Greeks in Bactria and India’ p. 254 argues that the Yavanas in the Nasik inscriptions were not Greeks but only Indian citizens of a Greek polis. The Śāntiparva 65. 17-22 prescribes for Yavanas, Śakas and similar tribes only the duties of obedience to parents and attendance on teachers and tending cattle and looking after agriculture, dedication of wells and making gifts to dvijas, ahiṃsā, satya, absence of fury, śauca, adroha, maintenance of wife and child. Atri VII. 2 puts the receiving of gifts from or eating the food of or having sexual intercourse with the women of Śakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bāhlīkas, Khaśas, Draviḍas on the same level with doing the same things with reference to naṭa, nartaka, śvapāka &c. Aparārka p. 923 quotes Vṛddha-Yājñavalkya to the effect that the touch of Mlecchas is on the same level with that of caṇḍāla, Bhilla and Pārasika.

Prof. D. R. Bhandarkar in a very learned and scholarly paper in Indian Antiquary vol. 40 pp. 7-37 endeavours to establish that many non-Āryan persons belonging to tribes like the Yavanas, the Śakas became absorbed in the general mass of Hindu society, that even several of the princely families such as those of the Guhilots were not of pure Āryan descent and that the pride of the purity of caste shown by many castes is not justified by history. []

Non-Aryan elements

He, therefore, appeals to modern Indians to forget all caste-exclusiveness and pride. But this appeal will be in vain. Merely showing that non-Āryan elements were absorbed in the body of the Āryan community several thousands or hundreds of years ago will not probably lessen that pride. Such people may retort that, whatever may have happened centuries ago, for about a thousand years there has been no such fusion. Therefore the appeal should rather be based on the futility of caste exclusiveness in the 20th century when owing to the exigencies of the times any one can pursue any occupation, when a sense of one nation and one people is absolutely necessary for securing to Indians their proper place in the society of nations.

The question of the re-conversion or re-entry of people converted to other faiths willingly or against their wishes will be briefly dealt with immediately below.

A few words may first be said about the Vrātyastoma. The Tāṇḍya-Mahābrāhmaṇa (or the Pañcaviṃśa, as it is called from the number of Adhyāyas) describes four vṛātyastomas in chap. 17. 1-4 (khaṇḍas). The meaning of many words and passages in that chapter of the brāhmaṇa is uncertain and somewhat cryptic. The four vṛātyastomas were ekāhas (i. e. sacrifices taking one day only). Tāṇḍya 17. 1. 1 begins with the story that when the gods went to the heavenly world some dependents of theirs who lived the vṛātya life were left behind on the earth. Then through the favour of the gods the dependents got at the hands of Maruts the ṣoḍaśastoma (containing 16 stotras) and the metre (viz. anuṣṭubh) and then the dependents secured heaven. The ṣoḍaśastoma is employed in each of the four vṛātyastomas, the first of which (17. 1) is meant for all vṛātyas, the 2nd is meant for those who are abhijaṣṭa (who are wicked or guilty of heavy sins and so censured) and lead a vṛātya life, the third for those who are youngest and lead a vṛātya life, and the fourth who are very old and yet lead a vṛātya life. Some of the passages convey a tolerably clear idea of what the vṛātyas were like. ‘Those who²⁵⁸ lead the vṛātya life are base and are reduced to a baser state, since they do not observe student-hood (brahmacarya) nor do they till the soil nor engage in trade. It is by the ṣoḍaśastoma that they can attain this (superior status)’.

This shows that the vṛātyas did not perform upanayana and did not study the Veda, nor did they do even what vaiśyas do. Another passage says ’those swallow poison who eat food of the common people as food fit for brāhmaṇas, who call good words bad, who strike with a stick him who does not deserve to be beaten (or punished), who, though not initiated, speak the speech of the initiated. The ṣoḍaśastoma has the power to remove the guilt of these. That (in this rite) there are four ṣoḍaśastomas, thereby they are freed from guilt’.²⁵⁹

This passage indicates that the vṛātyas spoke the same language as the orthodox people, but were rough in their ways and lax as regards the food they partook of. They were thus outside the pale of orthodox Āryan society and they were brought within it by the Vrātyastoma described in the Tāṇḍya. The origin of the word vṛātya is lost in the mists of antiquity. The 15th Kāṇḍa of the Atharvaveda glorifies the vṛātya and identifies him with the Creator and Supreme Being. The word is probably derived from vrāta (group) and means “he who belongs to or moves in a group.” It is possible to derive the word from vrata. Originally vṛātyas appear to have been groups of people who spoke the same language as orthodox āryas, but did not follow their discipline and habits. The word vrata occurs in Ṛg. I. 163. 8, III. 26. 6, V. 53. 11. Sāyaṇa also perceived the difficulty raised by the glorification of the vṛātya in the Atharvaveda 15. 1. 1 and his note is interesting, since he says that the description does not apply to all vṛātyas, but only to some very powerful, universally respected and holy vṛātya who was, however, not in the good books of the brāhmaṇas that were solely devoted to their own rites and sacrifices. Kātyāyana-śrauta XXII. 4. 1-28 and Āp. Śrauta XXII. 5. 4-14 also deal with Vrātyastoma. Kātyāyana describes the four vṛātyastomas and adds²⁶⁰ ‘by performing the vṛātyastoma sacrifice, they should cease to be vṛātyas and become eligible for social intercourse with the orthodox āryas.’

The Pār. gṛ. II. 5 quotes the last sūtra of Kātyāyana with the remark “for such persons he who desires to have the sacrament (saṃskāra of upanayana) performed on them should perform the sacrifice of vṛātyastoma and then may indeed study the Veda for a text says ’they become eligible for (social) intercourse’”.²⁶¹

In the Vrātyatāśuddhi-saṃgraha provision is made²⁶² for the purification of vṛātyas even after twelve generations (vide pp. 7 and 22-24) and that work adds (p. 42) that the Vrātyastoma like the penance for an avakīrṇin is to be performed in the ordinary fire (laukika agni). It also suggests easy substitutes for the lengthy and trying penance of twelve years prescribed by Āp.

Hinduism has not been an avowedly proselytizing religion. In theory it could not be so. For about two thousand years the caste system has reigned supreme and no one can in theory be admitted to the Hindu fold who is not born in it. A Hindu may lose caste, be excommunicated and driven out of the fold of Hinduism, if he be guilty of very serious lapses and refuses to undergo the prāyaścittas prescribed by the smṛtis. Gaut. 20. 15 states that he who was guilty of a misdeed for which death was prescribed as a penance became purified only by dying. But Gaut. himself prescribed death (21. 7) as penance only for the sins of brāhmaṇa-murder, drinking spirituous liquor and incest. Even as regards these three, lesser penances were prescribed by some smṛtis as alternatives (e. g. vide Manu XI. 72, 74-78, 92, 108). When the sinner performed the prāyaścitta prescribed by the śāstras, he was to be welcomed by his relatives, who took a bath along with him in a holy river or the like and threw therein an unused jar filled with water; they were not to find fault with him and were to completely associate with him in all ways (Manu XI. 186-187, Yāj. III. 295, Vas. 15. 20, Gaut. 20. 10-14). Vas. 15. 17 says that those who were patita were to be re-admitted to all social intercourse when they performed the prescribed penances (patitānāṃ tu caritavratānāṃ pratyuddhāraḥ). But if the sinner refused to undergo the prescribed prāyaścitta, then a peculiar procedure called ghaṭasphoṭa (breaking a jar) was prescribed. In such a case the sinner’s relatives (sapiṇḍas) made a slave girl whose face was turned to the south thrust aside with her foot an earthen jar full of water so that all water flowed out of it, then the relatives were to observe mourning for one day and night (as he was deemed to be dead to them) and from that day they were to stop speaking or sitting with him, and all other social intercourse and he was to be given no inheritance (vide Manu XI. 183-185, Yāj. III. 294, Gaut. 20. 2-7). In this way the obstinate sinner went out of the Hindu fold. The ancient smṛtis do not expressly prescribe any rites for bringing into the brāhmaṇic or Hindu fold a person who or whose ancestors did not belong to it. But as Hinduism has been extremely tolerant²⁶³ (barring a few exceptional instances) it had a wonderful power of quiet and unobtrusive absorption. If a person, though of foreign ancestry, conformed to Hindu social usages in outward behaviour, in course of time his descendants became absorbed into the vast Hindu community.

This process has gone on for at least two thousand years. The beginnings of it are found in the Śāntiparva chap. 65 where Indra tells the Emperor Māndhātṛ to bring all foreign people like the Yavanas under brāhmaṇical influence. The Besnagar column inscription shows that the Yona (yavana) Heliodora (Heliodorus) son of Diya (Dion) was a bhāgavata (devotee of Vāsudeva). Vide J. R. A. S. for 1909 pp. 1053 and 1087 and J. B. B. R. A. S. vol. 23 p. 104. In the caves at Nasik, Karle and other places, many of the donors are said to have been yavanas (vide E. I. vol. VII, pp. 53-54, 55, E. I. vol. VIII, p. 90, E. I. vol. XVIII, p. 325). Several inscriptions state that Indian kings married Hūṇa princesses, e. g. Allaṭa of the Guhila dynasty married a Hūṇa princess named Hariyadevī (I. A. vol. 39 p. 191), king Yaśaḥkarṇadeva of the Kalacuri dynasty is said to have been the son of Karṇadeva and Āvalladevī, a Hūṇa princess. These and similar examples show that persons of foreign descent and their children were absorbed into the Hindu community from time to time. This absorption is illustrated in modern times by the case of Fanindra Deb v. Rajeshwar (L. R. 12 I. A. 72) in which it was found that a family in Kooch Behar not originally Hindu had adopted certain Hindu usages and it was held that it had not taken over the practice of adoption. How Hindu customs and incidents persist even after conversion to Islam is strikingly shown by the Khojas and Kutchi Memons of the Bombay Presidency, who though made converts to Islam several centuries ago, were held by the courts in India to have retained the ancient Hindu Law of succession and inheritance.²⁶⁴

The problem of taking back into the Hindu fold persons who were forcibly converted to other faiths has engaged the attention of smṛtis. Moslems first attacked India in the 8th century from the direction of the province of Sindh. This invasion led to the enslavement and forcible conversion of many people. It appears that Devala and other smṛtikāras tackled the problem of taking back such people. The Devala-smṛti opens with a question by the sages put to Devala who was sitting on the banks of the Sindhu at ease as to how brāhmaṇas and members of the other varṇas when carried off by Mlecchas were to be purified and restored to caste. The following verses of the Devala-smṛti are very instructive on this point. Verses 7-10 declare that when a brāhmaṇa is carried off by Mlecchas and he eats or drinks forbidden food or drink or has sexual intercourse with women he should not have approached, he becomes purified by doing the penance of cāndrāyaṇa and parāka, that a kṣatriya becomes pure by undergoing parāka and pādakṛcchra, a vaiśya by half of parāka and a śūdra by the penance of parāka for five days. Then verses 17-22 are most important:²⁶⁵ ‘When persons are forcibly made slaves by Mlecchas, cāṇḍālas and robbers, are compelled to do dirty acts, such as killing cows and other animals or sweeping the leavings of the food (of Mlecchas) or eating the leavings of the food of Mlecchas or partaking of the flesh of asses, camels and village pigs, or having intercourse with their women, or are forced to dine with them, then the penance for purifying a dvijāti that has stayed for a month in this way is prājāpatya, for one who had consecrated Vedic fires (and stayed one month or less) it is cāndrāyaṇa or parāka; for one who stays a year (with Mlecchas in this condition of things) it is both cāndrāyaṇa and parāka; a śūdra who stays (in this condition) for a month becomes pure by kṛcchrapāda; a śūdra who stays a year should drink yāvaka for half a month. The appropriate prāyaścitta should be determined by learned brāhmaṇas when a person has stayed (in the above circumstances among Mlecchas) for over a year; in four years the person (who stays in the above circumstances among Mlecchas) is reduced to their condition (i. e. becomes a mleccha and there is no prāyaścitta for him)!’

The Prāyaścittaviveka states that after four years death is the only purifier for him.²⁶⁶ Three more verses of Devala (53-55) also deserve consideration ‘One who was forcibly seized by Mlecchas for five, six or seven years or from ten to twenty years, is purified by undergoing two Prājāpatyas. Beyond this there is no purification; these penances are meant only for him who has simply stayed among Mlecchas. He who had stayed with Mlecchas from five to twenty years is purified by undergoing two Cāndrāyaṇas’. These verses are apparently inconsistent with the verses cited above (17-22), but they most probably mean this that if a man only stayed among Mlecchas for 5 to 20 years, but has not done any of the forbidden things such as eating ucchiṣṭa or the flesh of asses &c., then he can be taken back even after so many years. This would be an exception to the rule contained in verse 22. There is no reason why the reasoning of Devala should not be extended to persons who have been in the condition stated in verses 17-22 for over four years. In the Pañcadaśī (Tṛptidīpa v. 239) we have the following very significant passage²⁶⁷ “just as a brāhmaṇa seized by Mlecchas and afterwards undergoing the appropriate prāyaścitta does not become confounded with Mlecchas (but returns to his original status of being a brāhmaṇa) so the Intelligent Soul is not really to be confounded with the body and other material adjuncts.” This establishes that the great Vidyāraṇya, who after Śaṃkarācārya, is the greatest figure among ācāryas, approved of the view that a brāhmaṇa even though enslaved by Mlecchas could be restored to his original status.

Under Shivaji and the Peshwas it appears that several persons that had been forcibly made Moslems were restored to caste after undergoing prāyaścitta (vide notes 2321-2 below for examples). But this was done in only a few instances.

In modern times there is a movement among Hindus called śuddhi or patitaparāvartana (purification or bringing back into the Hindu fold those who had fallen away from it). In a very few cases persons born in western countries have been taken into the Hindu fold by the performance of vṛātyastoma and other rites. But such instances are very rare and are not yet supported by the vast majority of Hindus. It has been shown above that for taking back a man who was once a Hindu but had left Hinduism, there is smṛti authority in Devala and others and the authority of the Nibandhakāras.

Punarupanayana (performing upanayana again)

In certain cases an upanayana has to be performed again. The Āśv. gṛ. (I. 22. 22-26) prescribes that in punarupanayana the cutting of the hair and production of intelligence (medhājanana) are optional, there are no rules about paridāna (giving in charge of deities) and about the time (i. e. it may be performed at any time and no paridāna is necessary) and instead of the usual Gāyatrī, he should recite ’tat savitur vṛṇīmahe’ (Ṛg. V. 82. 1.).²⁶⁸ When a person in whose family one Veda is studied (e. g. the Ṛgveda) wants to study another Veda (e. g. Yajurveda), he had to undergo a fresh upanayana. The Āśv. gṛ. sūtra is interpreted in this way by some. Haradatta on Āp. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 10 says that as the Sāvitrī (i. e. Gāyatrī, Ṛg. III. 62. 10) is recited for all Vedas according to the Brāhmaṇa passage quoted by Āp. one upanayana is sufficient for the study of the three Vedas in succession, but if a person wants to study the Atharvaveda after studying another Veda, then a fresh upanayana is necessary. This is one kind of punarupanayana. Another kind of punarupanayana takes place when in the first upanayana the principal rite viz. placing his hands on the boy’s shoulders and bringing the student near the teacher is left off through oversight or the first upanayana takes place in a season other than vasanta (spring) or in the dark half of a month or on a day which was anadhyāya²⁶⁹ (unfit for Vedic study) or on a galagraha (vide note 642 above) or in the latter part of the day. A third kind of punarupanayana is one which is by way of prāyaścitta for certain sins or lapses from good conduct.²⁷⁰

Gaut. 23. 2-5 prescribes the penance called Taptakṛcchra and punarupanayana for one guilty of drinking wine (surā) in ignorance or partaking of human urine, fæces and semen and the flesh of wild beasts, camels, asses, village cocks, and village hogs. Vas. (23. 30) also has a similar sūtra. Baudh. Dh. S. II. 1. 25 quotes a verse ‘if a person belonging to the three varṇas unknowingly drinks surā (wine) or fæces, he has to undergo punarupanayana’ and says (II. 1. 29) that if a brahmacārī carries a corpse (other than that of his parents or teacher) he has to undergo punarupanayana. Manu V. 91 and Viṣṇu Dh. S. 22. 86 prescribe the same. In the Baudh. gṛ. paribhāṣāsūtra (I. 12. 4-6) it is said that on partaking of honey, or flesh, śrāddha food or food from those in impurity on birth, or the milk of a cow before the lapse of ten days or the milk of a saṃdhinī cow, mushrooms or the resin exuded from trees, vilāyana (a product of milk?), the food prepared for a number of people in common or the food of prostitutes, a man has to undergo punarupanayana and, according to some, also if he goes to a forbidden country,²⁷¹ viz. Saurāṣṭra (Kāthiāwār), Sindhu, and Sauvīra (Sind and the territory to its south and east), Avantī (Ujjain), Dakṣiṇāpatha (Deccan), a brāhmaṇa has to undergo punarupanayana (except when he goes on a pilgrimage). It then sets out the procedure (such as a homa, putting a fuel stick of palāśa on the fire and oblations of cooked food and ājya) and adds that in punarupanayana shaving, dakṣiṇā, girdle, staff, deerskin, begging for food and vratas do not take place.

The Vaikh. smārta (VI. 9-10) contains similar rules for punarupanayana.²⁷² Aparārka (p. 1160) quotes Paiṭhīnasi to the effect that if a grown-up person drinks the milk of sheep or of a she-ass, she-camel or of a woman, he has to undergo punarupanayana and also the penance called prājāpatya.

Anadhyāya (cessation from Vedic study; holiday)

It appears that from very early times Vedic studies were stopped on various grounds. The Taitt. Ār.²⁷³ II. 15 has a very important statement on this subject. ‘Indeed as to this yajña (brahmayajña) there are two cases in which the study of the Veda ceases, namely, when the man himself is impure or when the place is impure’. The Śat. Br.²⁷⁴ has a passage in which several occasions when Vedic study was ordinarily stopped are mentioned and it is added that those occasions do not prevent the repetition of Vedic texts as Brahmayajña. “Therefore one knowing this should certainly repeat the Veda as Brahmayajña, when the wind blows, when lightning flashes, when it thunders or when there is a fall of thunderbolt, in order that vaṣaṭkāras may not be fruitless’. The Āp. Dh. S. (I. 4. 12. 3) quotes the Vājasaneyi Brāhmaṇa (the Śatapatha) to the effect that “Vedic study is Brahmayajña; when it thunders, when lightning flashes, when there is a fall of the thunderbolt, when the wind blows, these are its vaṣaṭkāras;²⁷⁵ therefore when…fruitless”. The Ait. Ār. (V. 3. 3) notes that if there be rain when it is not the season of rainfall, he should make a break by observing cessation of Vedic study for three nights.²⁷⁶

The subject of anadhyāya is discussed in the gṛhya and dharmasūtras and in almost all smṛtis. It is not possible to give for want of space the differences between the several works. Among sūtras and smṛtis the most exhaustive and lengthy treatment is found in Āp. Dh. S. (I. 3. 9. 4 to I. 3. 11), Gaut. 16. 5-49, Śāṅkhāyana gṛ. IV. 7 (S. B. E. vol. 29 pp. 115-118), Manu IV. 102-128, Yāj. I. 144-151. The subject is also treated at length in the Sm. C., Smṛtyarthasāra, the Saṁskārakaustubha (pp. 564-570), the Saṁskāra-ratnamālā (pp. 327-339) and other Nibandha works. In the following an attempt is made to present a tolerably exhaustive list of anadhyāyas together with a few references to the original sources.

Among tithis the following are anadhyāyas. On the first, the 8th, the 14th, 15th tithis (Paurṇamāsī and Amāvāsya) there was to be cessation of Vedic Study for the whole day; vide Manu IV. 113-114, Yāj. I. 146 (in both pratipad is not expressly mentioned) and Hārīta. Patañjali in the Mahābhāṣya (vol. II. p. 386) refers to anadhyāya on amāvāsya and 14th tithi. There is a famous verse of the Rāmāyaṇa²⁷⁷ which shows that pratipad also was a holiday. Gaut. says that there was no holiday on the full moon days of the twelve months, but only on the full moon days of Āṣāḍha, Kārtika and Phālguna. The Baudh. Dh. S. I. 11. 42-43 quotes a verse²⁷⁸ ‘(Vedic study on) the eighth tithi kills the teacher, 14th kills the pupil, 15th kills learning’. Manu (IV. 114) has a similar verse. Aparārka²⁷⁹ (p. 189) quotes from the Nṛsiṃhapurāṇa verses to the effect that there is to be no teaching of the Veda) on Mahānavamī (9th of Āśvina, bright half), on Bharaṇī (i. e. the tithi when the moon is in Bharaṇī nakṣatra after Bhādrapada full moon), Akṣayatṛtīyā (3rd of Vaiśākha, bright half) and Rathasaptamī (7th of Māgha, bright half).

Similarly there is to be anadhyāya on what are called Yugādi and Manvantarādi tithis. Yugādi tithis according to Viṣṇupurāṇa²⁸⁰ and Brahmapurāṇa quoted by Aparārka (p. 425) are Vaiśākha śukla tṛtīyā, Kārtika śukla navamī, Bhādrapada kṛṣṇa trayodaśī and Māgha Pūrṇimā (they are respectively the beginnings of the four yugas, kṛta, tretā, dvāpara and kali). The Sm. C. (I. p. 58) quotes the Nāradīyapurāṇa ‘on the day when uttarāyaṇa and dakṣiṇāyana first take place, on Viṣuva (the two days in the year when the day and night are equal), on the tithis when Viṣṇu sleeps and awakes from sleep (i. e. Āṣāḍha śukla-ekādaśī and Kārtika-śukla-ekādaśī), on Yugādi and Manvādi tithis there is anadhyāya’.

The tithis on which the fourteen manvantaras are supposed to begin are quoted below.²⁸¹ According to a purāṇa passage quoted in the Sm. C. (I. p. 58) there is anadhyāya on Sopapadā tithis²⁸² (viz. Jyeṣṭha śukla 2, Āśvina śukla 10, and Māgha śukla 4 and 12). Sometimes on the same day there are two tithis; hence the rule laid down is that if on any day a particular tithi (which is declared to be anadhyāya) is shown in the calendar as extending for three muhūrtas at sunrise or at sunset, then the whole of that day is anadhyāya.²⁸³

Yāj. (I. 148-151) speaks of 37 tātkālika anadhyāyas (i. e. where Veda study is suspended only as long as the occasion or disturbance stated lasts). They are: when there is noise created by a dog, jackal, ass, owl, singing of sāman, playing on a flute and the cries of the distressed (these are 7); in the vicinity or presence of impure things, of a corpse, or a śūdra or antyaja (i. e. one of the untouchables), cemetery, a patita (one guilty of mahāpātaka); when the place (of study) has become impure or when the man himself is impure; when there is continuous flashing of lightning or continuous peals of thunder; while one’s hands are wet after taking one’s meals; in the midst of water, at midnight; when a violent wind is blowing; when there is a rainfall of dust; when the quarters are lit up by sudden (and strange) lights; at the two twilights; when there is fog; when there is a fright (caused by robbers &c.); when one is running; when the smell of something rotten or impure spreads; when a distinguished visitor comes to the house; when one rides an ass, a camel, a conveyance (like a chariot), an elephant, a horse, a boat, or climbs a tree or is in a desert (or barren) place. A few explanatory words may be added. According to Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 10. 19 when wolves howl, or when there is the sound of any musical instrument, or of weeping, singing or of the recitation of a Sāman there is anadhyāya. Gaut. 16. 7 mentions the sound of bāṇa (a kind of vīṇā), bherī (a drum), mṛdaṅga, garta (a chariot) and the distressed. Manu (IV. 123-124) explains that when a sāman is heard, one should not study any portion of the Ṛgveda or Yajurveda, because the gods are the devatās of Ṛgveda, the Yajurveda deals with men (it enjoins actions to be done by men), Sāmaveda has the pitṛs as its deities; hence its sound has something of the impure or uncanny about it. Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 27 prescribes²⁸⁴ that there should be no Vedic study as long as there are clouds when it is not the season for clouds, when there is a halo round the sun or moon, when there is a rainbow, or when there is parhelion or a star with a tail (like a fish).

Gaut. 16. 19, Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 9. 14-15, Vas. 13. 11 say that there is anadhyāya as long as a corpse or a cāṇḍāla is in the village or town. Gaut. 16. 45 states the view of some that the Veda can never be studied in a city; there is no Veda study as long as there is an assembly of people (Manu IV. 108) or while the student is lying down or has stretched his feet or placed them on a cot or stool, or while he sits on his haunches winding round his knees and hips a piece of cloth (Manu IV. 112, Vas. Dh. S. 13. 23, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 30. 17). There is to be anadhyāya when one is answering the calls of nature (Manu IV. 109), or when one has not yet sipped water (ācamana) after taking food, or after partaking of meat (Manu IV. 112), when there is wordy argument or there is an affray or a fight or when one is wounded or when blood flows from the body (Manu IV. 122) or when one suffers from indigestion or vomits or has sour eructations (Manu IV. 121).

In certain cases anadhyāya lasts only for a portion of the day. When the wind blows by day strong enough to carry off clouds of dust (Gaut. 16. 5) there is anadhyāya during the day (but not at night even if the wind is still strong) or when on a festive occasion like upanayana there is anadhyāya after dinner that day (Gaut. 16. 43); when in the morning twilight fire has been kindled for homa and there are flashes of lightning and thunder (not accompanied by rain) there is anadhyāya till the sun sets. Gaut. (16. 32) prescribes anadhyāya for the rest of the day when the king in whose country a man dwells dies; when a strong wind that was blowing stops, there is anadhyāya for a muhūrta i. e. two ghaṭikās (Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 28) or when there is the howling of {{Bālāvska|Bālāvaska}} (hyena?) or a jackal moving about alone there is anadhyāya till one gets up from sleep (ibid I. 3. 11. 29).

In some cases there is anadhyāya for the whole day and night. According to Yāj. I. 145-147 there is such an anadhyāya when there is thunder at the twilight time, there is a fall of the thunderbolt or earthquake or the fall of a meteor, when one finishes Saṃhitā or Brāhmaṇa (of the śākhā one is studying) or when one finishes the study of the Āraṇyaka portion of one’s Veda; when there is an eclipse of the sun or moon, or when it is the first day after the season changes or when a person partakes of śrāddha food or accepts a gift on śrāddha (except in Ekoddiṣṭa śrāddha); when a beast, frog, mongoose, dog, snake, cat or mouse passes between the teacher and pupil (Manu IV. 126 also) or when the banner of Indra is raised or taken down. Manu IV. 110 lays down anadhyāya for three days when one accepts invitation for an Ekoddiṣṭa śrāddha or when the king dies or when there is an eclipse. This last refers to an eclipse where the sun or the moon sets while still eclipsed. Gaut. 1. 60 prescribes cessation for three days when dogs and others come between. This is explained as referring to the first lesson in Veda, while the words of Manu and Yāj. are held to refer to repetition. Raising the banner in honour of Indra was a festival prescribed for kings in the Kauśika sūtra 140 and other works. The banner was raised usually in Bhādrapada (or sometimes in Āśvina) on the 12th of the bright half when the moon was in conjunction with uttarāṣāḍhā, śravaṇa or dhaniṣṭhā constellation and it was taken down in the same month on the bharaṇī constellation (vide Sm. C. I. p. 59). According to the Bṛhat-saṃhitā (chap. 43) of Varāha this festival lasted from the 8th to the 12th day of Bhādrapada śukla. Manu (IV. 119) prescribes anadhyāya for a day and night on the Aṣṭakā days²⁸⁵ and on the last day of each of the six ṛtus (seasons).

In a few cases the anadhyāya was ākālika²⁸⁶ i. e. lasted for one day (60 ghaṭikās) from the time when the cause began to operate up to the same hour next day. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 3. 11. 25-26) lays down this kind of anadhyāya if out of three viz. flashing of lightning, thunder and rain, one or two occur at a time when it is no season for rain; there is this anadhyāya for all vidyās at all times, when there is an eclipse of the sun or the moon or there is an earthquake or a whirlwind or fall of meteors. Manu IV. 103-105 and Gautama 16. 22-23 are similar to Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 25-26 and Manu IV. 118 prescribes ākālika anadhyāya when a village is thrown into confusion by thieves or there is a commotion due to a conflagration and in the case of all portentous phenomena (such as rain of blood or stones; vide Vas. 13. 35). Gaut. (16. 47-48) adds that the performer of a śrāddha (whether he actually serves cooked food to brāhmaṇas or only makes gifts of money and corn &c.) has to observe this anadhyāya (vide Manu IV. 117 also).

Anadhyāya for three days was prescribed in a few cases. If lightning, thunder and rain all appear together when it is not the proper season for them, there is anadhyāya for three days (Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 23). Vide note 937 above. In the utsarga and upākaraṇa of the Vedas, on the death of gurus (persons worthy of respect like the father-in-law), on the Aṣṭakās and on the death of near agnates (like brother, nephew &c.) there is anadhyāya for three days²⁸⁷ (Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 10. 2-3). Gaut. (16. 38-41) is similar to Āp. The Hārīta-dharmasūtra²⁸⁸ prescribes anadhyāya for three days on the death of one’s upādhyāya, or of the king or of a śrotriya or fellow pupil, on eclipses of the sun and the moon, on the taking down of the banner of Indra and on the death of one’s ācārya.

Manu (IV. 110 and 119) prescribes anadhyāya for three days on accepting invitation for ekoddiṣṭa śrāddha, on the death of the king, on eclipses and on upākarma or utsarga. Yāj. I. 144 contains similar rules.

Āp. Dh. S. (I. 3. 10. 4) prescribes 12 days’ anadhyāya on the death of one’s parents and ācārya. Baudh. Dh. S. I. 11. 32 prescribes²⁸⁹ three days’ anadhyāya on the death of one’s father. This rule must be taken as referring only to a brahmacāri. Vas. (13. 39-40) prescribes three days’ anadhyāya on the death of one’s ācārya and one day’s on the death of the son or wife of the ācārya.

The Smṛtyarthasāra (p. 10) mentions some occasions when anadhyāya may extend to a month, to six months, or a year. Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 9. 1 prescribes that, when upākarma is performed on the full moon day of Śrāvaṇa, for a month thereafter one should not study Veda in the first part of the night (he may do so after that at night or in the day).

Aparārka (p. 192) quotes a verse from Yama²⁹⁰ that there can be no Vedic study under the shade of certain trees like Śleṣmātaka, Śālmalī (silk-cotton), Madhūka, Kovidāra and Kapitthaka.

Both Gaut. (16. 49) and Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 34 state that besides the anadhyāyas expressly mentioned by them there are others which may be learnt from the several smṛtis and from the assemblies of learned men.²⁹¹

It would be noticed how the number of anadhyāyas is rather too numerous for rapid and effective study. Therefore certain rules are laid down to explain what is that that is forbidden on those days.

In the first place anadhyāya may be vācika (concerned with the loud utterance of Vedic words), mānasa (revolving the Veda in the mind). Baudh. Dh. S. I.²⁹² 11. 40-41 says that the rule about anadhyāya on portentous happenings for a day and night does not apply to mānasa study; but even mānasa study is forbidden when there is impurity due to birth or death. Gaut. 16. 46 says the same. Āp. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 20 allows (in general) mental study (not vocal) on anadhyāya days. Vide also Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 12-13.

The Āp. Śrautasūtra²⁹³ (24. 1. 37) says that the rules about anadhyāya apply only to the learning of Vedic mantras but have no application to their employment in various rites. Jaimini²⁹⁴ (XII. 3. 18-19) establishes the proposition that the rules about anadhyāya being prescribed for acquisition of the Vedic mantras have no application to their employment in sacrifices. The Āp. Dh. S. I. 4. 12. 9 has a sūtra which shows remarkable agreement with the words of Jaimini.

We saw above that according to the Taitt. Ār. the rules of anadhyāya do not apply to the daily performance of Brahmayajña (i. e. to the repetition of the Vedic texts already learnt). Manu II. 105 says that there is no concern about anadhyāya as to the lores (the aṅgas like grammar, Nirukta &c.) helpful to (understanding of) the Veda, the obligatory svādhyāya (i. e. brahmayajña) and the mantras to be used in homa. Śaunaka²⁹⁵ quoted in the Sm. C. says there is no anadhyāya as to repeating the Vedic texts in the obligatory rites and in japa nor in kāmya rites, in sacrifices or in the pārāyaṇa (repeating the Veda already learnt); the anadhyāya rules apply only to the first learning of Vedic mantras and to their teaching. The Smṛtyarthasāra²⁹⁶ (p. 10) says that those who have a slippery memory or those who have to commit to memory extensive Vedic texts should study the Vedāṅgas, nyāya (logic), mīmāṃsā and dharmaśāstras on all anadhyāyas except on 1st, 8th, 14th and full moon and new moon days.

Some digests quote a verse from the Kūrmapurāṇa²⁹⁷ that there is no anadhyāya for the study of Vedāṅgas, of itihāsa, purāṇas, dharmaśāstras and other śāstras; but on parva days the study of even these should be dropped. This shows that these tithis were the only close holidays on which there was complete cessation of all study, whether Vedic or non-Vedic. That is, these were what are called nitya holidays while the rest are naimittika anadhyāyas. Even now these nitya anadhyāyas are observed by vaidikas and by Paṇḍits in their Sanskrit schools (particularly amāvāsyā).

It will be seen that though some of the occasions for anadhyāya are somewhat strange and bizarre, underlying most of them there are reasonable and understandable principles. Vedic study depended in the first place on memorizing. Committing sacred texts to memory (without in most cases understanding their meaning) required close attention and concentration. Therefore, all occasions which caused disturbance or distraction of mind were held to be anadhyāyas. But the same concentration was not necessary for reciting in sacrifices or japa or brahma-yajña what had already been committed to memory. Hence such occasions were not anadhyāyas for those purposes.

It was believed that²⁹⁸ if a person taught the Vedic lore or studied it on anadhyāya days, he incurred loss as to (long) life, offspring, cattle, intelligence and the merit accumulated by him.

Keśānta or godāna

This saṃskāra consists in shaving the head and also the hair on the other parts of the body (such as arm-pits, chin). Pār. gṛ., Yāj. (I. 36) and Manu (II. 65) employ the word keśānta, while Āśv. gṛ., Śāṅ. gṛ., Gobhila and other gṛhyasūtras employ the word godāna. In the Śat.²⁹⁹ Br. while speaking of the dīkṣā (consecration of the performer of a sacrifice) the word godāna is used in the sense of a portion of the hair (on the head) near the top of the ear.

Most smṛtikāras say that this saṃskāra was performed in the 16th year. According to Śāṅ. gṛ. (I. 28. 20, S. B. E. vol. 29, p. 57) it may be performed in the 16th or 18th year. According to Manu II. 65 keśānta is performed in the 16th, 22nd or 24th year respectively for a brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya or vaiśya. The Laghu-Āśvalāyana-smṛti XIV. 1 says that Godāna may be performed in the 16th year or at the time of marriage. This last view seems to have been known to Bhavabhūti who in his Uttararāmacarita³⁰⁰ (Act I) makes the heroine Sītā say that Rāma and his three brothers had the godāna ceremony performed immediately before their marriage. It is somewhat strange that according to the Kauśika-sūtra³⁰¹ (54. 15) godāna precedes cūḍākarma and the commentator Keśava remarks that godāna takes place at the end of the first or 2nd year (from birth).

There is great divergence of views about the starting point from which 16 years are to be calculated. The Baudh. Dh. S. (I. 2. 7) has stated the rule in general terms that the number of years is to be calculated from the time of conception.³⁰² Following this rule the Mit. on Yāj. I. 36 and Kullūka on Manu II. 65 say that godāna should be performed in the 16th year from conception in the case of brāhmaṇas,³⁰³ while Aparārka says that it is to be performed in the 16th year from birth.

Viśvarūpa³⁰⁴ on Yāj. I. 36 says that whatever the period of brahmacarya that a student was going to observe (whether 12, 24, 36, 48 &c.) keśānta must be performed in the 16th year and if any one had his upanayana performed later than the 16th year, then keśānta will not take place at all.

Nārāyaṇa on Āśv. gṛ. I. 22. 3 notes that according to some godāna takes place in the 16th year from upanayana, while others celebrate it in the 16th year from birth.

All sūtrakāras are agreed that godāna or keśānta follows the procedure of cūḍākaraṇa with a few differences. The Āśv. gṛ. (I. 18. 1-9) points these out. Caula is performed in the 3rd year, while godāna is performed in the 16th. Āśv. gṛ. further says “wherever the word keśa occurs (in the mantras or procedure of caula) he should employ the word śmaśru (beard). He moistens the beard here. (The mantra is) ‘purify his head and face, but do not deprive him of life’. He gives orders (to the barber) ‘arrange his beard, the hair of his body and his nails, ending in the north’. Having bathed and stood up silently during the rest of the day, he should break his silence in the presence of his teacher (saying to the teacher) ‘I give a gift’. The fee is a pair of cows. Let the teacher instruct him to keep the observances for a year”.³⁰⁵

Nārāyaṇa notes that being grown up he should not sit on his mother’s lap as in caula (but sit to her right) and that the instruction is to be on the next day. Nārāyaṇa says that the instruction referred to is the one mentioned in Āśv. gṛ. I. 22. 20 from ‘cutting the hair to giving in charge’ i. e. from Āśv. gṛ. I. 19. 8 to I. 20. 7. It is better to hold as Pār. and Bhār. gṛ. ordain that the instruction is as to brahmacaryavrata (mentioned³⁰⁶ in Āśv. gṛ. I. 22. 17) or that he is not to shave himself for a year, 12 days, 6 days or at least 3 days. Pār. gṛ., Śāṅkhāyana and several others allowed the fee of only one cow.³⁰⁷

Gobhila (III. 1. 5) and Khādira (II. 5. 3) allowed optionally the gift of a pair of horses or a pair of sheep for kṣatriyas or vaiśyas respectively. According to Gobhila and Khādira shaving the beard precedes a vrata called godānika for one year and both state at length the observances of that vrata (Gobhila III. 1. 11-29, Khādira II. 5. 7-16).

Śāṅ. gṛ. (I. 28. 22) expressly says that the keśānta ceremony is performed for girls but silently. Āp. gṛ. 16. 15, Hir. gṛ. 6. 16, Bhāradvāja gṛ. I. 10, Baudh. gṛ. III. 2. 55 prescribe in godāna the removal of all the hair on the head (including the śikhā top-knot), while in caula it is not so.

This saṃskāra gradually went out of vogue, so much so that most of the medieval digests like the Sm. C., the Saṃskāraprakāśa, and the Nirṇayasindhu contain hardly anything about it.

Snāna or Samāvartana (Taking the ceremonial bath after finishing Vedic study and returning from the teacher’s house)

Some sūtrakāras such as Gaut. (VIII. 16), Āp. gṛ. XII. 1, Hir. gṛ. 9. 1 and Yāj. I. 51 employ the word “snāna’ for this saṃskāra, while Āśv. gṛ. III. 8. 1, Baudh. gṛ. (II. 6. 1), Āp. Dh. S. I. 2. 7. 15 and 31, Bhār. gṛ. II. 18 employ the word samāvartana. The Khādira gṛ. (I. 3. 2-3, III. 1. 1) and Gobhila III. 4. 7 use the word ‘āplavana’ (which means snāna). Manu (III. 4) uses both ‘snāna’ and ‘samāvartana’ in “a dvija being permitted by his teacher, may take the ceremonial bath and return from his teacher according to the rules laid down (in his own gṛhyasūtra) and then marry a girl &c”. Aparārka (p. 76) explains this verse by saying that it makes a distinction between snāna and samāvartana. The distinction consists in this: snāna or ceremonial bath indicates the completion of the period of student-hood. A man who wants to remain a brahmacārin all his life need not undergo this saṃskāra. Samāvartana literally means ‘return from the teacher’s house to one’s home’. If a boy learns under his own father, then literally speaking there will be no return in his case from a teacher’s house. Medhātithi³⁰⁸ (on Manu III. 4) puts this position forcibly. ‘Samāvartana is not a necessary aṅga (adjunct) of marriage and therefore he who learnt the Veda in his father’s house may, though there is no return (to the father’s house from the teacher’s house), enter on matrimony. Some hold that samāvartana is an aṅga of marriage and consists in the ceremonial bath. If it be said that the gerundial termination (tvā in snātvā in Manu III. 4) conveys distinction between snāna and samāvartana, the reply is that Manu will later on speak of samāvartana as the saṃskāra of snāna’.

Āp. gṛ. 12. 1 begins its treatment with the words ‘vedaṃ adhītya snāsyan’ (after learning the Veda and when about to undergo the ceremonial bath). Having these words in mind Baudh. gṛ.³⁰⁹ (II. 6. 1) remarks that in the words ‘vedaṃ adhītya snāsyan’ it is samāvartana that has been described. Hence the essence of samāvartana is the ceremonial bath and return to the parental home is a subsidiary matter (which may or may not occur in the case of a student). The Mahābhāṣya (vol. I. p. 384) says that a person after he has studied the Veda and taken the ceremonial bath with the permission of the teacher should begin to use a cot (for sleeping on).

In the Vedic Literature both words are used. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad³¹⁰ IV. 10. 1 we read that Upakosala Kāmalāyana became a student of Satyakāma Jābāla and tended his teacher’s fires for twelve years; the teacher while making his other pupils return (to their parental home) did not make Upakosala return. Here it is clear that the Upaniṣad knew the term ‘samāvartana’. Similarly in Chāndogya VIII. 15 it is stated that ‘having studied the Veda according to the rules in the time that was left after doing work for the teacher and having returned from the teacher’s house to his own family’. On the other hand the Śat. Br. (XI. 3. 3. 7) says that one³¹¹ should not beg after taking the ceremonial bath’. The Śat. Br. (XII. 1. 1. 10) distinguishes³¹² a snātaka from a brahmacārin (S. B. E. vol. 44 p. 137). Similarly the Āp. Dh. S. II. 6. 14. 13 quotes a Brāhmaṇa passage ’therefore the face of the snātaka is as if resplendent with fire’. The Ait. Ār. V. 3. 3 remarks that one who has not studied this (mahāvrata) does not become a (true) snātaka, even though he may have learnt a good deal else.³¹³ The Āśv. gṛ. III. 9. 8 summarises a Brāhmaṇa passage to the effect that a snātaka is indeed a great being.

Snāna (the ceremonial bath) was ordained by the sūtrakāras after a student finished his Vedic study. The Āśv. gṛ. (III. 9. 4) remarks “after having finished (the task of learning) vidyā, they should invite his teacher to name the gift (of wealth or otherwise) he desired or when the pupil has been permitted by the teacher, the pupil may take a ceremonial bath”.³¹⁴ This shows that one may perform snāna either when he had finished his Vedic and other studies or he may do so even without finishing his intended studies, if the teacher permitted him to do so. The Pār. gṛ. II. 6 is more explicit ‘The student should take the ceremonial bath after finishing (the study of) the Veda or when he has gone through the period of student-hood for 48 years, or for 12 years according to some (teachers); (he should) take the bath when permitted by the teacher’.

A person who has taken the ceremonial bath is called a snātaka. A snātaka is said by the Pār. gṛ. (II. 5),³¹⁵ Gobhila (III. 5. 21-22), Baudh. gṛ. paribhāṣā sūtra I. 15, Hārīta and others to be of three kinds, viz. vidyāsnātaka (or Veda-snātaka as Baudh. gṛ. paribhāṣā has it), vratasnātaka and vidyā-vratasnātaka (or vedavrata-snātaka as in Baudh.). One who has finished Veda study, but has not gone through the vratas (described above) is called vidyā-snātaka; one who has finished the vratas, but has not finished his Veda study is styled vratasnātaka; while one who has finished both is named vidyā-vrata-snātaka.

Yāj. I. 51 in saying that a student ‘after finishing Veda (study) or the vratas (observances of brahmacarya) or both, and after giving to the teacher what the latter chooses to ask should take the ceremonial bath with the teacher’s permission’ impliedly refers to the three-fold division of snātakas. These three alternatives are due to the fact that a student may not have the ability or the time to go through the full Vedic curriculum and the vratas. Medhātithi on Manu IV. 31 notices that according to some vrata-snātakas are those who without finishing Veda study take the ceremonial bath three years after upanayana. Gobhila (III. 5. 23) says that of these, vidyā-vrata-snātaka is the best, the other two being equal to each other. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 11. 30. 1-5) refers to this three-fold division and adds that all three are to be honoured as snātakas, but that great reward follows by honouring vidyā-vrata-snātakas.

A good deal of time may conceivably elapse between a man’s taking the ceremonial bath and actually marrying a woman. During that period he is called a snātaka; while after marriage he comes to be called a gṛhastha.³¹⁶ As long as a person is not married after he takes the bath, he has to follow the observances prescribed for snātakas and gṛhasthas so far as applicable to his position but not those of a student. Gaut.³¹⁷ (IX. 1-2) makes the position quite clear by prescribing the same rules of conduct for gṛhasthas and for snātakas. He also states (in III. 9) that whatever rules laid down for brahmacārins are not opposed to the special rules for other āśramas are to be observed by all. The latter means that the special observances of a brahmacārī are not applicable to him (such as avoiding honey and flesh, living on alms, offering fuel-sticks to fire).

The most elaborate procedure of samāvartana is found in Hir. gṛ. I. 9-13, Baudh. gṛ. paribhāṣā I. 14, Pār. gṛ. II. 6 and Gobhila gṛ. III. 4-5. A concise statement is given below from Āśv. gṛ. (III. 8 and 9). The student who is about to return home from his teacher should get ready (eleven) things, viz. a jewel (to be suspended round his neck), two earrings, a pair of garments, an umbrella, a pair of shoes, a staff, a wreath, (powder) for rubbing his body with, ointment, eye-salve, a turban, (all these) being meant for the teacher and for himself. If he cannot afford to have these materials for both of them, then he should prepare them only for the teacher. He should procure a fuel-stick from the north-east side of a sacrificial tree (like palāśa); the fuel-stick may be undried if he wishes for the enjoyment of food or for prosperity or for splendour; it may be dry if he wishes for spiritual lustre; or both dry (in part) and undried in the remaining part if he desires both. Having placed the fuel-stick on high (not on the ground) and having made gifts of food and of a cow to brāhmaṇas, he should perform the actions prescribed in godāna ceremony (and not the observances like remaining silent). He should³¹⁸ alter the mantras (of godāna) so that they refer to himself. (He should rub himself) with the powder of Ekaklitaka.³¹⁹ Having bathed himself in lukewarm water and having put on two garments which have not yet been washed (or used) with the mantra “You two (Mitra and Varuṇa) put on garments³²⁰ with fat splendour” (Ṛg. I. 152. 1); he should apply eye-salve to his eyes with the words ’thou art the lustre of stone, protect my eye’.

He should fasten the two ear-rings with the words ’thou art the lustre of stone; protect my ear’. After having smeared his two hands with ointment (saffron paste &c.) a brāhmaṇa should first anoint his face with it (and then the limbs), a Rājanya his two arms first, a vaiśya his belly first, a woman her private parts, persons, who maintain themselves by running, their thighs. With the words ‘free from distress art thou, may I become free from distress’ he should put on the wreath, but not such a wreath as would be called a mālā (garland). If some call it mālā (through ignorance of what to say) he should cause them to speak of it as sraj (wreath). He steps into the shoes with the words ‘you two are the supports of the gods, protect me from all sides’ and with the words ‘heaven’s covering art thou’ he takes the umbrella. He takes the bamboo staff with the words ‘bamboo art thou, thou art the child of a tree, protect me from all sides’. Having tied round his neck the jewel³²¹ with the hymn beginning with ‘dyusyam’,[^983] and having arranged the turban (on his head) he should in a standing posture put a fuel-stick (on the fire), and should say at that time ‘memory and reproach, knowledge, faith, wisdom as the fifth, what is sacrificed, what is given (as gift), what is studied and what is done, truth, learning, observances. O Agni, the vow (of thee) together with Indra, with Prajāpati, with the ṛṣis, with the ṛṣis that are kṣatriyas, with the Fathers, with the kings among Fathers, with men and with the kings among men, with the glow, with the super-glow, with the after-glow, with the counter-glow, with gods and men, with Gandharvas and Apsarases, with wild and domestic animals, the vow belonging to my own self, dwelling in my own self, that is my entire vow. O Agni! I shall on all sides become this vow, svāhā’. With the hymn ‘mine, O Agni, be the glory’ (Ṛg. X. 128. 1) he should put fuel-sticks on fire one for each verse.³²² He should stay for the night at a place where the people will do honour to him (by offering Madhuparka)’. Madhuparka will be dealt with under marriage.

The Baudh. gṛ. paribhāṣā says (I. 14. 1) that the samāvartana rite for him who is only a vratasnātaka (and has not studied the Veda) is performed silently (i. e. without the mantras prescribed). The other gṛhya sūtras have a similar procedure in samāvartana, only the mantras sometimes differ and a few details are added. For example, Śāṅ. gṛ. (III. 1. 2) makes the student sit on a bull’s hide. Pār. gṛ. (II. 6) prescribes that eight jars full of water are to be placed on kuśa grass and water therefrom is to be poured over the head and the body of the student with certain mantras, that he is to worship the rising sun, to partake of curds or sesame seeds, to cleanse his teeth with an udumbara twig, he sees himself in a mirror (after adorning himself). Both Pār. and Gobhila (III. 4. 23) say that in this rite the girdle is taken off. Gobhila (III. 4. 31-34) says that at the end of the rite the student should mount a chariot drawn by oxen, drive some distance in an eastern or northern direction, should then come back to the teacher who honours him with madhuparka. Hir. gṛ. (I. 9. 10) says that the girdle, the staff and the black antelope skin that he wore as brahmacārin are to be thrown into water. The Laghu-Āśvalāyana-smṛti (14th section) appears to suggest that godāna and samāvartana take place on the same day and that at the end of the homa in samāvartana a student of the Ṛgveda should unloosen the girdle of muñja grass with the mantra ‘ud uttamaṃ mumugdhi’ (Ṛg. I. 25. 21). It is for this reason that in the Marāṭhā country samāvartana is called ‘soḍmuñja’ (rite in which the muñja girdle is taken away).

The sūtras more or less prescribe expressly or impliedly the same materials that are required by Āśvalāyana. Vide Bhār. gṛ. II. 18 (which enumerates them in one place). Baudh. gṛ. paribhāṣā sūtra I. 13. 1.

Some of the sūtras specify the auspicious times when this rite is to be performed. Hir. gṛ. I. 9. 3 lays down that the proper time for snāna is during the northern course of the sun, in the bright half of a month when the moon is in conjunction with Rohiṇī, Mṛgaśiras, Tiṣya (Puṣya), Uttarā Phalgunī, Hasta, Citrā, or Viśākhā. The Baudh. gṛ. paribhāṣā (I. 13. 3-9) omits Mṛgaśiras out of these, while Bhār. gṛ. (II. 18) omits Rohiṇī and Mṛgaśiras and adds Svāti. Medieval and modern digests add elaborate rules about the astrological details for the proper day of samāvartana, which are passed over here. Vide Saṃskāraprakāśa pp. 576-578 for some of these details.

Numerous rules are laid down in the smṛtis and digests about snātakas (snātakadharmaḥ). Many of these rules are applicable to gṛhasthas also (i. e. snātakas who have married). Those rules are too numerous to enumerate. But some idea may be conveyed by quoting in full the rules in Āśv. gṛ. (III. 9. 6-7) which has the shortest treatment and adding a few interesting items from other works. Āśv. gṛ. (III. 9. 6–7) says ‘He (the snātaka) should not bathe at night, nor bathe naked, nor lie down naked, he should not look at a naked woman except during intercourse, he shall not run when it rains, he should not climb up a tree, nor descend into a well, should not cross a river (by swimming) with his arms, he should not expose himself to a danger. A great being indeed is a snātaka - so it is known (from the śruti)’. Āp. Dh. S. (I. 11. 30. 6 - I. 11. 32. 29), Vas. XII. 1-47, Gaut. IX, Yāj. I. 129-166, Manu IV. 13 ff, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 71, Pār. gṛ. II. 7 contain an exhaustive treatment of snātaka vratas. Some of these are concerned with the rules about anadhyāyas, about answering calls of nature, about persons whose food should not be taken, about sexual intercourse, about ācamana, about daily observances like the five mahāyajñas, about upākarma and utsarjana. These have been or will be dealt with in the appropriate places. A few of the other important rules of conduct are: a snātaka should always be pure (in body), should daily bathe and should apply fragrant unguents (like sandal-wood paste) to his body, should be always patient, persistent in his undertakings, self-restrained, generous and not disposed to cause injury to others (Gaut. 9. 7 and 73); he should speak the truth and also speak what is agreeable, but should not tell disagreeable truths, nor should he tell agreeable lies (Manu IV. 138 and Gaut. IX. 68); he should according to his ability try to make his day fruitful as regards the performance of meritorious acts, satisfaction of (legitimate) desires and acquisition of wealth, but he should look upon dharma as the principal of the three puruṣārthas (Gaut. IX. 46-47, Manu IV. 176, Yāj. I. 156), though he should avoid even what is allowed by the śāstras if it is hateful to the people; he should not beg (for his livelihood) of anybody except the king or his pupils, but when oppressed by hunger he may beg a little such as a cultivated or uncultivated field, a cow, goats and sheep, or gold, corn, food (Vas. XII. 2-3, Gaut. IX. 63-64, Manu IV. 33-34, Yāj. I. 130); but he should not beg of a king who is not of kṣatriya descent or who sets at naught the dictates of the śāstras (Manu IV. 84, 87) nor should he stay in the kingdom of a śūdra king (Manu IV. 61); he should not talk with the mlecchas, impure persons and irreligious persons (Gaut. IX. 17); he should not dwell in contact with sinners, cāṇḍālas and other untouchables, with fools or persons puffed up with the pride of wealth &c. (Manu IV. 79); he should not be restless in his sexual desires or with his hands and feet, speech and eyes (Gaut. IX. 50, Manu IV. 177, Vas. VI. 42); he should go round (perform pradakṣiṇā), when he meets on his way a cow, images of gods, a brāhmaṇa, ghee, honey, a square, well-known trees (Manu IV. 39, Gaut. IX. 66); he should not engage in wordy quarrels with his parents, guests, brothers, sisters, persons connected by marriage, maternal uncles, dependents, relations, sacrificial and family priests, children, wife, slaves (Manu IV. 179–180 = śāntiparva 244. 14-16, Yāj. I. 157-158); he should carry a bamboo stick, a water jar, kuśa grass, wear two yajñopavītas, two garments (upper and lower) and two golden ear-rings (Manu IV. 36, Yāj. I. 133, Vas. XII. 14, 37-38); if he has money enough he should not wear old and dirty clothes, his garments should be white, he should not wear garments that are dyed and black cloth even when that is its natural colour (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 10-13, Manu IV. 34-35, Yāj. I. 131, Gaut. IX. 4-5) nor should he wear the clothes, shoes, and garland of another and if he wears those of another owing to poverty, he should thoroughly clean them (Gaut. IX. 6-7, Manu IV. 66); he should not allow his beard to grow unless there is some good ground to do so and should pare his nails (Gaut. IX. 8, Manu IV. 35, Yāj. I. 131); while his shoes are in his hand he should not sit on a seat nor should he salute a person or bow to a deity (Gaut. IX. 45); he should not blow with his mouth to kindle fire (Manu IV. 53, Vas. XII. 27, Gaut. IX. 32); he should not hold simultaneously in his hands fire and water nor should he come between the fire and a brāhmaṇa nor between two brāhmaṇas without their permission (Āp. Dh. S. II. 5. 12. 6-8, Vas. XII. 28-30); he should not eat food in the same plate with his wife, nor should he see his wife while she is eating or applying eye-salve or when she is yawning or sneezing (Manu IV. 43-44, Vas. XII. 31, Gaut. IX. 32); he should not use a seat or pādukās or tooth brush made of palāśa (Vas. XII. 34, Gaut. IX. 44, Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 9); he should wear a wreath (of flowers) and ointment so as not to be easily noticed (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 5, Manu IV. 72, Vas. 12. 39, Gaut. IX. 32); he should not see the sun rising or setting (Vas. 12. 10, Manu IV. 37, Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 31. 20); he should not be ‘kulaṃkula’³²³ and should not go over a rope by which a calf is tied (Vas. XII. 8-9, Gaut. IX. 52-53, Manu IV. 38); he is not to point out the rainbow to another when he sees it in the sky (Manu IV. 59) nor is he to employ the word ‘Indradhanuḥ’ for it, but the word ‘maṇidhanuḥ’ (Vas. XII. 32-33, Gaut. IX. 23, Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 31. 18); he is to employ certain euphemisms e. g. he should not speak of a cow that yields no milk as ‘adhenu’ but as ‘dhenubhavya’ (who would become dhenu later on), he is not to employ the word ‘bhadra’ for a thing that is auspicious, but he should employ the words ‘puṇya’ or ‘praśasta’; what is not ‘bhadra’ he should speak of as ‘bhadra’ and should not use the word ‘kapāla’, but the word ‘bhagāla’ for it (Gaut. IX. 20-22, Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 31. 11-14); he should not inform a person when a cow does some damage or allows her calf to have milk without the owner knowing it (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 31. 9-10, Gaut. IX. 24-25); he should enter or leave his village from the east or north (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 7) and should not enter a village or a guarded house by a by-path (Manu IV. 73, Yāj. I. 140, Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 23); at the two twilights he should be seated outside the village and should be silent (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 8); he should not wander about by day with the head covered, but he may do so at night or when answering calls of nature (Gaut. IX. 35-37; Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 14); he should avoid finding fault with a cow, a fee given or a maiden (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 31. 8); he should not resort to inferior men or to countries in which such persons abound nor should he frequent gambling houses or meetings of clubs³²⁴ (Āp. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 18-20, Vas. XII. 40); he should try to dwell in a place that abounds in fuel, water and grass, kuśas, flowers, that has a court-yard, and is mostly peopled by Āryas, that has industrious and religious people (Gaut. IX. 65); he should take his food, answer calls of nature, engage in dalliance with his wife, engage³²⁵ in yoga practices in a place screened from public view and he should guard his speech, intellect and strength and should keep his wealth and age very secret; but he should make public the repayment of a debt, a gift, mortgage or sale, the gift of his daughter in marriage, the letting loose of a bull (in śrāddha) and a sin done in secret.

Manu (XI. 203) says that the prāyaścitta for not observing the rules of conduct laid down for snātakas is fasting for a day. Haradatta on Gautama IX. 2 says that the rules for snātakas are meant for brāhmaṇa and kṣatriya snātakas only, that the prāyaścitta for non-observance is also to be undergone by them and that the vaiśya snātakas are not obliged to observe these rules.

In modern times samāvartana often takes place a short time after upanayana and sometimes on the 4th day thereafter or even the next day. As many brāhmaṇas do not learn any part of the Veda, samāvartana has become a mere matter of form in their case. Even the Saṃskārakaustubha (p. 607) prescribes a very brief procedure for samāvartana when the brahmacārī is ill. It consists in the brahmacārī giving up his girdle &c., in shaving the boy silently, in silently bathing at a holy place, putting on another garment, then sipping water twice, bringing fire from the house of a śrotriya and placing it on some place according to the rules, then contemplating on Prajāpati and putting the samidh (fuel-stick) on fire.

As a brahmacārī is not affected by the mourning due to the death of relatives (except his parents), on samāvartana he has to observe impurity for three days (if there have been deaths of relatives in the interval, but not for births). (Vide Manu V. 88 = Viṣṇu Dh. S. 22. 87).