SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS
NT NIS
CHAP. I.
1-18 Topics of dharmaśāstra. Various divisions of dharma. Dharmas common to all ( sadharana-dharma). Truth, love, charity, self-restraint. Standard of moral values. Four puruṣ ārthas (goals of human existence ) and their gradation. Limpits of Āryā varte. Bharatavarṣa. CHAP, II.
19–104 Varna. High eulogy and condemnation of caste system, Characteristic features of moderu casto system. History of the word varṇa. Arya and dāsa or dasyu. Vis in the Rgveda. Position of Sūdra in Vedic Literature. Position of the three higher varṇas inter se. Professions and crafts in Vedic Samhitās. Rathakāra and Niṣada. Propositions deducible from Vedic Literature. List of various crafts and a vocations culled from Vedic Literature. Ramifications of caste traced by dharmaśāstra writers to mixed unions. Two postulates as to castes in dharma śāstra writers. Anuloma and pralloma castes. Jāti. Status of children of mixed castes. Varnasankara. Jūlyut karṣa and Jātyapakarṣa. Professional castes and guilds. List of castes mentioned by works from 500 B. C. to 1000 A, D. Revolt against the caste system in the Mahābhārata. A fow of the castes mentioned by medieval works. CHAP. III.
105-164 Duties, disabilities and privileges of varpas. Brāhmaṇa’s special privileges and duties-study of veda, teaching the veda, officiating at and performing sacrifices, making and receiving gifts. Rules about receiving gifts. Special duty of sūdras to serve bigher castes. Divisions of sūdras. Brāhmaṇa in distress may do the work specially meant for ksatriyas and vaisyas. Brāhmaṇa and money-lending, agriculture, sale and barter as means of livelihood in distress. Begging. High eulogy of brahmanas. Enumeration and discussion of special privileges olaimed by brāhmaṇas, Disabilities of sūdras, viz. not authorized to study the vede nor to perform vedio sacrifices with vedio mantras, liability to receive higber punishment for certain offences, not to hold high offices like that of judge.Xiv
CHAP. IV.
165-179 Untouchability. Hardly any Vedic passage supports it. Antyajas according to the smstis. Rules about shadow of un touchables. Public roads and untouchables. Matters in which immediate relief required.
CHAP. V.
180-187 Slavery. Existence of slavery in Vedic times. Kinds of slaves in the smrtis. Manumission of slaves.
CAP. VI.
188-267
Samskāras. Purpose of samskāras. Divisions of samskāras. Divergence as to number of samskāras. List of samskāras named by all or most of the smrti writers. Samskāras of sūdras. Easy expiation provided for non-performance of samskūras. Garbhādhāna known from the times of the Atharva veda. Procedure of Garbhādhāna in the Brhadaranyaka upaniṣad and smstis. Whether it is a samskāra of the woman or of the child. Altar in gļhya rites. Homa. Preliminary rites in all samskāras such as Gapapat ipūjana, Punyahavācana, Mātrkāpūjana, Nāndiśrāddha. Puñsavana. Anavalobhana. Simantonnayana. Viṣṇubali. Soṣyantikar ma. Jatakarma and several component parts of it such as homa, Medhājanana. Nāmakarana. How names were given at various periods ; several names for the same person. Rules about names. Karnavedha. Niṣkramana. Annaprāśana. Varṣavardhana. Cuula. Vidyārambha.
CHAP. VII.
268-415 Upanayana. Meaning of the word. Origin and develop went of this sacrament. It implies gāyatry upadeśe. Ancient features of upanayana. Originally a simple ceremony. The proper age for upanayana for the three varṇas. The auspicious time for it. Rules about the skin, the garments, the girdle and the staff of the brahmacārin of different varpas. The preliminary rites of Upanayana such as homa. The principal rites of upanayane. History of yajñopavita from ancient times. Rules for manufacturing and wearing yajñopapita. Whether women bad upanayana performed and could wear yajñopavita. Wearing of yajñopavita given up by ksatriyas in the first few centuries after Christ. Whether upangyang performed for the blind, the deaf and dumb, idiots &c. Upanayana of mixed castes and of the asvattha tree. Imparting of sacred Gayatri to the student.
Synopsis of Contents
IV
Vyabrtis and’om’. Eulogy of Gayatri. The dharmas ( duties ) of brabmacārins. Bhikṣā (begging ) for food by brahmacārin. Performance of Sandhya twice daily and rules about the principal elements of sandhya, such as doamana, prāpāyāma, mārjana, aghamarṣaṇa, arghya to the sun, japa of Gayatri, upasthāna ( worship). Nyāsas and Mudrāk. Study of the veda, the first duty. Features of the ancient educational system, such as oral instruction, teaching without stipulating for a fee, student’s stay with the teacher. Qualifications of a good teacher and the qualities of a good pupil. Students did work for the teacher. Rules about honouring the teacher and elders, bowing to them and about the return of greetings. Saluting women relatives and the wife of the teacher. Rules about show ing courtesy and precedence on public roads. Grounds of show ing respect. Duration of student-hood. Subjects of study at various periods. Corporal punishment of pupils. Education of ksatriyas, vaisyas, śūdras and of women. Merits and defects of the ancient system of education. The Veda-vratas. Perpetual (naisthika) students. Palitasūvitrika (whose upanayana had not been performed ). Whether ksatriyas and vaisyas exist in the Kali age. The Vrāty astoma for those whose upanayana had not been performed at all. Taking back those who had been forcibly converted or who belonged to other faiths. Tolerance in ancient India. Absorption of foreign elements. Punarupa nayana ( performing upangyang again ). Anudhyāya ( cessation of study) on various days and for various reasons. Kesunta or Godāna. Snāna or Samāvartana ( the student’s return from the teacher after finishing Vedic study ). Rules of conduot for onātakas. CHAP. VIII.
416-426 Aśramas. Origin and development of the idea of asramas (stages of life). Number of aśramas four from the times of the most ancient dharmasūtras. Manu’s theory. Brahmacarya and householder’s stage well-known even to the Rgveda. Vaikhānasa and gati in Vedic Literature. Three aśramas expressly mentioned in the Ohāndogya Upaniṣad. Idea of mokṣa ( release from samsāra ). Varns and aśrama complementary. Three different points of view about the four asramas, CHAP. IX.
427-541
• Marriage. The most important samskāra of all. Texts do not point to a society where there was promiscuity and no
XVI
marriage. Purposes of marriage. Qualifications of a desirable bridegroom. Rules for the selection of a bride. Lakṣanas ( indicatory characteristics ), bāhya ( visible ) and abhyantara (invisible or inferrible). Four or five grounds for preferring a particular girl. Selecting & girl by asking her to take one out of several lumps of clay gathered from various places. In ancient times brotherless maidens not accopted as brides. No unmarried woman was deemed in medieval times to go to heaven. Restrictions as to oaste, gotra, pravara and sapinda relationship. Breach of these rules rendered a so-called marriage null and void. Age of marriage for men not fixed. Ago of marriage for girls varied at different periods. In the ancient sūtras girls were married about the time of puberty, Reasons for insistence on pre-puberty marriages in Yājñavalkyasmrti and other works not clear. Examples of inter-caste inarriages in Vedic Literature, in dharma and grhya sūtras and smrtis and in inscriptions. Anuloma marriages allowed till about the 9th century A. D. Sapinda relationship explained in the Mit. Rules about prohibition of marriage on the ground of sapiṇda relation ship. Conflict of texts as to these rules. Marriage with one’s maternal uncle’s daughter. Conflict on this point among medieval writers and among several castes. Narrowing of sapinda relation ship permitted by writers of digests only on the ground of usage. Meaning of ‘viruddhasambandha." Sapinda relationship of the adopted son. Meaning of sapinda according to Dāyabhāga and Raghunandana. Marriage between sagotras and sapravaras forbidden. Meaning of ‘gotra’ and ‘pravara’ in Vedic works. Gotra and pravara of importance in several patters. Gotra in the sūtras and digests. Divisions and sub-divisions of gotras. Each gotra has one or more pravaras. Gotras of kṣatriyas and vaiśyas. Names of kṣatriya kings among gotras and pravaras. Marriage of sagotras and sapravaras void according to the writers of digests. Persons that have power to give a girl in marriage. Sale of girls in marriage in ancient times. Taking monetary consideration for one’s daughter condemned. Father’s power over his children, Conflict of views among writers as to ownership over one’s wife and children. Infanticide, medieval and modern. Auspicious time for marriage, Medieval works introduced difficulties on astrological grounds. Forms of marriage. Meaning of rākṣaga and paigāca marriages, Svayamvara. Only two forms of marriage in vogue in modern times. Procedure of marriage in the Rgveda and in the gphya Sūtras. List of the several elements in the marriage rite and
Synopsis of Contents
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their description. When marriage becomes complete and irre vocable. Marriage brought about by force or fraud.
CHAP. X.
542-549 Madhuparka. Procedure of it from the sūtras. Arkavivāha (marriage with the arka plant). Parivedana ( marrying before an elder brother or sister ).
CHAP. XI.
550-582 Polygamy, polyandry, rights and duties on marriage. No evidence for polyandry in Sanskrit Literature exoept in the case of Draupadi. First duty of wife was to co-operate with the husband in all religious matters. Wife not authorised to perform religious rites independently or without husband’s consent. Precedence among co-wives in religious matters. Theory of debts with which every man was supposed to be born, one being the debt to his ancestors and discharged by procreata ing sons. Duties of wife dwelt upon at great length in all emptis and digests. Foremost duty of wife is to obey her husband and honour him as god. Ideal of a pativratā. Wife’s conduct when husband was away from home on a journey. Supernatural powers ascribed to pativrata. Wife’s right of residence and maintenance. Husband’s power of correction, Humane treatment even when wife guilty of adultery. No identity of husband and wife for secular or legal purposes. Position of women in ancient India. Estimate of the character of women in Sanskrit works. Passages condemning women’s character. High eulogy of and reverence for the mother,
CHAP. XII.
583-598 Duties of widows. Rules of conduct for widows for one year after the death of the husband. In widowhood woman to lead an ascetic life, avoid luxuries like perfumes, flowers, chew ing betelnut. Widow (except one’s mother) declared to be most inauspicious. Her rights in a joint family, and as heir to husband’s separate property. Widow’s position improved by recent legislation. The practice of tonsure of brāhmaṇa widows has no sanction in the vedas and smrtis ( excepting one or two). Examination of texts relied upon in support of this practice. Only Skandapurana and medieval digests insist on tonsure. Practice gradually evolved from about 10th or 11th century. Sentiment that a woman should not be killed on any account.
H. o. O
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Position of women became assimilated to that of sūdras in religious matters. Certain advantages conceded to women. Practice of purda did not exist for women except for queens and ladies of high or noble rank,
CHAP. XIII.
599-607 Niyoga. Great divergence of views about the origin and purpose of this practice. Stringent conditions were laid down by smrtikāras before niyoga could be resorted to. Breach of the conditions severely condemned and made punishable. Some even very ancient writers on dharna did not allow this practice. The Mahābhārata is full of examples of niyoga. Some writers held that texts permitting piyoga applied to sūdras or to girls who were only promised in marriage to a person but not actually married to him (as he died in the meantiine ). Three views upon the question to whom the child born of niyoga belonged,’ Niyoga forbidden in the Kali age by Bṛhaspati and other smrti writere. CHAP. XIV.
608-623 Remarriage of widows. The word ‘punarbhū’ does not necessarily mean “remarried widow’. Nārada on the kinds of punarbhūs and svairinis. Baudhāyana and Kaśyapa on 7 kinds of punarbhū. Smṛtis (except those of Vasiṣtha, Nārada and one or two others) prohibit remarriage of widows. Rules for a wife whose husband is upheard of for many years. Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act of 1856. Appalling number of child widows. Verses of Rgveda and Atharveveda supposed to refer to re marriage of widows examined. Divorce unknown in Vedic or Dharmasastra Literature. Kautilya on divorce. Divorce law in England and Roman Catholio countries. CHAP. XV.
624-636 Sati, Forbidden in India from 1829, Practice of widow burning obtained in many countries. Practice of Sati very limited in ancient times. Sahagamana and anumarana. Brāh. maṇa widows were not allowed anumaraña. References to practice of Sati in classical Sanskrit Literature and epigraphio records. Rewards promised to sati. Some commentators were opposed to this practice. Restrictions imposed against widow burning by the emptis. Procedure of the rite of widow-burning. Widow-burning more prevalent in Bengal than anywhere else owing to the higher rights of succession granted to wives.
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Synopsis of Contents
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CHAP. XVI.
637-639
Veśyā. The institution existed from rights of concubines to maintenance.
Vedic times. The
CHAP. XVII.
640-695
Ahnika and acāra. Importance of the stage of householder. Gșhasthas grouped into śālina and yāyāvara. Duties of house holders described in detail in many smrtis and digests. Vari ous ways of dividing the day. Smrtis usually divide the day into eight parts. Actions to be done on getting up from bed, such as hymns of praise to God, repeating the names of famous personages like Nala and of persons that are supposed to be cirajivins. Auspicious and inauspicious sights on getting up from bed. Rules about answering calls of nature. Clean liness of body (śauca) in various ways. Ācamana (sipping water). Dantadhāvana (brushing the teeth) existed from the most ancient times. What twigs to be used for it. Times when there is to be no brushing of teeth. Snāna (bath). Kuśas necessary in most religious acts. Rules about collecting kuśas. Snāna twice a day or thrice socording to some. No bath at night (except on rare occasions). Natural water preferred to water drawn from wells or hot water. Procedure of bathing. Rules about the clay to be employed for smearing and cleaning the body. Ten good results of a bath. Six varieties of bathing with water. How one who is ill is to be purified. Tarpana as & constituent part of snāna. Clothes to be worn by a house holder. Making marks on the forehead after bathing. Urdhva. pundra and Tripundra. Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava sectarians con demning each other’s marks. Saindhyā after bath. Homa. Two views about performing it before or after sunrise. Agni. hotra twice daily. Three or five or six fires. When to begin maintaining grhya fire. Materials for havis. Homa to be offered by oneself or by one’s son, pupil, brother, sister’s son or & similar relative. Wife or unmarried daughter may offer home in gļhya fire if householder be ill. Japa of Vedic texts. What are mangala (suspicious) objects. The matters described so far ocoupy first eighth part of the day. In 2nd part revision of Vedic texts, collecting fuel sticks, flowers, kuśas &o. In 3rd part one was to find out means of maintenance and to earn wealth. In 4th part mid-day bath. Then tarpaṇa of gods, sages and pitīs, A brief tarpana is also prescribed.
IX
History of Dharmafasira
CHAP. XVIII.
696-704 Mahāyajsias (five daily observances or sacrifices). These are mentioned in the Satapatha Brāhmaṇa and Taittiriya Aranyaka. Mahayajñas distinguished from srauta rites in two ways. Sentiments that prompted the five yajāas in very remote days. Later on purpose of Mahāyajñas stated to be atonement for injury to life caused by daily acts. The five yajñas in order of performance are brahmayajña, devayajña, bhūtayajña, pitryajña and manuṣya-yajña. Brahmayajña. Ear liest description in Satapatha Br, and Tai, Ar, Brahmayajña for Rgvedins described. CHAP. XIX.
705-740 Derayajña. In sūtras homa is Devayajña. In medieval times homa receded into background and devapūjā took its place. Discussion whether images of gods were known in Vedic times. Meaning of Siśnadeva. Phallio eniblems at Mohenjo-daro. Linga worship. Images known long before Pāṇini. Erection of temples and worship of images, whether borrowed or indigenous. Substances from which images were made. Principal gods of whom images were worshipped. Ritual of image worship. Who are entitled to perform deva. pūjā. Sālægrāma and other sacred stones. Pañcāyatanapūjā. Ten avatāras of Viṣṇu. Germs of the theory in Vedic Litera ture. When Buddha came to be looked upon as an avatāra of Viṣṇu. Why Buddhism disappeared from India. Evidence for religious persecution in India very meagre, Śiva worship. Worship of Ganesa and Dattatreya. Earliest description of the worship of Viṣṇu and Śiva. The 16 modes of worship (upa. cāras )Flowers in the worship of different gods. Tāmbūla. Namaskaras to the sun. Worship of Durgā. Analysis of deva pūjā in modern times. CHAP. XX.
741-748 Vaisradeva. According to some it comprises three yajñas, viz, to gods, bhūtas and pits. Deities of Vaiśvadeva. Usually performed only once in the noon. Procedure of Vaisvadeva. Views about Vaiśvadeva in relation to srāddha. Baliharana or bhūtayajña. Daily pitr-yajña. CHAP. XXI.
741-756 Nryajfia or Manu ṣyayajfia (honouring guests ). Guests honoured from Rgveda downwards. Who is an atsthi. Modes
Synopsis of Contents of showing honour to guests. Motive of the injunotion about guests was universal kindliness. Taking leave of a guest. CHAP. XXII.
757-806 Bhojana (taking meals ). Inportance attached to purity of food. Rules about bhojana in Vedic Literature. Direction in which to take food. Times of taking food. Vessels to be used in bhojana. Preliminaries before bhojana (such as ācamana, prāṇāhutis &c.). Posture at time of eating. How much to eat. How panktis (rows of dinners) were distinguished. Who are panktipāvana brāhmaṇas. Etiquette at time of bhojana. Occasions (like eclipses) when abstaining from food was prescribed. What food should or should not be eaten. Various . grounds on which food was forbidden. Flesh-eating in Vedic times. Sacredness of cow. Pancagavya. Occasions when cow could be offered in sacrifices. Rules about the flesh of beasts, birds and fishes. Causes of the giving up of flesh-eating. Ksatriyas have been meat-eaters from ancient times, Rules about taking milk and its products and about certain herbs and vegetables. Exhaustive list of persons whose food may not be taken. Great fluctuations about the rules as to whose food may not be taken by a brāhmaṇa. Larity about food prepared with ghee, oil or milk. Food from five classes of sūdras could be taken by brāhmaṇas in the times of sātras, but later on this was forbidden. Rules about persons who could cook and serve food for brāhmaṇas. Drinking liquor in ancient times. All intoxicants forbidden to brāhmaṇas from sūtra times, but some intoxicants allowed to kṣatriyas and others. Madyas of various kinds. Tāmbūla after bhojana. Aots to be done after bhojana. Rules about sleeping. Sexual intercourse between husband and wife. Rules about Rajasvala (& woman in ber monthly illness ). Rules about the distribution of the king’s duties–in the several parts of the day and night. CHAP. XXIII.
807-818 Upākarma (starting of the session of Vedic studies) and utsarjana ( cessation from vedio studies ). Divergence about time of upākarma. Explanation of the importance attached to the month of Srāvana and the Śravaṇa constellation, Procedure of upākarma in ancient times. Analysis of the constituents of upākarma in modern times. Holiday after upākarma. Divergence about times of utsarjana, Description of modern utsarjana.
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CHAP. XXIV.
819-836 Minor grbya and other rites. Pārvana sthallpāka. Caitri. Sitāyajña. Śrāvapi and Sarpabali. Serpent-worship from anoient times. Festival in honour of Indra. Aśvayuji. Agrayana iṣti. Agrabāyaṇi. Sūlagava or Iśānabali. Vāstupratiṣtha, ancient and modern. CHAP. XXV.
837-888 Dāna ( gifts ). Dana is & special feature of householder’s stage. Gifts highly extolled in the Rgveda. Gift of horses censured in some works. Gifts of land were not favoured in very early times. Difference between dana, yāga and homa. Meaning of iṣtāpūrta. All could make gifts (including women and sūdras ). Persons fit and unfit to be donees. What things could be donated and what not. Three classes of things that could be given. Dānas of three kinds, viz, nitya, naimittika and kāmya. Making gifts in secret eulogised. Certain gifts should not be spurned. Gifts of certain things forbidden. Proper times for making gifts. Generally gifts not to be made at night. Gifts at times of eclipses, samkrānti and on ayana days specially recommended. Proper places for gifts. Presiding deities of Various articles of gift. General procedure of making gifts. Kings were required to make various kinds of gifts to brāhmaṇas. Spending money for marriages of brāhmaṇas and settling them in houses highly eulogised. Gifts of land the most meritorious. Smrti rules about land-grants followed in epigraphic records. Verses deprecating the resumption of gifts made by earlier kings. Prior gifts to temples and brāhmaṇas excepted in grants of villages. Taxes remitted in royal grants, The eight bhogas in relation to land grants. Discussion whether king is owner of alllands in the kingdom. Gifts called mahādanas described in purāṇas. Sixteen mahādānas. Procedure of Tula purusa and other mahādānas. Gift of cows highly extolled. Gifts of ten kinds oalled dhenus such as of ghee, jaggery &o. Ten kinds of gifts called parvata or meru dānas viz, of heaps of oorn, salt, sesame &c. Establishing a pavilion for distributing water. Gift of books. Gifts for propitiating planets. Founding of hospitals. Expiations for accepting gifts which should not have been accepted. When gift becomes irrevocable. Kinds of invalid gifts. Gifts to dharma held void by modern courts. CHAP. XXVI.
889-916 Pratiṣthā and Utsarga (founding of temples and dedication of wells &c.). Women and sūdras also could spend on pūrta.
Synopsis of Contents
Xiii
dharma, though not on iṣta ( vedio sacrifices ). Charitable works for the benefit of the public came to be regarded as more meri. torious than sacrifices. Procedure of dedicating a tank or well to the public in the sūtras. Procedure prescribed in purāṇas gradually superseded the sūtra procedure. Meaning of dāna, pratistha and utsarga. Trees highly valued in ancient India, Trees supposed to save a man from hell just as a son did. Worship of trees. Consecration of images in temples. Image worship in a publio temple or privately. Procedure of consecration of images according to the Matsya-purāṇa. In later times other details added from Tantra works. Three kinds of Nyāsas viz, mātṇkānyāsa, tattvanyāsa and mantra nyasa. Consecration of the image of Viṣṇu from Vaikbānasa Smārtasūtre. Practice of attaching danoing girls to temples is comparatively ancient. When re-consecration (punaḥ-pra tiṣthā) becomes necessary. Jirṇoddhāra (repairing or re-con structing a dilapidated temple &c.), time and procedure of. Founding of mathas (monasteries or colleges for teachers and pupils). Distinction between a temple and a matha. Mathas said to have been established by the great teacher Saṁkarā. cārya. The origin of mathas in general. How property of matha devolves. Appointment and powers of the head of a matha. How rulers and courts in ancient and medieval times
controlled administration of temple and matha properties. Modern legislation dealing with religious and charitable endowmente. Yogakṣema is impartible. Control of founder on work dedicated to the public. Powers of a shebait to remove an idol or to establish another.
(Forest bort work calleine. Prin
CHAP. XXVII.
917-929 Vānaprastha (forest hermit). Vaikbanasa, ancient word for vānaprastha. An ancient work called Vaikhānasa sūtra or Śāstra. Time for becoming a vānaprastha. Principal points connected with being & vānaprestha. If he suffers from an incurable disease, he may start on the great journey till the body falls to rise no more, Intricate olassification of vana prasthas in Baudhayana-dharma-sūtra and others. Members of all varṇas except sūdras could become vanaprasthas. Mem. bers of princely houses as vānaprasthas. Ending one’s life by starting on the great journey (mahāprasthāna) or by fire or water or falling from a precipice when and why allowed, Historical examples of this practice. This practice prohibited in the Kuli age. Most of the duties prescribed for vānaprasthasXXiy
are the same as those for samnyāsins. So vānaprastha stage forbidden in Kali age by the Nāradiya-purāṇa and other works.
CHAP. XXVIII.
930-975 Sarnyāsa (order of ascetics ). Life of giving up worldly ties, of begging and contemplation on the Absolute known to the earliest Upanigade. Jabalopaniṣad prescribes rules for ascetics. The most salient features of samnyāga gathered from the dharmasūtras and smstis. Tridapdi and ekadaṇdi ascetics. Four kinds of ascetios, kutīcaka, bahūdaka, haisa and parama harsa and their characteristics. Popular notion that the paramahamsa is beyond all rules and prohibitions combated by ancient texts. Vidvat-samnyāsa and vividiṣi-saṁnyāsa. The turiyātita and avadhūla kinds of ascetics. Opinions as to whether samnyasa was allowed only to brāhmaṇas or to all three varṇas. According to smrtis and medieval works a sūdra could not become an ascetio. Women in rare cases adopted the ascetic mode of life. The word saṁnyāsa conveys two dis tinct ideas. Some held that gamnyāsa was meant only for the blind and the cripple. Ascetics were to give up wife and home and were not to revert to householder’s life. Ten orders of advaita samnyāsing following Samkarācārya’s doctrines and their mathas. Disputes among the heads of these mathas as to properties and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. How successors to the pontiffs of the mathas are appointed. How and why sarnyāsins gave up doctrine of ahiṁsā in medieval times. A samnyāsin is severed from his family and loses rights of property in it. By custom certain samnyāsins oalled Gosāvis were allowed to have wives and concubines. Procedure of samaydga according to the sutras. Procedure of samnyāsa according to Dharmasindhu. Principal elements are; eight sraddhas, sāvitripraveśa, virajāhoma, declaration of leaving home, all wealth and desires and taking vow of ahimsā, giving up of topknot and sacred thread, teaching by guru of panci. karana and mahāvākyas (like tat tvam-asi), giving of a new name by the teacher, yogapatta (p. 962 ), paryanka-sauca. Samnyāsa in extremis (atura-sampyāsa). Controversies about giving up sikhā and yajñopayita. Daily duties of an ascetio. No impurity on his death for his relatives and vice versa. Ascetio heads of mathas claim in modern times jurisdio. tion in matters of caste, excommunication, expiations for lapses. In ancient times pariṣads (assemblies of learned
Synopsis of Contents
ILY
men) exercised these functions and kings acted on their advice. The number of persons required to constitute & pariṣad for deciding a doubtful point about dharma. Śiṣtas constitute a pariṣad. Meaning of sista. The council of eight ministers established by Shivaji and the duties of the Panditrao, one of these eight. Panditrao took advice of the pariṣads of learned brāhmaṇas on questions of re-admission of converts, expiations &c. Many features of asceticism are common to all religions. It is a partial truth that Indians have the highest regard for the ascetic. CHAP. XXIX.
976-1008 Srauta ( Vedic ) sacrifices. Deep study of vedic sacrifices essential for the proper understanding of Vedic Literature, for appreciating the influence of that Literature on varnis. Chro nology uncertain. Works, ancient and modern, on Vedic sacrifices. Jaimini on interpretation of Vedic texts relating to sacrifices. Cult of yajña existed in Indo-Iranian period, Lite rary and epigraphic evidence for the performance of Vedic sacrifices by kings after the advent of Buddha. Grants made by kings for enabling brāhmaṇas to perform agnihotra &c. The references to sacrificial matters in the Rgveda. General rules applicable in all sūtras. Mantras of four kinds, ?k, yajus, sūman and nigada. Different kinds of ladles. Sacrificial uten sils. The several fires. The five bhūsamakāras. Agnyādheya. Choosing the devayajana (place of worship). Procedure of agayadheya. Punarādheya. Agnihotra in the morning and evening. Rules about agnihotra when the householder goes away from home either alone or with his wife. CHAP. XXX.
1009-1090 Darśapūrṇamāsa (New moon and Full moon sacrifices ). Time for starting the performance of darśapūrṇamāsa. Anvā rambhaniyā iṣti, śākhāharana, barbirābarana ( bringing bundles of kuśa grass ), idhmāharana ( bringing fuel-sticks ), Sāya mdoha. Uparasatha day. Sannāyya. Brahmavarana (choosing the brahmā priest ). Pranitā waters. Nirvāpa (taking out sacrificial material). Prokṣaṇa ( sprinkling) of sacrificial material, uten sils &c, The Haviṣkṣi call. Beating the grains of rice. Baking cake ( purodaśa ) on potshords. Construction of vedi (altar ). Painisannahana ( girding up the sacrificer’s wife ). Barhira starana (strewing the vedi with kuśas)Fifteen Samidheni Verses. Pravaramantra ( invocation of fire ). The two āghāras
H. D. D
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(pouring of aiya in a continuous stream ). Hotsvarana. The Prayājas ( five offerings ). Vaṣatkāra. Ajyabhāgas ( two). The principal sacrifice of portions of the cake. Offering to Agni sviṣtakst. Cutting off a portion of the cake called prāśitra (for brahma). Ida cut off from purodasa. A thin long slice of purodāsa for yajamāna. Invocation of Idā by the hotr. Brahmā eats prāśitra, hots eats avāntaredā, all priests together with the yajamāna partake of idā. Division of purodaśa for Agni into four parts and cating of the portions by the four priests. Mārjana thereafter. Cooking a mess of boiled rice (called anvāhūrya ) as fee for the four priests. The three anuyāja offerings. Recitation of sūklavāka. Throwing of prastara bunch and śākhā into fire. Samyuvāka. Throwing the paridhis on fire. Patnisarnyājas. Phalikaranuhona. Samsthājapa by hotf. Samiṣtayajus offerings. Adhvaryu and brahina leave the sacri ficial hall. Yajamāna takes Viṣṇu strides. Final prayer by yajamāna. Pindapitṣyajnu. CHAP. XXXI.
1091-1108 Cāturmasyas (seasonal sacrifices ). Four Cāturmāsyas each called a parvan, viz. Vaiśvadeva, Varuṇapraghāsa, Sākamedha and Sunāsiriya, respectively performed on Full moon days of Phālguna, Asādha, Kartika and on the 5th full moon day from Sākamedha or two or three days before it. Observances on all parvan days such as shaving head and face, not using a cot, avoiding meat, honey, salt and sexual intercourse. Five offerings common to all Caturmāsyas. Cāturmāsyas may be performed throughout life or for one year, Three special offerings in Vaiśvadeva-parva. Nine prayājus and nine anuyājas in Vaiśvadeva. Varuṇapraghasa performed in rainy season outside the house. Two vedis prepared, to north and south, respectively in charge of adhvaryu and pratiprasthāts. Proce dure is like that of Vajsvadeva. Four special offerings in this in addition to five common to all. Procedure of Varuṇa praghāsas. The wife has to declare or indicate if she has any paramour. Concluding avabhștha (bath) in & river or the like. Sākamedha requires two days. Three iṣtia and &. mahā havis of eight offerings to eight deities. Then pitryajāa ( called mahāpitsyajña ) on a separate vedi. Also Traiyainbaka homa offered to Rudra. Sunāsirlyaparyan has three special offerings to Sunāśirau, Vāgu and Sūrya. Iṣti called Agrayana ( offering of first fruits ) in Sarad on full moon day. Other iṣtis per formed for some specific objects e. g. putreṣti for son, Kārlriṣṭi for rain &c.
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CHAP. XXXII.
1109-1132 Nirūdhapasubandha or Pusubandha (renimal sacrifice). A victim is offered in Somayāga also, but as part of it. Nirūdba. paśu is an independent sacrifice to be performed by an āhitāgni every six months or once a year. Six priests required in this sacrifice. Procedure of animal sacrifice. Selecting a tree and making a yūpa ( sacrificial post ) and a lead piece ( caṣāla ) for the post. Preparing & Vedi and a raised platform on it called uttaravedi and a squaro hole thereon called nābhi. Animals sacrificed for Indra-Agni or Sūrya or Prajāpati. Eleven prayāja offerings. Verses from Āpri hymns employed. The oleven prayāja deities. Śāmitra fire for roasting omentum of the victim. Hotṛ’s recitation of the Adbrigu formula. Choking to death or strangling of the he-goat. Omentum taken out and offered by the adhvaryu into Āhavaniya fire for Indra-Agni or Sūrys or Prajāpati. Six priests, sacrificer and his wife perform Mārjana. The limbs of the victim that are cut off, and portions of which are offered as paśu-purodaśa. Heart of victim is roasted with a pike on śāmitra fire and offered as havis to Manotā. Priests and sacrificer partake of idū constituted by remnants of the limbs of the victim. Upaydja offerings of a part of the entrails along with the Anuyāja offerings. The hotr repeats the formula called Sūktavāka. Maitrāvaruṇa throws his staff into fire. Offerings of Patni-samyājas with portions of the tail, Kāmyah Pasavah ( animal sacrifices from various desires). Ekadasina, & group sacrifice of eleven victims. CHAP. XXXIII.
1133-1203 Agniṣtoma. Sacrifices are divided into iṣti, paśu and soma. Seven forms of soma sacrifices, Agniṣtona, Atyagnistoma, Ukthya &o. Soma sacrifices divided into ekāha, ahina and sattra. Jyotiṣtoma,often identified with Agnistoma, usually lasts for five days. Chief rites performed on those five days. Time for perform ing Agniṣtoma. Priests invited and honoured with Madhuparka, Requesting the king for sacrificial ground (devayajana). Sacrificer and his wife undergo apsu-dikṣā and subsist on milk or light food. Purification of both with bunches of darbhas. Procedure of dikṣapiya iṣṭi after which sacrificer comes to be called dikṣita, Even a ksatriya sacrificer was announced as a brahmana. Observances of the dikṣita and his wife and people’s conduct towards him. Observance of silence by sacrifioer twice daily. The prāyaṇīyā iṣti. Purchase of Soma and the drama of higgling about its price. Cow offered as its price is taken back. Bundlo
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of Soma stalks placed on antelope skin spread on a curt, that is brought to the east of the prāgvamsa. Recital of the Su. brahmaṇyā litany by the Subrahmanya priest. A goat is presented to king Soma. Oxen are released from the cart, soma bundle taken out of the cart, placed on a couch of udumbara wood and brought to the south of the abavaniya. Atithyesti (iṣçi for hospitably receiving king Soma ) follows. Then comes Tanūnaptra (& solemn covenant of the sacrificer and priests not to injure each other). Pravargya and Upasad follow. Pravargya was a sublime rite supposed to ondow sacrificer with a new body. Not necessary in every Agniṣtoma. The heated milk is called gharma and the pot of heated milk Mahavira or Samrāṭ. Wife was not to look at it (at least in the beginning), nor śūdras. On 2nd, 3rd and 4th days Pravargya and Upagad performed twice. How pravargya apparatus is discharged (udyāsana). Upasad is an iṣti. Mantras repeated in Upasad refer to sieges of iron, silver and gold castles. On nd day of u pasads Mahūvedi is prepared, on which a quadrangular platform ( called uttaravedi) is raised and & square hole called nābhi is made on which fire is brought on the 4th day from the original āhavaniya. Erection of the harvidhāna-maṇḍapa in which two carts are kept. Digging of four holes (called uparavas) below the forepart of the shafts of the southern cart. A mound (khara) to east of uparavas for keeping soma vessels on, Erection of sadas to the west of the hayirdhāns maṇḍapa. Planting of an udumbara post in sadas, Preparing eight dhiṣnyas (seats ), six in sadas, one in the āgnidhriya shed and the eighth in the mārjālıya shed. On uparavas kuśas are spread, over which two boards of udumbara are placed and a hide thereon. On the hide are stones for crushing soma stalks. Offering of an animal to Agni-Soma, Then follow offerings of ajya called Vaisarjina to Soma. Fire is carried to the uttaravedi, and established on āgnidhra dhiṣpya. Bringing Vasativars water in a jar and keeping it in āgnidhra shed. Last day is called ‘sutya’. Repeating of a long prayer called Prātaranuvāka by botr long before day-break to Agni, Uṣas and Asvins. Making ready of five offerings Filling of ekadhana pitchers by adhvaryu and of pannejana Vessel by the sacrificer’s wife. Extracting Soma from a few stalks, filling the upāmāugraha and offering its contents. Then comes Mahābhiṣava (principal pressing). Offering soma from various cups to several deities. Viprug-dhoma. Priests come creeping towards the north corner of the great vedi, where the
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Baniṣpavamāna laud is to be chanted by the udgātṛ, prastotr and the prati-harts. Some of the other priests and the sacrificer become choristers. The nine verses of the Babispavamāna stotra set out from the Rgveds and method of their manipula tion when sung in the cama chant exhibited. Notes on the parts and syaras of sāmans. Rites of offering the savuniya animal. The five savaniya offerings of cake &c. Offerings of soma from dvidevutya grahas (cups). Camasonnayana (filling of nine camasas) for the priests called Camasādhvaryus. The offering of some from the oups called sukra and manthin. Two chips of wood offered to the usuras, Sanda and Marka. Acchā vāka priest’s requost and filling his camaga with soma Offer. ing of pługrahas. Kṣatriyas were not authorised to drink soms. The hotf performs japa, ābāra (hots’s call) to which there is pratigara (response of adhvaryu), hotr offers prayer called tūṣnım-samsa, twelve clauses of nivid, then bots recites the ājyasastra. Enumeration and distribution of the twelve stotras and sastras of Agnistoma. Explanation of stoma, stobha and stotra. Meaning of Rathantara and other sāmans. Chanting of stotras other than Bahiṣpavamāna near audumbari post in sadas. I’our ājya-stotras in morning pressing. The 2nd sastra called Prauga recited by hot; and three more repeated by maitrāvaruṇa, brahmanicchamsin and acchāvāka. At the end of morning pressing priests go out of the sadas. For the mid-day pressing priests again enter sadas. Procedure of mid day pressing similar to that of morning pressing. The priest grāvastut wears the cloth, in which soma stalks were tied, as a turban and repeats many verses from the Rgveda. The chant ing of the Mādhyandina-pavamāna-stotra. The dadhigbarına rite, then the offering of pasu purodaśa and the five savaniya offerings (cake &c.). Distribution of dakṣiṇā to the several priests, sight-seers and others. The yajamāna tbrows antelope horn in cātvāla pit. Five offerings called Vaiśvakarmaṇa. The Marutvatiya sastra. Prstha-stotra and Niskevalya sastra, Three more Pretha stotras and three sastras recited by maitrāvaruna and two others. Procedure of evening press ing similar to mid-day pressing. Arbhaya-pavamāna chan. ted. Rohus connected with third prossing. Haris prepared from savaniya paśu offered. Vai vadeva sastra. ‘The Pātni. vata cup to Agni Patnivat. Chanting of Yujñāyajñlya stotra also called Agnis tomusāman. Wife of sacrificer pours pānnejana water over her thigh and udgātṛ priest looks at her. Agrimāruta-sastra recited by hots. Hāriyojana cup offered to
Indra. All priests wait on āhavaniya with Mindā mantras. Avabhṛtha (final bath). All vessels except four sthālis are thrown into water. Yajamāna casts antelope skin in cātvāla pit. Avabbṛtha sāman ohanted. The nidhana of the sāman is repeated by all priests, yajamāna and his wife at three places on their way to reservoir of water. Yajamana and wife enter water, rub each other’s baok. Handful of kuśa thrown in avabbṭtha iṣti. Purodāśa offered to Varuna and then to Agni and Varuṇa. The unnet; brings out yajamāna, wife and priests. They offer fuel sticks. The Udayanlya iṣti (concluding ). Anubandhyā rite ( offering of a barren cow to Mitra and Varupa) or only payasyā. Then five offerings called Devika to Dhāts, Anumati, Rākā, Sinivāll and Kuhū. Udavasāniya iṣçi like punarādbeya. Theories about the identity of the soma plant and its relation to the moon. In the Deccan & substitute called *rānsera’ is employed for soma. CHAP. XXXIV.
1204-1223 Other soma sacrifices. Brief descriptions of Ukthya, Ṣodasin, Atyagnistoma, Atirātra and Aptoryāma. Vāja peya may be regarded as an independent sacrifice. Number 17 predominant in it. 17 cups of soma and 17 cups of surā for Prajāpati. A race with 17 chariots and 17 drums beaten. Vājapeya to be performed only by a brāhmaṇa or kṣatriya who desired.super-eminence or overlordship. Horses of the chariots are made to smell caru of wild rice. When race starts brahmā priest repeats Vaji-sāman. An udumbara post as the goal for the chariot race. Chariot of sacrifioer is in front and the rest follow at a distance. Chariots go round udumbara post and return to sacrificial ground. The principal wine cup is held by the pratiprasthātr and other sixteen are held by those who joined in the race and they are drunk by those latter. Ladder ruised against yūpa and the sacrificer climbs up and holds & dialogue with his wife. Animale for Prajāpati are offered at time of mid-day pressing. Adhvaryu declares yajamāna to be samrāt Certain observances after Vājapeya. Fees distributed are 1700 cows, 17 chariots with four horses yoked to each, 17 dāsis &o. After Vājapeya & king should perform Rājasiya and & brāhmaṇa Bșhaspatisava. Jaimini’s conclusions about Vājapeya. Viśvajit, Gosava and Sarvasvāra among Ekaha sacrifices briefly described. Ahina sacrifices extending over two to twelve days of soma pressing. Description of the twelve days of the Dvādagaba. Differences between Dvādagaba 88 an abina and as a sattra. Rājasūya. A
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very complex ceremony extending over a long period ( over two years), and comprising many separate iṣṭis, soma saorifices and animal sacrifices. Rajasūya to be performed only by kṣatriyag. Its relation to Vājapeya. Diksā on first day of bright half of Phālguna. The Pavitra sacrifice which is like Agniṣtoma. One year thereafter Abhiṣocanlya. Five offerings one on each day after Pavitra sacrifice. On Full moon of phalguna iṣṭi to Anumati. Caturmāsyas performed for one year, between the parvans of which darśa and pūrnamāba rites are celebrated. After Sunāsiriya several rites. Twelve offerings called ‘ratninām havimṣi’ op twelve days in the houses of the ratnas ( viz. the king, his queens, state officers &c. ) offered to different deities. Abhiṣocaniya (consecration) rite on first of Caitra and follows procedure of Ukthya. Eight offerings called Devagūbavimṣi. Waters of seventeen kinds in seventeen vessels of udumbara from Sarasvati river and other sources. Partha bomas. Holy water taken in four vessels. Sacrificer recites ūvid formulae. Four principal priests sprinkle him with water from four vessels and a ksatriya, vaisya and a friend of the king do the same. Story of Sunshsepa recited by hotr for sacrificer’s benefit. King takes three strides called Viṣṇukramas. Remnants of anointing water handed by king to his son. Symbolic march for plunder of cows. Dice-play which is so arranged that best throw comes to the king. Avabhrtha follows. For ten days after Abhiṣecaniya offerings called ‘Samerpām havinṣi’ are made to Savitr and other deities. The Dasapeya, in which each of the camasas of soma are drunk by ten brahmañas ( i. e, in all 100). Very large dakṣiṇās prescribed e. g. some say 240000 cows should be presented. After Dasapeya some observances are kept by the sacrificer for one year. At the end of the year, the keśavapaniya ceremony took place. Then two rites called Vyuṣti-dvirātra at the interval of a month. One month after 2nd Vyuṣtidviratra the Kṣatradbști rite. One month after that the Sautrāmaṇi iṣti. CHAP. XXXV.
1224-1255 Sautrāmaṇi and other sacrifices. Sautrāmaṇi is one of the seven Haviryajñas according to Gautama. Chief characteristio was offering of surā ( wine ) in it, in modern times milk being offered instead. Kokill and Caraka-sautrāmaṇi. Procedure of both. Sautrāmaṇi takes four days, during first three of which wine is prepared from various ingredients and on last day, three cups of milk and three of wine were offered. Three goats
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were killed in this and fourth to Bșhaspati. Method of pre paring wine described. Remnants of the wine offered were not drunk by the priests, but a brāhmaṇa was hired for drinking thein or they were poured on an ant-hill, Persons for whom Sautrāmaṇi was offered. Avabhrtha and then amikṣa to Mitra Varuṇa and an animal to Indra. Asvamedha. Horse-sacrifice in vogue even in Rgveda. It was a sacrifice for three days, to be performed by a king. Time of commencement. The four queens aocompanied by princesses and large retinue come near the king. Rules about colour and qualities of horse. Guards of the horse, whien it is let off to roam over the country. During horse’s absence for & year three iṣtis every day to Savity. Chants by a brāhmaṇa after the iṣtis every day and also by a kṣatriya lute-player. Hotr recites to the king surrounded by his sons and ministers the narrative called’ Pāriplava.’ Every day for a year four oblations called Dhrti made in the ābava. niya. At the end of the year horse was brought back and sacrificer took dikṣā. 21 yupas, eaob 21 aratnis high. Large number of animals tied to yūpas slaughtered. Horse taken to a lake, bathed in it, brought back and anointed by the queens on various parts of the body. Dialogue between hots and brahmā. When horse killed, queens go round borse, fan it with their garments, crowned queen lies by the side of the horse and both are covered with mantle, Abusive and obscene dialo gues between hotr and crowned queen, between brahmā and favourite wife, between four principal priests and chamber. lain on one side and the queens and their attendants on the other. Fat and blood of the horse offered. Brahmodya (theological dialogue of questions and riddles ). Mahiman offerings. Remnants of these sprinkled over the king and offering to 12 months. Avabhrtha on third pressing day. Offerings on the head of a bald man who dips into water to ‘Jumbaka’( Varuṇa). When sacrificer comes out of water after avabhștha bath, persons guilty of grave sins plunge into it and become free from sins. Large fees on first and third pressing days. Asvamedha rare even in ancient times. Description of Aśvamedha in the Mahābhārata. Epigraphio references to Aývamedha. Sattras. Their duration is from twelve days to 8 year or more. Dvidaśāha is the archetype. Sattras divided into two classes, ratrisaltres and sārvatsarika, Gayāmayana is model of all sattras of one year or more. Scheme of the parts of Gavām-ayana When dikṣ& commenced. General rules applioable to all sattras. Though all are yajamānas and
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and brah
Wires of
by:sedattras of singl and
also priests in & sattra, one of them is called gļhapati. Peouliar procedure followed as to dikṣā. Brahmodya on 10th day or abuse of Prajā pati. Rules to be observed while dikṣā lasts. Most interesting day is Mahāvrata, which is the last day but one in sattras. Harp with a hundred strings, brāhmaṇa and kūdra engage in praise and abuse of those engaged in sattra, Fight of ārya and sūdra for a white circular skin; abuse by harlot and brahmavārin of one another. Drums beaten on corners of Vedi. Wives of sacrificers become choristers for chanting. Dance round mārjāllya by servants and slave-girls singing popular airs referring to cows. Sattras of a thousand years believed even by ancient writers to be mythical and Jaimini states that in such descriptions samvatsara means ‘a day’.
Agnicayana (piling of the fire altar). This rite is the most complicated and recondite of all srauta sacrifices. Satapatha Brāhmana is leading work on it. - Fundamental conceptions underlying it are cosmological. Construction of fire altar in five layers is an anga of Somayāga. Five victims are first offered. Heads built up into altar. Clay for the bricks how brought, mixed and prepared. First brick called Asādha pre pared by wife of sacrificer. Ukha (pan) prepared from same clay, from which he prepares three bricks called Viśvajyotis. Other bricks prepared. Desuription of the piling of the altar in five layers. Several forms of altar and of bricka. Brioks are of various sizes and have various names. Three bricks called svayamātrpṇāḥ. Ground measured and ploughed. Furrows sown with several corns. Several things such as a lotus leaf, golden ornament, golden image of a man are first placed, then a living tortoise is enveloped in moss and made motionless and then altar is constructed on it. Each of five layers contains 200 bricks according to Satyāṣadha, but others give larger numbers. Time required for piling varies, Peculiar mode of cooling altar. Numerous offerings. Procedure of Soma. yaga followed with a few variations. Observances for a year after cayana.