01 Meaning of Dharma

Dharma is one of those Sanskrit words that defy all attempts at an exact rendering in English or any other tongue. That word has passed through several vicissitudes. The dictionaries set out various meanings of Dharma such as “ordinance, usage, duty, right, justice, morality, virtue, religion, good works, function or characteristic." Dharma is also personified as a deity, as in the well-known verse. ‘Ādityacandrāvanilo’nalaśca… dharmaśca jānāti narasya vṛttam’(Mahābhārata, Ādi., chap. 74.16) or as in Manusmṛti VIII. 16 ‘vṛṣo hi bhagavān Dharmaḥ’ ( which also occurs in Śāntiparva 90.75 ). Vide H. of Dh. Vol. V (part 1) pp. 19-21 for the three words ‘vrata’, ‘dharman’ and ‘ṛta’ and JBBRAS. Vol. 29 (1954) pp. 1-28. In the hymns of the Ṛgveda the word appears to be used either as an adjective or a noun (in the form dharman, generally neuter) and occurs at least about sixty times by itself (i.e. not preceded by a particle like vi or some words like satya), and about eighteen times in combination with a particle ‘vi’ and with the words ‘sva’ and ‘satya’ fifty-six times therein. It is very difficult to say what the exact meaning of the word dharma was in the most ancient period of the Vedic language. The word is clearly derived from root dhṛ (to uphold, to support, to nourish). In a few passages, the word appears to be used in the sense of ‘upholder or supporter or sustainer’ as in Ṛg. I. 187 .1¹ and X. 92. 2². In these two passages and in Ṛg. X. 21. 3³ the word dharma is clearly masculine. In all other cases, the word is either obviously in the neuter or presents a form which may be either masculine or neuter. In most cases the meaning of dharman is ‘religious ordinances or rites’ as in Ṛg. I. 22. 18, V. 26. 6, VIII. 43. 24, IX. 64. 1 &c. The refrain ’tāni dharmāṇi prathamānyāsan’ occurs in Ṛg. I. 164. 43 and 50, X. 90. 16. Similarly, we have the words ‘prathamā dharmā’ (the primeval or first ordinances) in Ṛg. III. 17. 1, and X. 56. 3 and the words ‘sanatā dharmāṇi (ancient ordinances) occur in Ṛg. III. 3. 1. In some passages this sense of ‘religious rites’ would not suit the context, e.g. in IV. 53. 3⁴, V. 63. 7⁵, VI. 70. 1⁶, VII. 89. 5⁷. In these passages the meaning seems to be ‘fixed principles or rules of conduct’. In the Vājasaneyasaṃhitā the above senses of the word dharman are found, and in II. 3 and V. 27 we have the words ‘dhruveṇa dharmaṇā.’ In the same Saṃhitā the form ‘dharmaḥ’ (from dharma) becomes frequent, e.g. X. 29, XX. 9. The word ‘Vidharman’ is frequently employed in the Ṛgveda viz. in the instrumental (in X. 46. 6), in the dative (in VIII. 7.5), in the locative in eight passages (I. 164. 36, III. 2. 3, VI. 71. 1, IX. 4. 9, IX. 64. 9, and IX. 86. 29-30, IX. 100. 7) probably meaning ‘Vidhāraṇe’ and in the vocative (in V. 17. 2). It is difficult to assign a definite meaning to this word in all these passages. But from several passages where the word ‘vidhartṛ’ is employed (which is derived from the same root dhṛ with vi) it follows that vidharman probably means the same thing as vidhartṛ (in Ṛg. II. 28. 4, VII.7.5, VII. 41. 2, VII. 56. 24) applied to different gods. ‘Svadharman’ as an epithet of Agni occurs in Ṛg. III. 21.2 and the word Satyadharman is applied to different gods alone viz. to Savitṛ, Viśvedevāh, Agni and to Mitra and Varuna in I. 12. 7, V. 51. 2, V. 63. 1, X. 34. 8, X. 121. 9, X. 139. 3. In the case of this word the meaning appears to be ‘whose regulations do not fail’. The Atharvaveda contains many of those verses of the Ṛgveda in which the word dharman occurs, e.g. VI. 51. 3 (acittyā сet tava dharmā yuyopima), VII. 5. 1 (Yajñena yajñamayajanta), VII. 27. 5 (trīni padā vicakrame). In XI. 7. 17 the word ‘dharmaḥ’ seems to be used in the sense of ‘merit acquired by the performance of religious rites⁸.’ In the Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, the word dharma seems to be used in an abstract sense⁹, viz. ’the whole body of religious duties’. The Bṛhadāranyaka Up. (I. 14. 14) treats Dharma and Satya as equivalent. In the Chāndogya-upaniṣad¹⁰ (2.23) there is an important passage bearing on the meaning of the word dharma, ’there are three branches of dharma, one is (constituted by) sacrifice, study and charity (i.e. tho stage of house-holder), the second (is constituted) by austerities (i.e. the stage of being a hermit); the third is the brahmacārin dwelling in the house of his teacher and making himself stay with the family of his teacher till the last; all these attain to the worlds of meritorious men; one who abides firmly in brahman attains immortality.’ It will be seen that in this passage the word ‘dharma’ stands for the peculiar duties of the āśramas. As the word brahmacāri itself occurs in this passage of the Chāndogya, it is clearly indicated that this brief passage means to refer only to the āśramas and their special duties. Prof. Hazra (in ‘Our Heritage’ Vol. VII part I pp. 15-36, ‘on the early meaning and scope of the word dharma’) remarks (on p. 20) that the word Dharma as used in Vedic literature did not mean any act of vyavahāra is shown definitely by this Chāndogya passage (II. 23. 1). This is a strange (to put it mildly) argument as one passage from an Upaniṣad (relating to only one small aspect of dharma) cannot control the meaning of the word ‘Dharma’ occurring hundreds of times in Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas and other Upaniṣads. Vide Bṛ. Up. I. 4. 14, II. 5. 11 for the wide conception of Dharma (to cite only a few Upaniṣad passages). The foregoing brief discussion establishes how the word dharma passed through several transitions of meaning and how ultimately its most prominent significance came to be ’the privileges, duties and obligations of a man, his standard of conduct as a member of the Āryan community, as a member of one of the castes, as a person in a particular stage of life.’ It is in this sense that the word seems to be used in the well-known exhortation to the pupil contained in the Taittirīya-upaniṣad (I. 11) ‘speak the truth, practise (your own) dharma &c.’ It is in the same sense that the Bhagavadgītā uses the word dharma in the oft-quoted verse ‘svadharme nidhanaṁ śreyaḥ’ The word is employed in this sense in the dharmaśāstra literature. The Manusmṛti (1.2) tells us that the sages requested Manu to impart instruction in the dharmas of all the varṇas. The Yājñavalkya-smṛti (I. 1) employs it in the same sense. In the Tantra-vārtika¹¹ also we are told that all the dharmasūtras are concerned with imparting instruction in the dharmas of varṇas and āśramas. Medhātithi commenting on Manu says that the expounders of smṛtis dilate upon dharma as five-fold, e.g. varṇadharma, āśrama-dharma, varṇāśrama-dharma, naimittikadharma (such as prāyaścitta) and guṇadharma (the duty of a crowned king, whether Kṣatriya or not, to protect).¹² It may be noted that the Mitākṣarā on Yāj. I. 1 after mentioning the fivefold dharmas and illustrating them adds a sixth category viz. ‘Sādhāraṇa-dharma’— duties common to all men (including even cāṇḍālas) such as ahiṁsā and quotes a vedic passage in support ’na hiṃsyāt sarvā bhūtāni’. Slightly differing enumerations of virtues to be cultivated by all men are found in Gaut. Dh. S. VIII. 23-25, Matsyapurāṇa 52. 8-10 (8 in all), Manu X. 63 (five), Yāj. I. 1. 22 (nine). Vide H. D. Vol. II pp. 10-11 and vol. V pp. 1023–24, 1637 and 1648. It may be noted that the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya (I. 3. 13) prescribes for all men ahiṁsā, satya, śauca, anasūyā, ānṛśaṃsya and kṣamā. It is in this sense that the word dharma will be taken in this work. Numerous topics are comprehended under the title dharmaśāstra, but in this work prominence will be given to works on ācāra and vyavahāra (law and administration of justice).

It would be interesting to recall a few other definitions of dharma. Jaimini¹³ defines dharma as ‘a desirable goal or result that is indicated by injunctive (Vedic) passages.’ The word dharma would mean such rites as are conducive to happiness and are enjoined by Vedic passages. The Vaiśeṣikasūtra¹⁴ defines dharma as ’that from which results happiness and final beatitude.’ The Manusmṛti (in II. 1) gives the following general definition of Dharma.¹⁵ ‘Know Dharma to be that which is practised by the learned that lead a moral life, that are free from hatred and partiality, and that is accepted by their hearts (i.e. conscience).’ Another similar definition is given by the Nītisāra of Kāmandaka VI. 7 ’that is Dharma which when done is praised by āryas (respectable people) that are conversant with (the vedic) tradition and adharma is said to be that which such people censure’. This is a versified rendering of Āp. Dh. S. I. 7. 20 ‘yat-tu āryāḥ kriyamāṇam praśaṃsanti sa dharmo yadgarhante so’ dharmaḥ.’ There are several other more or less one-sided definitions of dharma such as ‘ahiṃsā paramo dharmaḥ’(Anuśāsanaparva 115. 1.), ‘ānṛśaṃsyam paro dharmaḥ’ (Vanaparva 373. 76), ‘ācāraḥ paramo dharmaḥ’ (Manu I. 108). Hārīta defined dharma as ‘śrutipramāṇaka¹⁶’ (based on revelation). In the Buddhist sacred books the word dharma has several senses. It often means the whole teaching of Buddha (S. B. E. Vol. X. p. XXXIII). Another meaning of dharma peculiar to the Buddhist system is ‘an element of existence, i.e. of matter, mind and forces¹⁷.’ It would be interesting to recall a few other definitions of dharma. Jaimini¹³ defines dharma as ‘a desirable goal or result that is indicated by injunctive (Vedic) passages.’ The word dharma would mean such rites as are conducive to happiness and are enjoined by Vedic passages. The Vaiśeikasūtra¹⁴ defines dharma as ’that from which results happiness and final beatitude.’ The Manusmṛti (in II. 1) gives the following general definition of Dharma.¹⁵ ‘Know Dharma to be that which is practised by the learned that lead a moral life, that are free from hatred and partiality, and that is accepted by their hearts (i.e. conscience).’ Another similar definition is given by the Nītisāra of Kāmandaka VI. 7 ’that is Dharma which when done is praised by āryas (respectable people) that are conversant with (the vedic) tradition and adharma is said to be that which such people censure’. This is a versified rendering of Āp. Dh. S. I. 7. 20 ‘yat-tu āryāḥ kriyamānam praśaṃsanti sa dharmo yadgarhante so’dharmaḥ.’ There are several other more or less one-sided definitions of dharma such as ‘ahiṃsā paramo dharmaḥ’(Anuśāsanaparva 115. 1.), ‘ānṛśaṃsyam paro dharmaḥ’ (Vanaparva 373. 76), ‘ācāraḥ paramo dharmaḥ’ (Manu I. 108). Hārīta defined dharma as ‘śrutipramāṇaka¹⁶’ (based on revelation). In the Buddhist sacred books the word dharma has several senses. It often means the whole teaching of Buddha (S. B. E. Vol. X. p. XXXIII). Another meaning of dharma peculiar to the Buddhist system is ‘an element of existence, i.e. of matter, mind and forces¹⁷.’

The present work will deal with the sources of dharma, their contents, their chronology and other kindred matters. As the material is vast and the number of works is extremely large, only a few selected works and some important authors will be taken up for detailed treatment. More space will be devoted to comparatively early works.