Heliocentrism, spherical earth …

References

Many of the uncited quotes and translations are by the mAnasatarangiNIkAra.

Aitreya Brāhmaṇa 2.7 1kBCE or older

• “The (sun) never really sets or rises. In that they think of him “He is setting”, having reached the end of the day, he inverts himself; thus he makes evening below, day above. Again in that they think of him “He is rising in the morning”, having reached the end of the night he inverts himself; thus he makes day below, night above. He never sets; indeed he never sets."
• Subhash kAk on this passage: “One way to visualize it is to see the universe as the hollow of a sphere so that the inversion of the sun now shines the light on the world above ours. But this is impossible since the sun does move across the sky during the day and if the sun doesn’t set or rise it doesn’t move either. Clearly, the idea of “inversion” denotes nothing but a movement of the earth."

shatapatha-brAhmaNa 1k BCE

• ŚB 4.1.5.16 describes the sun as puṣkaramādityo, “the lotus of the sky”. ŚB 8.7.3.10 says : - tudasāvāditya imāmlokānt sūtre samāvayate, tad yat tat sūtram vāyuh ….
  • The sun strings these worlds (the earth, the planets, the atmosphere] to himself on a thread. This thread is the same as the wind …..
• This suggests a central role to the sun in defining the motions of the planets and ideas such as these must have ultimately led to the theory of the śīghrocca and the mandocca cycles.

sUryasiddhAnta

• Earth is said to be a stationary globe around which sun, moon and five planets orbit, with sun (via śīghrocca position) playing a major role in propelling the outer planets.
• “It calculates the earth’s diameter to be 8,000 miles (modern: 7,928 miles), diameter of moon as 2,400 miles (actual ~2,160) and the distance between moon and earth to be 258,000 miles (actual ~238,000).”
• “Thus everywhere on [the surface of] the terrestrial globe, people suppose their own place higher [than that of others], yet this globe is in space where there is no above nor below.” —Surya Siddhanta, XII.53
• Via S kAk: Surya Siddhānta (SS) seems to remember this pre-epicyclic astronomy of the earlier period. The uccas and the node (pāta) are thus described in SS 2.1-5: “Forms of time, of invisible shape, stationed in the zodaic, called the sīghrocca, mandocca, and node (pāta), are causes of the motion of the planets. The planets, attached to these points by cords of air, are drawn away by them, with the right and left hand, forward or backward, according to nearness, toward their own place. A wind, called pravaha, impels them toward their own ucсas, being drawn away forward and backward.”

Aryabhata 500 AD

“Aryabhata (born in 476 AD. ) appears to have held the view that the stars did not revolve round the earth, but the latter revolved round itself and gave the illustration of a man sitting in a moving boat feeling that it is the stationary objects on the banks that rush past in the opposite direction. … This was more than eleven hundred years before Galileo and there is nothing to show that Aryabhata suffered in the least for his views.”

• PV Kane

In the words of Thurston:

“Not only did Aryabhaṭa believe that the earth rotates, but there are glimmerings in his system (and other similar Indian systems) of a possible underlying theory in which the earth (and the planets) orbits the sun, rather than the sun orbiting the earth. The evidence is that the basic planetary periods are relative to the sun. For the outer planets this is not significant: both earth and sun are inside their orbits and so the time taken to go round the earth and the time taken to go round the sun are the same. The significant evidence comes from the inner planets: the period of the śīghrocca is the time taken by the planet to orbit the sun.”

S Kak -

“The śīghrocca maps the motion of the planet around the sun to the corresponding set of points around the earth. This indicates a tradition of heliocentric astronomy as applied to the solar system. The sun, with its winds that hold the solar system together, is, in turn, taken to go around the earth.”
“Aryabhata held that earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis, and that the eclipses were not the work of Rāhu but caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the moon. Both these views were rejected and severely condemned by later astronomers like VarAhamihira and Brahmagupta.”

Al Beruni’s mis-characterization -

“Al bIrUni accepts that spherical part. He (al bIrUnI) says he wrote a work arguing against a moving earth and in favor of geocentricity.”

Reception

Later eminent scholars like Varāhamihira and Brahmagupta, who followed Āryabhaṭa, criticized his stance. Their criticsm over Āryabhaṭa scholars during 6th century CE was such a significant, leading to the rejection of Āryabhaṭa’s theory by his own followers. They misinterpreted 2 passages and altered the reading of the text itself in the other two instances.

1. Āryabhaṭīya Gītikā Section, Verse 6

शशिराशयष्ठ चक्रं तेऽशकलायोजनानि य-व-ञ-गुणाः।
प्राणेनैति कलां भूः(भं)
खयुगांशे ग्रह-जवो भवांशेऽर्कः ॥

Reduce the Moon’s revolutions (in a yuga) to signs, multiplying them by 12 (lit. using the fact that there are 12 signs in a circle or revolution). Those signs mutiplied successively by 30, 60 and 10 yield degrees, minutes and yojanas, respectively. (These yojanas give the length of the circumference of the sky). The Earth rotates through (an angle of) one minute of arc in one respiration (= 4 sidereal seconds). The circumference of the sky divided by the revolutions of a planet in a yuga gives (the length of) the orbit on which the planet moves.2 The orbit of the asterisms divided by 60 gives the orbit of the Sun.

The reading bham (in place of bhuḥ) adopted by the commentators is evidently incorrect. The correct reading is bhūḥ, which has been mentioned by Brahmagupta (A.D. 628), Pṛthudaka (A. D. 860) and Udayadivakara (A.D. 1073).

1. Āryabhaṭīya Gola Section, Verse 9-10.

Brahmagupta 628 CE

• In his Brahmasiddhanta or Brahmasphutasiddhanta he has found fault with Aryabhata’s theory about the diurnal motion of the earth in the following verse :

“प्राणेनैति कलां भूर् यदि
तर्हि कुतो व्रजेत् कम् अध्वानं ।
आवर्तनम् उर्व्यश् चेन्
न पतन्ति समुच्छ्रयाः कस्मात् ॥”

The statement of the Earth’s rotation through 1’ in one respiration, stated in the text, has been criticised by Brahmagupta, who says:

“If the Earth moves (revolves) through one minute of arc in one respiration, from where does it start its motion and where does it go? And, if it rotates (at the same place), why do tall lofty objects not fall down ?”

varAhamihira ~600CE

“The Pancasiddhantika (13. 6) of Varahamihira refers to this(AryabhaTa’s) view and rejects it, not on the ground that it is opposed to the Veda, but on the ground that, if that view were correct, hawks and other birds flying high up in the sky would not be able to come back to their nests without fail He did not know that the atmosphere also goes with the earth. "

• PV Kane

lalla of lATa 750CE

गगन-मरुद्-अग्नि-जल-मृण्-मयो महाभूत-गुण-युतः स्वस्थः ।
कक्षाभिर् आवृतोऽयं भ-पञ्जरान्तश् च भूगोलः ॥

“The sphere of the earth formed of space, gas, heat, liquid, solid thus having the properties of the 5 great bhuta-s stands by itself in the celestial sphere surrounded by the celestial orbits.”

मध्ये ऽयस्-कान्तानां यथा स्थितो ऽयो-गुडः ख-मध्यस्थः ।
तद्वद् अनाधारो ऽपि हि सर्वाधारो महीगोलः ॥

“Just as an iron ball when placed between magnets the earth-globe remains suspended in the midst of space without any support, while supporting all (that is on it).”

लङ्का, प्राग् यमकोटिः, पश्चाद् रोमकम्, अधश् च सिद्धपुरम् ।
मेरुः स्थित उत्तरतो, दक्षिणतो दैत्य-निलयः स्यात् ।

“Lankā (which is close to the equator), to the east is Yamakoti, Romaka to the west, Siddhapura on the opposite side of Lankā, Meru is at the north pole and abode of the Asura-s at the South Pole.”

एते जल-स्थल-स्था, मेरुः स्थल-गो, ऽसुरालयो जलगः ।
कु-परिधि-पादान्तर-गा मन्यन्ते तिर्यग् अन्योऽन्यम् ॥

“(The first 4) are on separate continents separated by oceans,
Meru is on land
and the Asura abode in the midst of water.
These (six places) are believed to be at a distance of 1/4th the earth’s circumference from each other.”

भूपरिधि-दलान्तरगाः के, नृ-छाये यथा - तथोर्ध्वम् अधः ।
सर्वेषम् उपरि नभस्, तद्-अधो भूर, उपरि ते भूमेः ॥

“Those who are situated at have the Earth’s circumference are above and below each other like the shadow of a man. Above all this is the atmosphere. Below that is the earth on top of which are the earthlings.”

तरु-नग-नगर-सुर-नरैर् अयङ् केसरैर् इव समन्तात् ।
गोलः कादम्बो मधुकरीभिर् इव सर्वतः प्रचितः ॥

“This [earth] covered all over with forests, mountains, cities, gods and men is like the spherical kadamba flower with anthers and bees all around it.”

But, Lalla criticizes the Puranic view of earth being held by tortoise etc, then criticizes the theory that earth moves -

कमठादिभिरुद्धृता मही यदि
ते केन धृता नभः स्थिताः ।
अत एषां वियति स्थितिर् यदि
क्षितिगोलस्य तु केन वार्यते ॥ ४१ ॥

यदि च भ्रमति क्षमा तदा
स्व-कुलायं कथम् आप्नुयुः खगाः ।
इषवो ऽभिनभः समुज्झिता
निपतन्तः स्युर् अपांपतेर् दिशि ॥ ४२ ॥

पूर्वाभिमुखे भ्रमे भुवो
वरुणाशाभिमुखो व्रजेद् घनः । अथ मन्दगमात् तदा भवेत्
कथम् एकेन दिवा परिभ्रमः ॥ ४३ ॥

द्वितयं दिन-रात्रि-नाथयोः
कथम् एकान्तरितं तद् उद्व्रजेत् ।
यदि किं ध्रुव-तारका-
तिमेर्?? दिवसेनैव परिभ्रमः ॥ ४४ ॥

shankarAchArya 800CE

• “उदयश्च नाम सवितुः तन्निवासिनां प्राणिनां चक्षुर्गोचरापत्तिः, तदत्ययश्च अस्तमनम् ; न परमार्थत उदयास्तमने स्तः ।” Chandogya Up. Bh.3.8.4.
• “पृथिवीछायां हि शार्वरं तम आचक्षते” इति (बृ.उ.भा. 6.2.11)। TW

pRthUdaka-svAmI 864 CE

• He was a chaturvedin son of madhusUdana bhaTTa.

“भ-पञ्जरः स्थिरः ।
भूर् एवावृत्यावृत्य प्रति-दैवसिकौ(←दिवस) उदयास्तमयौ सम्पादयति नक्षत्र-ग्रहाणाम् ।
आचार्यार्यभटेन+अपि भू-भ्रमणम् अभ्युपगतम् - “प्राणेनैति कलां भूः ।””

“The celestial sphere is stationary. Only the earth keeps rotating and rotating, once everyday, causing the rising and setting of the stars and planets. The earth’s rotation had been accepted by professor Aryabhata:

“the earth rotates by the angle of a kala in unit of time of a prāņa””.

Śrīdharācārya (10th century CE)

Śrīdharācārya (10th century CE) states that sunlight, moonlight & so forth are white because of lack of any interference. It’s in case of an interference that other colours appear. So, for him, Sun’s colour is white.

यत्त्वस्य लोहितं कपिलं वा रूपं क्वचित् प्रतीयते तदाश्रयोपाधिकृतम्, निराश्रयस्य शुक्लतामात्रप्रतीतेः यथा प्रदीपप्रभामण्डलस्य सौरचन्द्राद्यालोकस्य च।

• न्यायकन्दली, तेजोद्रव्यप्रकरण

kUresha (11th CE)

कूरेशः

यत्-तुङ्ग-शृङ्ग-विनिषङ्गि-सुराङ्गनानां
न्यस्तोर्ध्व-पुण्ड्र-मुख-मण्डन-मण्डितानाम् ।
दर्पण्य् अभूद् धृतम् अ-पङ्क-शशाङ्क-पृष्ठं
तद् धाम सुन्दर-भुजस्य महान् वनाद्रिः ॥ ६ ॥

bhaTTa-bhAskarakaNTha of kAshmIra 1200-1600CE

ब्रह्माण्डाकाशमध्ये तु पृथ्वी कन्दुकवत् स्थिता । …

भूमिर् एषा महा-प्राणि-देहा खे ऽत्र स्वभवतः ।
स्थितास् तत्र जना यूका इव सीमन्त-संस्थिताः ॥
This earth here is the body of a giant living being, self-supported in empty space. On that are situated the people like lice dwelling in the hair.

पक्षी स्वभाव-वशतो यत्र तिष्ठति खे स्वयम् ।
तत्र भूमेः स्थितौ शङ्का केयं मूढेषु जृम्भते ॥
As a bird by the force of its own nature stands in space, the earth to is situated (in space], why does a doubt (regarding this) yawn among idiots?

कढ़काख्यं यथा रत्नं वस्तु स्वं प्रति कर्षति ।
तथा पृथ्वी वस्तुजातं स्वभावे कैव चोदना ॥
Just as the amber gem attracts objects towards itself, Why indeed, so too the earth by nature attracts all objects.

पिपीलिकानां न्यायेन जनाः पृथ्व्यां व्यवस्थिताः ।
परितः पात-शङ्कान न कार्येषां तथा स्थितेः ॥
In the manner of ants on a ball, the beings are stationed on the earth. Held by this force all around they have no risk of falling off from here.

makkibhaTTa 1377AD

• Commented on Sripati’s Siddhantasekhara.
• He agreed with AryabhaTTa.

Vatasseri Parameshvara Nambudiri ( c. 1380–1460)

• He wrote goladIpikA.
• गोलाकारं मण्डलम् अर्कादीनां स्मृतं गणक-मुख्यैः । दर्पण-वृत्ताकारं दूरगतत्वात् प्रदृश्यते ऽस्माभिः ॥ - The orbs of the sun and the like are known to be spheres according to great mathematicians. The appear like circular mirrors to us on account of their great distance.
• शशि-बिम्बे दर्पणवद् वृत्ते तस्यैक-देश-सित-लब्धिः । भनोः कर-सम्पाते व्यवधानाभावतो न संभवति ॥ २.४६-४७ - If the moon were like a plane circular mirror then only a part of it appearing lit by the rays of the sun falling on it is not possible because of the absence of obstruction.

Jñānarāja AD 1500

author of Siddhāntasundara

He tell us that if inconsistencies occur in two accounts of the same story (in this case, the shape of the Earth), they are explained by saying that the two accounts took place in two different world ages (kalpas), so called kalpabheda backup.(5)

There is oneness of both creation [accounts when exam- ined] with laudable reflections. If [however] there is a difference in some place, it is to be understood through kalpabheda.

(76) The shapes, measures, and motions of the earth, planets, and stars given by the followers of the purāņas, which are ultimately true, are indeed for another kalpa.

Now, [in this present kalpa,] the [shapes, and so on of the earth, and so on] given in the treatises that give knowledge of time [i.e., jyotiḥśāstra] are to be thoroughly studied by the wise.

He concludes thus:

(77) He who knows the variegated body of the Cosmic Being that comprises everything and is spoken about by the ancient sages
attains intimate union with the Supreme Being;
thus is the meaning of the words of Vedavyāsa, [the compiler of the purāṇas].

Knowledge of the cosmos is here presented as a means to spiritual liberation. This verse echoes passages in the purāṇas.

nIlakaNTha somayAjI (1444-1550)

• Nīlakaṇtha’s greatest contribution to the world was his geoheliocentric cosmological model, which said the planets orbit the sun which in turn orbits the earth, one step ahead of the dominant geocentric view that had prevailed for millenia. The same model would be proposed by Tycho Brahe 200 years later, by whose name it is known now.

Śaṅkara Vāriyar; c. 1500 – c. 1560

42 After giving the number of sidereal days in a Mahāyuga, Śankara Variyar states that
this number is exactly the same as the number of eastward revolutions made by the Earth in a Mahayuga (Yukti-dīpikā, Chapter 1, verse 73):

आर्क्षाः ख-खेषु-सप्ताग्नि-नेत्राश्व्यष्टेषु-भूमयः।
ऋक्ष-पर्यय-तुल्यं च
प्राङ्मुखं भ्रमणं भुवः॥

The number of sidereal days is equal to 1582237500. The number of eastward revolutions of the Earth is same as the revolutions made by the stars [westwards]. This idea of the rotation of the Earth (eastwards) has been given by Sankara Variyar as perhaps a tribute to Aryabhata, who proposed the idea for the first time in the Indian tradition.

kamalAkara-bhaTTa 1600s

• Not the more famous kamalAkarabhaTTa who authored शूद्रकमलाकर. Son of nRsiMha-jyotirvid. Actually travelled to Tajikistan to observe their astronomy.
• भूगोलो जल-मग्नोऽस्ति जलाद बहिर् अपि स्थितः । तत्र+अधिको जलान्तः स्थो बहिः स्वल्पोऽस्ति गोलवित् ॥ १.१२४ “The earth-sphere is covered with water with some parts which are indeed above it. The greater part is underwater and the smaller part is above it, geographer.”

appayya-dIxita 1540 CE, baTTatiri

• Appayadikṣita refers in the following passages to Aryabhata and his theory regarding the earth’s motion - स्वर्ग-पृथिव्योः परस्परम् उपजीव्योपजीवक-भावस्य तुल्यतया स्वर्गो न प्रतिष्ठा पृथिवी प्रतिष्ठेति व्यवस्थितोक्त्य्-अयोगात् । किं तु निश्चलत्वम् इह प्रतिष्ठा-शब्दार्थः । तत् तु ज्योतिश्-चक्रान्तर्गतत्वेन भ्रमति स्वर्गे नास्ति, अस्ति तु पृथिव्याम् - “पृथिवी प्रतिष्ठेति” श्रुत्यन्तरात् । आर्यभटाद्य्-अभिमत-भू-भ्रमणादि-वादानां श्रुति-न्याय-विरोधेन हेयत्वात्।"
• appayya vs bhaTTatiri argument about heliocentricism:
  • Bhattatiri asked whether moon is closer to earth or the stars? Obviously moon (Since it occludes the stars).
  • It is known that certain stars rise earlier than the moon the following day (which is actually due to the true motion of the moon). Bhattathiri’s argument is: How come a far away object can have shorter period? It is logical absurdity and appayya was summarily beaten.
  • Bhattathiri was a great astronomer. Not many know it- They just end with nArAyaNIyam and at most his paada saptati.

nIlakaNTha-dIxita

• prime minister of tirumala nAyaka, grand-nephew of appayya.

“भुमिर् भ्राम्यति बुद्ध एव, मरुतः प्रत्यग् भ्रमोऽत्य्-अद्भुतो,
भ्राम्यन्त्य् एव सहाश्रयेण यदि वा, ज्योतींषि सर्वाण्य् अपि ।
आवर्त्यो ऽयम् अपाम् भ्रमः परिचिता, मूर्तिर् हरस्याष्टमी -
या साऽस्त्य् अप्पय-दीक्षितो जयति सा, मुर्तिर निरस्त-भ्रमा॥”

“Indeed it is known the earth rotates, the Marut-s [atmospheric winds] rotate in opposite direction most marvellously, thus are caused to rotate all the heavenly bodies as if along with the celestial globe. This rotation is the movement of the waters. The forms of Rudra are known to be eight of which Appaya Dīkṣita shines as that form which is stationary (or: without delusion).”

This can be “a reflexive attempt at correcting Appayya’s insistence on a geocentric, geostationary cosmology in commenting on a shrutivAkya”.

bhAgavata-s

भागवत-पुराणम्

• References to “bhUgola” in multiple purANa-s including bhAgavata - IMG . As is clear from interpretations by vedAntadeshika and later bhAgavata-s, this is to be understood as a spherical manifold (गोलकटाह) or hemisphere rather than a full sphere.
• Essentially a flat earth model.
• Example: 5.21.8 - VB. Zero calculations. Best treated as kavi-samaya type arthavAda.
• Also see late bhAgavata-s (below).

मध्वः आनन्दतीर्थयतिः (1238–1317)

भागवतत्तत्पर्ये षोडशोध्याये लिखति -

यथा भागवते तूक्तं
भौवनं कोशलक्षणम् ।
तस्याविरोधतो योज्यं
सर्वं ग्रन्थान्तरस्थितम् ।।
मण्डोदे पूरणं चैव
व्यत्यासं क्षीरसागरे ।
राहुसोमरवीणां च
मण्डलाद् द्विगुणोक्तिताम् ।।
विनैव सर्वमुन्नेयं
योजनाभेदतोऽत्र तु ।।

इति ब्रह्माण्डे ।।7।।
(ब्रह्माण्डपुराणग्रन्थेषु नैवोपलभ्यते।)

वेदान्तदेशिकः (1268–1369)

• He is said to have written a work called भूगोलनिर्णय (which is traditionally contested by some scholars since, uncharacteristically, there are no citations to it in his other works). Seems to closely follow bhAgavata.
• “गोल” seems to refer to “गोलकटाह”, a spherical manifold or section, according to the commentary - “एवं सूर्याण्ड-गोल-कटाहयोर् मध्ये पञ्च-विंशति-कोटि-योजनत्वम् ऊर्द्ध्वम् अधश् चेत्य् अण्डकटाहान्तर-विवरोच्छ्रायस्य पञ्चाशत्-कोटियोजनत्वं सिद्धम् ॥”

विजय-ध्वज-तीर्थः (1450)

• अधोक्षजमठपीठाधिपो माध्वः। टीकाचार्यस्य जयतीर्थस्य समकालीनः। गौडीयानाम् अपि पूज्यः।
• SB 10.8.37: bhUgolaM bhUmaNDalaM|

वादीराजतीर्थः (1480–1600)

• “भूगोल-वर्णनम्” इति लिलेख।

वल्लभाचार्यः (1479–1531 CE)

• SB 10.8.37 - अद्रयो मेर्वादयो द्वीपा जम्बुद्वीपादयो अब्धयो लवणादय एतैः सहितं भूगोलम्।

विश्वनाथ-चक्रवर्ति-ठाकुरः ( c. 1626 – c. 1708)

• विश्वनाथ-चक्रवर्ति-ठाकुरः इत्यसाव् एवम् अलिखत् " एतावाल्ँ लोक-विन्यासो मान-लक्षण-संस्थाभिर् विचिन्तितः कविभिः। स तु पञ्चाशत्-कोटि-गणितस्य भू-गोलस्य तुरीय-भागो ऽयं लोकालोकाचलः।" इति भागवतवाक्यव्याख्याने - स तु लोकालोकस् तु भू-गोलकस्य भू-सम्बन्धाण्ड-गोलकस्येत्य् अर्थः; सूर्यस्येव भुवो ऽप्य् (ब्रह्म+)अण्ड-गोलकयोर् मध्य-वर्तित्वात् ख-गोलम् इव। भू-गोलम् अपि पञ्चाशत्-कोटि-योजन-प्रमाणम्। तस्य तुरीय-भागः सार्ध-द्वादश-कोटि-योजन-विस्तारोच्छ्राय इत्य् अर्थः। भूस् तु चतुस्-त्रिंशल्-लक्षोनपञ्चाशत्-कोटि-प्रमाणा (५० कोटि - .३४) ज्ञेया। … अत एवाण्ड-गोलकात् सर्वतो दिक्षु सप्त-दश-लक्ष-योजनावकाशे (.१७ कोटि) वर्तमाने सति पृथिव्याः शेष-नागेन धारणं, दिग्-गजैश् च निश्चली-करणं सार्थकं भवेद्, अन्यथा तु व्याख्यान्तरे पञ्चाशत्-कोटि-प्रमाणत्वाद् अण्ड-गोलक-लग्नत्वे तत् तत् सर्वम् अकिञ्चित्-करं स्यात् चाक्षुषे मन्वन्तरे चाकस्मान् मज्जनं, श्री-वराह-देवेनोत्थापनं च दुर्घटं स्याद्, इत्य् आदिकं विवेचनीयम्।
• नाम, ब्रह्माण्डगोलकस्य भागौ द्वौ - भूगोलम्, खगोलञ्चेति। तयोर् मध्ये वर्तते भूमण्डलम्।

सदपूतदासः (1947-2008)

• “Sadaputa Dasa who was a scientist and ISKCON devotee (disciple of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada).”
• Modern visualizations - SD.
• “The Srimad-Bhagavatam’s mode of presentation is very different from the familiar modern approach. Although the Bhagavatam’s “Earth” (disk- shaped Bhu-mandala) may look unrealistic, careful study shows that the Bhagavatam uses Bhu-mandala to represent at least four reasonable and consistent models: (1) a polar- projection map of the Earth globe, (2) a map of the solar system, (3) a topographical map of south-central Asia, and (4) a map of the celestial realm of the demigods.”
• “He argues for the spheroid earth theory and synchronizes the calculations mentioned in the puranas with the modern calculation we have with our observations… this theory had already been challenged by other ISKCON members. One of the arguments is that in his theory he dismantles the idea of existence of plane bhumandala and reduces them to the imaginary description of the planetary orbits when seen from the geocentric reference. The data does match to about 65% accuracy.”

koTa venkaTAchalam’s samanvaya attempt

• ఆర్య విజ్ఞానం-1 (బ్రహ్మాండ సృష్టి విజ్ఞానం) by కోట వెంకటాచలం

Source: TW

He asserts that Bhugola is different from the Bhu (Mahi)- Mandala to explain how one has to understand the Desa Samkirtana: पञ्चाशत्कोटि योजन विस्तीर्ण मही मण्डले