03 The Individual Mahāvidyās

Kālī

  1. *Dhydna *mantra of Daksina-kali from the *Kali-tantra: *Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat **Tantrasdra *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), pp. 387-88.

  2. *Dhydna *mantra of Guhya-kali; *Tantrasdra, *p. 406.

  3. *Dhydna *mantra of Smasana-kali; *Tantrasdra, *p. 461.

  4. Sir John Woodroffe, *Sakti **and **Sdkta, **Essays **and **Addresses *(Madras: Ganesh & Co., 1987), p. 361; Rajes Diksit, *KdliTantra **Sdstra *(Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 1987), p. 1.

  5. Vibhuti Narayana Dvivedi and Harisankara Upadhyay, *Sri **Tdrd-sadhand *(Vindhyacal: Sri Tārā Mandir, 1988), p. 14.

  6. *Mahabhagavata-purana *8.48-53.

  7. *Skanda-purana *5.8 2.1 - 21.

  8. *Saktisamgama-tantra, *vol. 4: *Chinnamastd**Khanda, *ed. B. Bhattacharyya and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute of Baroda, 1978), 9.7-8.

  9. *Agni-purdna *133, 134, 136; *Garuda-purdna *38.

  10. *Bhdgavata-purdna *5.9.12-20.

  11. For the Thugs, see Francis Tuker, *The **Yellow **Scarf *(London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1961).

  12. Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, *Hindu **Tantric **and **Sdkta **Literature *(Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1981), p. 219.

  13. *Mdnasdra-silpa-sastra *9.289.

  14. R. Nagaswamy, *Tantric **Cult **of **South **India *(Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1982), p. 26.

  15. Ibid., p. 26.

  16. Ibid., p. 27.

  17. Ibid., p. 28.

  18. *Linga-purdna *1.106.

  19. Ibid. 1.72.66-68.

  20. *Vdmana-purana *25-29.

  21. *Skanda-purdna *5.82.1-21.

2 2. This story is told in the *Adbhiita **Rdmdyana, *Sarala-dasa’s Oriyan *Rdmdyana, *and the Bengal *Jaiminibhdrata **Rdmdyana. *Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya, *History **of **the **Sdkta **Religion *(New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1974), p. 149.

2 3. See C. Sivaramamurti, *Nataraja **in **Art, **Thought **and **Literature *(New Delhi: National Museum, 1974), p. 138.

  1. *Bhavabhutis **Mdlatimadhava **with **the **Commentary **of **Jagaddhara, *ed. and trans. M. R. Kale (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1967), pp. 44-48.

  2. N. Bhattacharyya, *History **of **the **Sdkta **Religion, *p. 136.

  3. Mark S. G. Dyczkowski, *The **Doctrine **of **Vibration: **An **Analysis **of **the Doctrines **and **Practices **of **Kashmir **Shaivism *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989), p. 16.

  4. Ibid., pp. 117-24.

  5. See Sures Chandra Banerji, *Tantra **in **Bengal: **A **Study **of **Its **Origin, Development **and **Influence *(Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 1977), pp. 85-86; Sarbeswar Satpathy, *Sakti **Iconography **in TantricMahdvidyds *(Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1991), pp. 120-22; N. Bhattacharyya, *History **of **the **Sdkta **Religion, *p. 136.

  6. *Principles **of **Tantra: **The **Tantratattva **of **Srlyukta **Siva **Candra **Vidydrnava **Bhattdcdrya **Mahodaya, *ed. Arthur Avalon (Madras: Ganesh & Co., i960), pp. 327-28.

  7. *Hymn **to **Kali **(Karpuradi-stotra), *ed. and trans. Arthur Avalon (Madras: Ganesh & Co., 1965), p. 34.

  8. Ibid.

  9. Ibid.

  10. For example, *Mahdnirvdna-tantra *5.140-41, 6.68-76, 10.102.

  11. Ibid. 4.30-34.

  12. For *the**parica **tattva *ritual, see *ibid. *5-6; Agehananda Bharati, *The **Tantric **Tradition *(London: Rider, 1965), pp. 228-78; Mircea Eliade, *Yoga: **Immortality **and **Freedom. *(New York: Pantheon Books, 1958), pp. 254-62; and Heinrich Zimmer, *Philosophies **of **India *(Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1956), pp. 572-80.

  13. *Hymn **to **Kali, *pp. 84, 86.

  14. Diksit, *Kali **Tantra **Sdstra, *pp. 119-31.

  15. Jeffrey J. Kripal, “Kali’s Tongue and Ramakrishna: ‘Biting the Tongue’ of the Tantric Tradition,” *History **of **Religions *34, no. 2 (November 1994): 152-89.

  16. Frederique A. Marglin, *Wives **of **the **God-King: **The **Rituals **of **the **Devadasis **ofPuri *(New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 214-15.

  17. Kripal, p. 167.

  18. Ram Chandra Datta, *Srisrirdmakrpia **Paramahamsadeverjivanavrttdta, *5th ed. (Calcutta: Yogadyana, 1935), p. 19; cited in Kripal, p. 168.

  19. “Till recently, in Kerala, older women would disapprove of young females leaving their hair loose when they were in a public place. A woman with loose hair was often equated in literature and common parlance with a loose woman, an actress, a professional dancer, a woman out to seduce.” Savithri Shanker de Tourreil, “Nayars in a South Indian Matrix: A Study Based on Female-Centered Ritual” (Ph.D. diss., Concordia University, Montreal, 1995), p. 129, n. 2.

  20. “Hindu women are normally expected to keep their hair tied up, that is, ‘under control.’ Keeping the hair loose is a sign of impurity, as after the death of a close relative or during menstruation.” Kathleen M. Erndl, *Victory **to **the **Mother: **The **Hindu **Goddess **of **Northwest **India **in **Myth, **Ritual, **and **Symbol *(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 165, n. 2.

  21. Alf Hiltebeitel, “Draupadi’s Hair,” *Purusdrtha *5 (1981): 186-87.

  22. See P. Hershman, “Hair, Sex and Dirt,” *Man *9 (1974): 282-83. For rules concerning menstruation in Hinduism, see Pandurang Vaman Kane, *History **of **Dharmas’astra, *vol. 2 (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1974), pt. 2, pp. 802-5.

  23. Diksit, *KaliTantra **Sdstra, *p. 130.

  24. Ibid., p. 125.

  25. The details of the following interpretation are particularly dependent on interviews I had with Swami Annapurnananda of the Ramakrishna Mission in Varanasi and on the observations by Diksit, *Kali **Tantra **Sdstra, *pp. 3-7; Caman Lal Gautam, *Kali **Siddhi **(Bareli, *U.P: Sarhskrti Sarhsthan, 1984), pp. 91-117; Satpathy, *Sakti **Iconography **in **Tantric **Mahdvidyds, *pp. 118-21; and other sources, who spoke on the condition of anonymity.

  26. June McDaniel, *The **Madness **of **the **Saints: **Ecstatic **Religion **in **Bengal *(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 87, citing an interview with a contemporary devotee.

  27. Diksit, *KaliTantra **Sdstra, *p. 3.

  28. Swami Annapurnananda.

  29. Diksit, *KaliTantra **Sdstra. *

  30. Gautam.

  31. Swami Annapurnananda.

  32. Diksit, *KaliTantra **Sdstra; *Gautam.

  33. Swami Annapurnananda.

  34. Diksit, *Kali **Tantra **Sdstra; *Swami Annapurnananda. This is a strikingly different interpretation of Kali’s lolling tongue from that of Kripal cited above.

  35. Gautam.

  36. Diksit, *KaliTantra **Sdstra. *

  37. Gautam.

  38. Ibid.

  39. Diksit, *KaliTantra **Sdstra. *

  40. Ibid".

  41. Swami Annapurnananda.

  42. N. N. Bhattacharyya, in a conversation with me in Calcutta in October 1992—appropriately, during Kali Piija—said that Kali’s standing on Siva, as in the Daksina-kali image, symbolizes her being above him during intercourse. Such sexual union between the two is often actually shown and is sometimes part of the *dhydna *mantras of other forms of Kall.

*66. *See Satpathy, *Sakti **Iconography **in **Tantric **Mahdvidyds, *p. 121.

  1. In a commentary to the *Karpiirddi-stotra, *the *Niruttara-tantra, *and the *Kdmadhenu-tantra; *Guy L. Beck, *Sonic **Theology: **Hinduism **and **Sacred **Sound *(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993), p. 145.

  2. Diksit, *KaliTantra **Sdstra; *Swami Annapurnananda.

  3. Swami Annapurnananda.

  4. See the *Tantrasara *on Guhya-kali; see also Chintaharan Chakravarti, *Tantras: **Studies **on **Their **Religion **and **Literature *(Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1963), pp. 90-91.

  5. Drinking blood results in intoxication in many myths featuring Kali and other goddesses. She gets drunk on fresh blood and behaves in wild, unpredictable, dangerous ways.

  6. Dyczkowski, *The **Doctrine **of Vibration, *pp. 124-25; K. C. Pandey, *Abhinavagupta: **An **Historical **and **Philosophical **Study, *2d ed. (Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1963), pp. 513-21.

Tārā

  1. Stephan Beyer, *The **Cult **of **Tara: **Magic **and **Ritual **in **Tibet *(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), p. 7.

  2. John Blofeld, *Boddhisattva **of **Compassion: **The **Mystical **Tradition **of **Kuan Yin *(Boulder, Colo.: Shambala Publications, 1978), p. 53; Heinrich Zimmer, *Philosophies **of **India *(Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1956), p. 534.

  3. Beyer, pp. 8-10.

  4. Ibid., p. 4.

  5. For references on the history of Tārā in Tibet, see ibid., p. 469.

  6. Ibid., p. 12.

  7. Ibid., p. 13.

  8. For a description of the “eight terrors” from which Tārā is said to save, see Giuseppe Tucci, *Tibetan **Painted **Scrolls, **2 *vols. (Rome: Libraria dello Stato, 1949), *tanka *44, pl. 78, discussed in vol. 2, pp. 403ff.

  9. For example, see Beyer, pp. 233-40, and Blofeld, pp. 55-71.

  10. Beyer, pp. 386-88. n. Ibid., p. 386.

  11. See Blofeld, p. 59, where Tārā blesses a young couple with a child after rescuing them from calamity.

  12. Beyer, pp. 212-13.

  13. Beyer, p. 302, shows quite clearly that Kurukulla was originally an Indian tribal deity.

  14. Ibid., p. 303; see also Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, *The **Indian **Buddhist Iconography: **Mainly **Based **on **the **Sddhanamdld **and **the **Cognate **Tantric **Texts **of **Rituals *(Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyaya, 1968), pp. 147-52.

  15. Beyer, p. 302.

  16. Ibid., p. 306.

  17. B. Bhattacharyya, *Indian **Buddhist **Iconography, *pp. 134-46.

  18. Beyer, p. 292.

  19. B. Bhattacharyya, *Indian **Buddhist **Iconography, *p. 190; see also Nalini Kanta Bhattasali, *Iconography **of **Buddhist **and **Brahmanical **Sculptures **in **the **Dacca **Museum *(Dacca: Rai S. N. Bhadra Bahadur, 1929), pl. 71(a), facing p. 206.

  20. Pushpendra Kumar, *Tara: **The **Supreme **Goddess *(Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, 1992), pp. 103-4.

2 2. This myth is found in the first and second chapters of the *Brahmayamala * and the tenth chapter of the *Rudraydmala. *This elaborated version of the story is from Rasmohan Cakravarti, “Mahavidya Tārā ki Sadhana,” *Condi *6, no. 7 (1946): 216-20.

  1. Note that the Buddha is included in some late lists of the *avatdras *of Visnu. In such cases, the role of the Buddha is to delude sinners with his false teachings so that they will receive their appropriate karmic rewards.

  2. Mahidhara, *Mantra **Mahodadhih, *vol. 1, ed. and trans. Ram Kumar Rai (Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 1992), pp. 179-80. I have edited the translation.

  3. “Tārā Astakam,” from the *Brhannila-tantra; *Rajes Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra *(Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 1987), pp. 115-16.

  4. Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat **Tantrasdra *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), p. 415.

  5. Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra, *pp. 128, 130.

  6. For the poetry of Ramprasad and his use of the epithets Kali and Tārā, see *Rama PrasadasDevotional **Songs: **The **Cult **of **Shakti, *trans. Jadunath Sinha (Calcutta: Sinha Publishing House, 1966), passim. For his use of “tārā” to suggest the benign aspect of the goddess, see song 221, pp. 118-19, where he refers to Tārā as the “doer of good, the good of all, grantor of safety,” and as having a “smiling face.”

  7. Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra, *p. n7.

  8. Ibid., pp. 128-33.

  9. See the discussion of this myth below.

  10. *Linga-purdna **1.106. *

  11. Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra, *pp. 108, 132.

  12. *Kalydna, **SaktiAnk *(Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 1934), p. 404.

  13. Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra, *p. 6.

  14. Ibid.

  15. Ibid.

  16. Robert E. Svoboda, *Aghora:At **the **Left **Hand **of **God *(Albuquerque, N.M.: Brotherhood of Life, 1986), p. 79.

  17. Ibid., p. 80.

  18. Swami Annapurnananda.

  19. Swami Annapurnananda.

  20. Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra, *pp. 128-34.

  21. *Kalydna, **SaktiAnk, *“Tara-rahasya,” p. 224.

  22. Ibid.

  23. Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra, *p. 131.

  24. *Kalydna, **SaktiAnk, *p. 225.

  25. Diksit, *Tara **Tantra **Sdstra, *p. 10.

  26. *Nila-tantra *31.12-18, 21-23; Kumar, *Tara, *p. 101.

  27. E. Alan Morinis, *Pilgrimage **in **the **Hindu **Tradition: **A **Case **Study **of **West **Bengal *(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 166-67.

  28. Ibid., p. 167. See also June McDaniel, *The **Madness **of **the **Saints: **Ecstatic **Religion **in **Bengal *(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 89. In McDaniel’s account, which is based on an interview with a devotee, it is Kali who comes to Siva’s rescue. She changes her form to Tārā, she says, because “I cannot nurse my own husband.”

  29. Svoboda, pp. 77-80.

  30. *Kalydna, **SaktiAnk, *p. 404.

  31. Morinis, p. 182, says that the stone image is actually ill defined and that the devotee must use considerable imagination to detect Tārā nursing Siva.

  32. Ibid., p. 171.

  33. Ibid., pp. 184-85.

  34. See David Kinsley, *The **Divine **Player: **A **Study **ofKrpia **Lild *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1979), pp. 205-52.

  35. Morinis, p. 177.

  36. Ibid., pp. 178-79.

Tripura-Sundarī

  1. Rajes Diksit, *Sodas! **Tantra **Sastra *(Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 1991), p. 1.

  2. Interview with Swami Annapurnananda.

  3. *Sdkta-pramoda *(Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), p. 153.

  4. *Lalitd-sahasrandma, *name 52; Douglas Renfrew Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom: **The **Texts **and **Traditions **of **Srividyd **Sdkta **Tantrism **in **South **India *(Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), p. 64.

  5. Diksit, *Sodasi **Tantra **Sastra, *p. 137. In this description, Tripura-sundari is described as a female version of Siva.

  6. Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat **Tantrasara *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), pp. 356-58.

  7. Ibid., p. 358.

  8. This was described in Part I. The following discussion of Tripura-sundari, particularly her place in South India, follows the excellent work done on her cult by Brooks in *Auspicious **Wisdom. *

  9. Ibid., p. 56.

  10. Ibid., p. 72.

  11. Ibid., p. 71.

  12. *Kalyana, **Sakti Ank *(Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 1934), p. 670.

  13. Conversation with T. K. Biswas, Joint Director, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, December 1992.

  14. Robert I. Levy, *Mesocosm: **Hinduism **and **the **Organization **of **a **Traditional **Newar **City **in **Nepal *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1992), pp. 229-31.

  15. Ibid., p. 230.

  16. From *Lalitopdkhydna *30.56; summarized in Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *pp. 68-69.

  17. Diksit, *Sodasi **Tantra **Sastra, *pp. 7-10, following the *Tripurd-rahasya *of the Mahatmya-khanda of the *Brahmanda-purana. *

  18. Diksit, *Sodasi **Tantra **Sastra, *p. 139.

  19. See “The One Hundred and Eight Names of Sodasi” from the *Brah**maydmala *and the *Sahasrandma *from the *Vamakesvara-tantra; *ibid., pp. 136, 137-49.

  20. *Prapancasara-tantra, *ed. John Woodroffe (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, n.d.), 9.23-24, translated by Woodroffe in his introduction to the text, p. 28.

  21. Diksit, *Sodas! **Tantra **Sdstra, *pp. 147-48.

  22. *Kdlikd-purdna *78.100; Bani Kanta Kakati, *The **Mother **Goddess **Kamdkhyd *(Gauhati, Assam: Lawyer’s Book Stall, 1948), pp. 45-46.

  23. *Yogini-tantra *1.6.17; Kakati, p. 50.

  24. *Tripurd-rahasya *10.14; Kakati, pp. 50-51.

  25. Diksit, *Sodas’! **Tantra **Sdstra, *p. 140.

  26. Ibid., p. 137.

  27. Ibid., pp. 137, 143.

  28. Ibid., p. 139, where she is called Kali, Kalika, and Kalaratri.

  29. Upendra Kumar Das, *Bharatiya **Saktisadhand, *2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 1967), vol. 1, pp. 525-26.

  30. Ibid., p. 525.

  31. Conversation with a tantric scholar in Varanasi, January 1993.

  32. Das, p. 525.

  33. T. V. Sastry, *Sidelights **on **Tantra *(Pondicherry, 1971), p. 254; cited in Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 77.

  34. Sastry; cited in Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 79.

  35. Sastry, p. 254; cited in Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 77.

  36. *Nityasodas’ikdrnava *1.12; Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 77.

  37. *Prdnatosini *5.6; Das, p. 526.

  38. Swami Annapurnananda.

  39. Mark Dyczkowski and Hemendra Nath Chakravarty, two scholars of Tantra, private conversations in Varanasi, 1993.

  40. Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 107.

  41. Commentary on the *Lalitd-sahasrandma; *Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 76, citing Sastry.

  42. “In Sri-Vidya ideology, there is no disparate existence of signifying sound and the signified object; and the expressing consciousness and the expressed energy are fundamentally one. The universe of experience … is nothing other than the expressive sounds that constitute the alphabet. . . . The 36 letters (15 vowels taken as one, and the consonants 35) of the alphabet correspond to the 36 principles *(tattvas) *that underlie the constitution and function of the universe.” S. K. Ramachandra Rao, *Sri-Cakra: **Its **Yantra, **Mantra **and **Tantra *(Bangalore: Kalpatharu Research Academy, 1982), p. 38.

  43. Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 60.

  44. *Varivasyd-rahasya *2.163; Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 108.

  45. Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 109.

  46. Douglas Renfrew Brooks, *The **Secret **of **the **Three **Cities: **An **Introduction **to **Hindu **Sdkta **Tantrism *(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p. n8.

  47. A. L. Basham, *The **WonderThat **Was **India *(New York: Grove Press, 1959), p. 162; cited in Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *p. 93.

  48. Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *pp. 93-94.

  49. Ibid., pp. 90-91.

  50. Ibid., pp. 99-101.

  51. For a description and interpretation of the Sri *cakra, *see the *Kdmakald**vildsa, *summarized in S. C. Banerjee, *A **Brief **History **of **Tantric **Literature *(Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 1986), pp. 208-12, and AjitMookerjee and Madhu Khanna, *The **Tantric **Way: **Art, **Science, **Ritual *(Boston: New York Graphic Society, n.d.), pp. 59-62.

  52. Brooks, *Auspicious **Wisdom, *pp. 140-41.

Bhuvaneśvarī

  1. *Dhydna *mantra from *Mantramahdrnava *(Bombay: Khemraj Srikrsnadas Publishers, 1990), p. 471.

  2. *Mundamdld-tantra *(Calcutta: Nava Bharat, 1980), 6.5-8.

  3. Rajes Diksit, *Bhuvanesvari**evam **Chinnamastd **Tantra **Sdstra *(Agra: Braj Printers, 1988), p. 17.

  4. From her thousand-name hymn; ibid., pp. 47-52.

  5. From the *Rudraydmala-tantra; **Mantramahdrnava, *p. 472; see also Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat **Tantrasdra *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), p. 467.

  6. *Sdkta-pramoda *(Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), pp. 204-5.

  7. *The **Sri **Mad **Devi **Bhagavatam, *trans. Swami Vijnanananda (Allahabad: Sudhindra Nath Vasu, 1921-23), 3.4, pp. 128-29.

  8. Ibid., 4.19, p. 319.

  9. *Prapancasdra-tantra, *ed. John Woodroffe (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, n.d.); the hymn is found in 11.49-68 and is translated by Woodroffe in his introduction, pp. 29-37.

  10. Ibid. In the English translation, Woodroffe numbers the verses of the hymn beginning with 1, which corresponds to verse 49 in the text.

  11. Ibid.

  12. Ibid.

  13. Ibid.

  14. See *Tantrasdra, *p. 176 (blue form), and *Mantramahdrnava, *pp. 468-69 (golden form) and 471 (vermillion form).

  15. *Mantramahdrnava, *p. 472.

  16. Diksit, *Bhuvanesvari **evam **Chinnamastd, *p. 21.

  17. 1.26-28, p. 12.

  18. *Mantramahdrnava, *p. 468.

  19. 6.5, p. 499.

  20. 2.5; Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, *Hindu **Tantric **and **Sdkta Literature *(Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1981), p. 89.

  21. Diksit, *Bhuvanesvari **evam **Chinnamastd, **pp. **47-52. *

  22. Ibid., pp. 45-51.

  23. Hundred-name hymn from the *Rudraydmala; *ibid., p. 45.

  24. *Bhuvanesvari-stotra *from the *Rudraydmala; **Mantramahdrnava, *p. 472.

  25. *Prapancasdra-tantra, *chap. 3, and Introduction, p. 19.

  26. Vedamurti Taponista, *Tantra-mahdvijndna, *2 vols. (Bareli, U.P.: Sarhskrti Sarhsthan, 1971), p. 470.

  27. The following description is found in the *Tantrasdra, *pp. 173-75; tne interpretation follows that of Hemendra Nath Chakravarty, a scholar of Tantrism in Varanasi. The yantra itself is also pictured in the *Sdkta-pramoda, *p. 194. See also Ajit Mookerjee, *Tantra **Asana: **A **Way **to **Self-**Realization *(Basel: Ravi Kumar, 1071), pl. 38, p. 67, an eighteenth-century Bhuvanesvarl yantra from Rajasthan. Here the names of the deities, *s’aktis, *and guardians are actually written out.

  28. Hemendra Nath Chakravarty, private conversation.

  29. Mahidhara, *Mantra **Mahodadhib, *vol. 1, ed. and trans. Ram Kumar Rai (Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 1992), pp. 234-47.

  30. Ibid., p. 261.

  31. *Tantrasdra, *p. 468.

  32. *Sdkta-pramoda, *pp. 204-5.

  33. Diksit, *Bhuvanesvarievam **Chinnamastd, *p. 18.

  34. Ibid.

  35. Taponista, p. 471.

  36. Hundred-name hymn from the *Rudraydmala; **Sdkta-pramoda, *p. 205.

Chinnamastā

  1. From a hymn addressed to Chinnamasta; Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, *Hindu **Tantric **and **Sdkta **Literature *(Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1981), p. 207.

  2. Mahidhara, *Mantra **Mahodadhib, *vol. 1, ed. and trans. Ram Kumar Rai (Varanasi: Prachya Prakashan, 1992), p. 256.

  3. *Dhydna *mantra of Chinnamasta; *Sdkta-pramoda *(Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), p. 221.

  4. Jagdish Narain Tiwari, “Studies in Goddess Cults in Northern India, with Reference to the First Seven Centuries A.d.” (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, n.d.), pp. 312-37.

  5. Ibid., pp. 313-15.

  6. Ibid., p. 317.

  7. The following names and their numbers are from Elisabeth Anne Benard, “Chinnamasta: The Awful Buddhist and Hindu Tantric Goddess” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, New York, 1990). In Chinnamasta’s 108-name hymn from the *Sdkta-pramoda, *for example, she is called Killer of the Demons Canda and Munda (name 7), and in her thousand-name hymn from the *Sdkta-pramoda *she is called Killer of the Demon Kesi (name 90), She Who Is the Battle Cry (name 767), She Who Is the Battlefield (name 768), and several other epithets that associate her with demon slaying.

  8. Tiwari, p. 334.

  9. *Prdnatosini-tantra *(Calcutta: Basumati Sahitya Mandir, 1928), p. 378; translated by Benard, pp. 35-36. This version is also told, with slight modifications, in Sri Swami Ji Maharaja Datiya, *Sri **Chinnamasta **Nitydrcana *(Prayag: Kalyan Mandir Prakasan, 1978), p. 5.

  10. *Prdnatosini-tantra, *p. 378; translated by Benard, p. 36.

  11. *Saktisamgama-tantra, *vol. 4: *Chinnamastd **Khanda, *ed. B. Bhattacharyya and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute of Baroda, 1978), 5.152-73.

  12. See also *Devi-hhdgavata-purdna *5.28-29 and *Vdmana-purdna *30.

  13. P. Pal, *Hindu **Religion **and **Iconology *(Los Angeles: Vichitra Press, 1981), p. 82.

  14. Several examples of human sacrifice to goddesses are mentioned in Bani Kama Kakati, *The **Mother **Goddess **KHmakhya *(Gauhati, Assam: Lawyer’s Book Stall, 1948), pp. 61-64.

  15. R. Nagaswamy, *Tantric **Cult **of **South **India *(Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1982), p. 26.

  16. Ibid.

  17. See J. P. Vogel, “The Head-Offering to the Goddess in Pallava Sculpture,” *Bulletin **of **the **School **of **Oriental **Studies *(London) 6: 539-43, and U. N. Ghosal, *Studies **in **Indian **History **and **Culture *(Bombay: Orient Longman, 1965), pp. 333-4°.

  18. Ghosal, pp. 335-36; Ramendra Nath Nandi, *Religious **Institutions **and **Cults **of **the **Deccan *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1973), pp. 145-46.

  19. Prince Ilango Adigal, *Shilappadikaram, *trans. Alain Danielou (New York: New Directions Book, 1965), pp. 539—43.

  20. Head symbolism is discussed by Benard, pp. 243-61.

  21. E. Alan Morinis, *Pilgrimage **in **the **Hindu **Tradition: **A **Case **Study **of **West **Bengal *(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 187.

  22. For examples, see “Jambhaladatta’s Version of the Vetalapancavimsati,” trans. M. B. Emeaneau, *American **Oriental **Society *4 (1934): 59-63 (this story of transposed heads is originally from *Kathdsaritsdgara *6.80), and Wendy O’Flaherty, *Origins **of **Evil **in **Hindu **Mythology *(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), p. 351, for the story of Renuka’s beheading.

  23. See David N. Lorenzen, *The **Kdpdlikas **and **Kdldmukhas: **Two **Lost **Saivite **Sects *(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), for details of why Siva carries a skull after killing Brahma by chopping off his head.

  24. Datiya, p. 7.

  25. *Sdkta-pramoda, *p. 234.

  26. Ibid., p. 235.

  27. Translated by Benard, p. 171.

  28. Acarya Ananda Jha, “Chinnamasta Tattva,” *Sanmarg—TantravisesAnk *(Varanasi), July 26, 1979, pp. 69-71.

  29. Ibid.

  30. *Sdkta-pramoda; *translated by Benard, p. 172.

  31. Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat **Tantrasdra *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), p. 374.

  32. *Tantrasdra, *p. 371; *Sdkta-pramoda, *p. 222.

  33. *Tantrasdra, *p. 371.

  34. *Sdkta-pramoda; *translated by Benard, p. 143.

  35. *Ibid., *pp. 170, 172, 176.

  36. Swami Harshananda, *Hindu **Gods **and **Goddesses *(Mylapore: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1988), p. 108.

  37. From her thousand-name hymn from the *Sdkta-pramoda; *translated by Benard, p. 173.

  38. Vedamurti Taponista, *Tantra-mahdvijnana, **2 *vols. (Bareli, U.P.: Sarhskrti Samsthan, 1971), pp. 479-80.

  39. Benard, pp. 276-77.

  40. See Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, *Sexual **Metaphors **and **Animal **Symbols **in **Indian **Mythology *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981), pp. 44-49, 269-72.

  41. Ibid., pp. 35-44.

  42. On the basis of Chinnamasta’s appearance in the teachings of a ninthcentury C.e. Buddhist devotee, Laksmirikara, Benard, p. 58, concludes that Chinnamasta appeared in Buddhist sources at least a century before she did in Hindu materials.

  43. The story is told in Benard, pp. 40-41.

  44. Ibid., p. 43.

  45. Translated by Benard, p. 211.

  46. S. K. Rao, *Tibetan **Tantric **Tradition *(New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann, 1977), p. 87; quoted by Benard, p. 249.

  47. *Sdkta-pramoda; *translated by Benard, pp. 133-35.

  48. Ibid., pp. 140, 147, 148, 167, 174, 178.

  49. Jagannath Prasad Sharma, *Bhdrat **Tirth **Darsan *(Varanasi: Bhola Yantralaya, 1984), p. 355.

  50. There is some evidence that the Cintpurni temple in Himachal Pradhesh was once a Chinnamasta temple. The name Chinnamasta is written on the gateway to the temple, and according to one of the priests at the temple, Chinnamasta “is the original name of Cintpurni.” The worship of Cintpurni today is nontantric, exoteric, and completely ordinary *(sddhdran) *or vegetarian (Vaisnava). Cintpurni is described as benign and similar to Durga in appearance. Kathleen M. Erndl, *Victory **to **the **Mother: **The **Hindu **Goddess **of **Northwest **India **in **Myth, Ritual, **and **Symbol *(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 51.

  51. Benard, p. 92.

  52. Ibid., pp. 93-94.

  53. *Saktisamgama-tantra *6.79-82.

  54. Mahidhara, pp. 266-67.

  55. Chinnamasta *stotra, *v. 8; Benard, p. 105.

  56. *Sdkta-pramoda, *p. 228.

Bhairavī

  1. *Dhydna *mantra of Bhairavi, *Sdradd-tilaka *12.31; *Sdradd **Tilaka **Tantram, *ed. Arthur Avalon (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982), p. 525.

  2. *Dhydna *mantra of Rudra-bhairavi; Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat Tantrasdra *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), p. 308.

  3. *Sdi.add-tilaka *12.81-95, pp. 534-37.

  4. Vedamurti Taponista, *Tantra-mahdvijndna *(Bareli, U.P.: Sarhskrti Samsthan, 1971), pp. 486-89.

  5. Rajes Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam DhumdvatiTantra **Sdstra *(Agra: Dip Publication, 1988), p. 1.

  6. Ibid., pp. 57-58, 61, 64.

  7. Ibid., p. 61; see also her thousand-name hymn in the *Sdkta-pramoda *(Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), p. 288, where she is said to exist in a circle of fire, to be a circle of fire, and to be destructive fire.

  8. Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhumdvati, *p. 57.

  9. *Sdkta-pramoda, *pp. 265, 266, 268.

  10. Mary Shepherd Slusser, *Nepal **Mandala: **A **Cultural **Study **of **the **Kathmandu **Valley, *2 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), vol. 1, p. 328.

  11. *Tantrasdra, *pp. 295-315.

  12. *Sdkta-pramoda, *p. 266.

  13. Diksit, *Bhairavi**evam **Dhumdvati, *pp. 58, 60, 62, 64.

  14. *Tantrasdra, *p. 297.

  15. Ibid.

  16. Ibid., p. 315; see also *Sdradd-tilaka *10.110.

  17. *Tantrasdra, *p. 315.

  18. Conversation with Hemendra Nath Chakravarty.

  19. Upendra Kumar Das, *Bharatiya **Saktisadhand, *2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 1967), p. 535.

  20. Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhumdvati, *pp. 56, 60, 61, 64.

Dhūmāvatī

  1. *Dhydna *mantra of Dhumavati; Rajes Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhumavati **Tantra **Sdstra *(Agra: Dip Publication, 1988), p. 152.

  2. *Prapancasdrasdra-samgraha, *ed. Girvanendra Sarasvati, 2 parts (Thanjavur: T.M.S.S. Library, pt. 2, 1980), p. 236.

  3. Ibid., pp. 234-35.

  4. Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhumavati, *pp. 141-42.

  5. *Taittiriya-brahmana *1.6.1.4.

  6. *Atharva-veda *5.7.9.

  7. *Satapatha-hrahmana *5.2.3.3.

  8. Ibid. 9.1.2.9.

  9. She is mentioned in the *Baudhayana-grhyasutra, *which can be dated between 600 and 300 B.c.e.; Kane, *History **ofDharmas’dstra, *2.i:xi; cited in Julia Leslie, “Sri and Jyestha: Ambivalent Role Models for Women,” in Julia Leslie, ed., *Roles **and **Rituals **for **Hindu **Women *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1992), p. 113.

  10. Leslie, p. 114.

  11. T. A. Gopinatha Rao, *Elements **of **Hindu **Iconography, *2d ed., 2 vols. (New York: Paragon Books, 1914-16), vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 393.

  12. Leslie, pp. 115-19.

  13. *Liriga-purdna *2.6.83-87.

  14. For the text and translation of the *Sri-sukta, *see Bandana Sarasvati, “The History of the Worship of Sri in North India to cir. A.d. 550” (Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1971), pp. 22-31.

  15. Swami Harshananda, *Hindu **Gods **and **Goddesses *(Mylapore: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1988), p. 94.

  16. Upendra Nath Dhal, *Goddess **Laksmi: **Origin **and **Development *(New Delhi: Oriental Publishers, 1978), p. 179.

  17. Ibid., p. 178.

  18. Ibid., pp. 150-56, 177-78.

  19. M. C. P. Srivastava, *Mother **Goddess **in **Indian **Art, **Archaeology **and Literature *(Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1979), p. 190.

  20. *Kalydna, **Sakti *Ank(Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 1934), p. 264; Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **DhumavatI, *p. 152.

  21. *Prapancasdrasdra-samgraha, *p. 234.

  22. Dhumavati *stotra; **Sdkta-pramoda *(Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), pp. 283-84.

2 3. Sarbeswar Satpathy, *Sakti **Iconography **in **Tantric **Mahdvidyds *(Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1991), pp. 147-48.

  1. *Saktisamgama-tantra, *vol. 4: *Chinnamastd **Khanda, *ed. B. Bhattacharyya and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute of Baroda, 1978), 6.24-25. This myth was also told to me by the priest at the Dhumavati temple in Varanasi.

  2. *Prdnatosini-tantra *5.6; Upendra Kumar Das, *Bharatiya **Saktisadhand, *2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 1967), p. 542.

  3. Ajit Mookerjee and Madhu Khanna, *The **Tantric **Way: **Art, **Science, **Ritual *(Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1977), p. 191.

  4. *Prapancasdrasdra-samgraha, *p. 234.

  5. The painting of Dhumavati by Batuk Ramprasad is discussed later (see figure 31).

  6. Vv. 95-97; Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhiimdvati, *p. 167.

  7. *Prapancasdrasdra-samgraha, *p. 236.

  8. According to the priest at the Dhumavati temple in Varanasi.

  9. Vv. 87 and 92; Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhiimdvati, *pp. 166-67.

  10. Conversation with Kamalakar Mishra, October 1992.

  11. Sarbeswar Satpathy, *Dasa **Mahavidya **and **Tantra **Sastra *(Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1992), p. 70.

  12. Mary Shepherd Slusser, *Nepal **Mandala: **A **Cultural **Study **of **the **Kathmandu **Valley, *2 vols. (Princeton, NJ, : Princeton University Press, 1982), vol. i,pp. 333-34.

  13. According to the priest at the Dhumavati temple in Varanasi.

  14. *Prapancasdrasdra-samgraha, *p. 234.

  15. Thousand-name hymn, v. 32; Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhiimdvati, *p. 162. The priest at the Dhumavati temple said that she is the same as Smasana-kali, “Kali who lives in the cremation ground.”

  16. *Prapancasdrasdra-samgraha, *p. 234.

  17. Vv. 125-26; Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhiimavati, *p. 169.

  18. Pushpendra Kumar, *The **Principle **of **Sakti *(Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 1986), p. 122.

  19. Harshananda, p. 108.

  20. There are also small Dhumavati temples at Ranchi in Bihar and near the Kamakhya-devi temple near Gauhati in Assam.

  21. Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **Dhumdvati, *pp. 166, 159.

  22. Shiv Prasad Mishra Kahikey, “Bahati Ganga (The Flowing Ganges),” trans. Paul R. Golding and Virendra Singh (MS, Varanasi, n.d.), p. 69.

  23. Diksit, *Bhairavi **evam **DhumavatI, *pp. 160-67.

Bagalāmukhī

  1. *Dhydna *mantra of Bagalāmukhī; Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat **Tantrasdra *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publications, 1984), pp. 463-64.

  2. Ibid., p. 465.

  3. *Saktisamgama-tantra, *vol. 4: *Chinnamastd **Khanda, *ed. B. Bhattacharyya and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute of Baroda, 1978), 6.1-10; see also Acarya Pandita Sri Sivadattamisra Sastri, *Bagalamukhi-rahasyam *(Varanasi: Thakur Prasad Pustak Bharadar, 1951), p. 81, and Upendra Kumar Das, *Bharatiya **Saktisadhand, *2 vols. (Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 1967), p.

  5. A. Sastri, *Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, *p. 82.

  6. Sri Bankhandesvara, *Mahdvidyd **Catustayam: **lard, **Dhumdvati, **Bhuvanesvari, **Mdtarigi *(Dattiya, MR: Pitambara Pith, n.d.), p. 23.

  7. For example, Swami Harshananda, *Hindu **Gods **and **Goddesses *(Mylapore: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1988), p. 108, and Alain Danielou, *Hindu **Polytheism *(New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1964), p. 283.

  8. Usha P. Shastri and Nicole Menant, trans., *Hymnes **a **la **deesse *(Paris: Le Soleil Noir, 1980), pl. 12, p. 103.

  9. A. Sastri, *Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, *p. 11.

  10. Swamiji, a tantric informant in Varanasi.

  11. Vedamurti Taponista, *Tantra-mahdvijiiana *(Bareli, U.P.: Sarhskrti Samsthan, 1971), vol. 2, p. 492, also says the name of the goddess was originally Valgamukhi.

  12. *Kalydna, **SaktiAiik *(Gorakhpur: Gita Press, 1934), facing p. 320.

  13. Taponista, pp. 494-95.

  14. Conventionally, in fact, cranes are taken as symbols of*false *yogis or holy men in Hindu culture. The crane appears to be rapt in meditation, like a yogi, while in fact its entire attention is directed toward capturing and devouring fish. The false yogi is not actually meditating; he is pretending to meditate while conniving to cheat or seduce unwitting people.

  15. A. Sastri, *Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, *pp. 11-30; see also *Tantrasara, *p. 465.

  16. A. Sastri, *Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, *p. 15.

  17. *Mahdbhdrata *3.187.31-3 9; John E. Mitchener, *Traditions **of **the **Seven **Rsis *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982), p. 68.

  18. See *Tantrasara, *p. 466, for her yantra.

  19. Savithri Shanker de Tourreil, “Nayars in a South Indian Matrix: A Study Based on Female-Centered Ritual” (Ph.D. diss., Concordia University, Montreal, 1995), p. 198; see also pp. 176, 179, and 204.

  20. The tradition of acquiring magical powers is ancient in India and pervades tantric literature in particular. For a discussion of magical powers in Hinduism, see N. N. Bhattacharyya, *History **of **the **Tantric **Religion: **A **Historical, Ritualistic **and **Philosophical **Study *(New Delhi: Manohar Publishers, 1982), pp. H9-51.

  21. Rajes Diksit, *Bagalamukhi **evam **Matangi **Tantra **Sastra *(Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 1989), pp. 83, 84, 88.

  22. *Tantrasara, *p. 466.

  23. Vv. 5-6; Diksit, *Bagalamukhi **evam **Mdtarigi, *p. 64.

  24. A. Sastri, *Bagalamukhi-rahasyam, *p. 11.

  25. Diksit, *Bagalamukhi **evam **Mdtarigi, *p. 73.

  26. *Pitdmbari-upanisad; *ibid., p. 57.

  27. Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta, *Hindu **Tantric **and **Sdkta **Literature *(Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1981), p. 89.

  28. See her hundred names from the *Rudraydmala; *Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Mdtarigi, *p. 73.

  29. Goudriaan and Gupta, p. 81.

  30. A. Sastri, Bagaldmukhi-rahasyam*, *p. 13.

  31. Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Mdtarigi, *pp. 1-2.

  32. Harshananda, p. 108.

  33. Swami Annapurnananda.

  34. Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Mdtarigi, *pp. 84, 88, 89.

  35. Ibid., pp. 88-89.

  36. Ibid., p. 76.

  37. Ibid., pp. 80-81.

  38. *Kalyana, **SaktiArik, *“Sri Bagalāmukhī Upasana,” p. 506.

  39. V. 4; Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Mdtarigi, *p. 63.

  40. *Tantrasdra, *pp. 438-44; see also *Kauldvali, *ed. Arthur Avalon (Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, 1985), chap. 15, and *Nila-tantra, *chap. 16, summarized in S. C. Banerjee, *A **Brief **History **of **Tantric **Literature *(Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 1986), pp. 251-52.

  41. *Tantrasdra, *pp. 438-39.

  42. At many points in this ritual it appears that the *sadhaka *is seeking to revive or control the spirit of the corpse, which will then be used as a “power instrument,” as it were, to bring about desired goals. See N. Bhattacharyya, *His**tory **of **the **Tantric **Religion, *pp. 137-41.

  43. This is also specifically mentioned in the *Kauldvali *description of the ritual, p. 15.

  44. *Tantrasdra, *p. 468.

  45. Robert E. *Svoboda, **Aghora: **At **the **Left **Hand **of **God *(Albuquerque, N.M.: Brotherhood of Life, 1986), p. 195.

  46. *Kauldvali, *chap. 19, describes gaining power from a corpse by reviving it. The particular power *(siddhi) *mentioned in this case is the ability to see through solid objects and substances. See also June McDaniel, *The **Madness **of **the **Saints: **Ecstatic **Religion **in **Bengal *(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. 120-21, concerning gaining power from a corpse by means of cremation-ground rites.

  47. Attempts to converse with and control spirits in the cremation ground, the different kinds of spirits that are present there, and the dangers inherent in such practices are described in Svoboda, pp. 187-209.

  48. Ibid., p. 49.

  49. Ibid.

  50. P. H. Pott, *Yoga **and **Yantra: **Their **lnteirelation **and **Their **Significance **for Indian **Archaeology *(The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1966), p. 78.

  51. The idea of liminality is developed in Victor W. Turner, *Dramas, **Fields, **and **Metaphors: **Symbolic **Action **in **Human **Society *(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974).

  52. *Kalyana, **Sakti **Arik, *p. 407; Kulsekar Sri Mahes Candra Garg, “Puja Swamiji aur Sri Pitambara Pith Datiya,” *Candij, *no. 40 (October 1981): 17-21.

Mātangī

  1. *Dhydna *mantra of Uccista-matarigini; Krsnananda Agamavagisa, *Brhat **Tantrasara *(Calcutta: Navabharat Publishers, 1984), p. 449.

  2. *Dhydna *mantra of Matarigi from the *Puras’carydrnava; **Tantrasara, *p. 447.

  3. *Dhydna *mantra of Raja-matarigl from *Purascarydniava, *chap. 9; Upendra Kumar Das, *Bharatiya **Saktisadhand *(Santiniketan: Ranjit Rai Prakasan, Visvabharati, 1967), pp. 546-47. In *Sdradd-tilaka *12.128, Raja-matarigi’s *dhydna *mantra adds that she plays the *vind, *wears flower garlands and conch-shell earrings, and has her forehead decorated with paintings of flowers.

  4. *Divydvadana, *ed. P. L. Vaidya (Darbhanga: Mithila Research Institute, 1959), story 33: “Sardulakarna,” pp. 314-25.

  5. *Saktisamgama-tantra, *vol. 4: *Chinnamastd**Khanda, *ed. B. Bhattacharyya and Vrajavallabha Dvivedi (Baroda: Oriental Institute of Baroda, 1978), 6.30-38.

  6. *Prdnatosini-tantra *(Calcutta: Basumati Sahitya Mandir, 1928), pp. 379-81. The story of Parvati returning to her father’s house because of her pique over Siva’s philandering, Siva’s appearance at her father’s house disguised as a seller of shell bangles, and Parvati’s subsequent disguise as a low-caste woman (in this case a *bdgdini) *whom Siva tries to seduce is found in the Bengali *marigal **kdvyas. *See Asutosh Bhattacharya, *Bangla **mangal-kavyer **itihasa *(Calcutta: E. Mukharji and Co., 1939), pp. 205ff., and D. Zbavitel, *Bengali **Literature *(Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1976), pp. 156-58. In these accounts, however, ParvatI is not identified with Matarigl.

  7. *Svatantra-tantra; *Das, p. 545.

  8. Told to me by Ram, an informant in Varanasi. During a visit to this temple I was not able to confirm Kauri-bai’s identification with Matarigl. The story of the origin of the temple also differed in several ways from the story told by Ram. The story I was told at the temple did not mention the tension between Siva and Kauri-bai, and Parvatl, in her form as Annapurna, cursed Kauri-bai to live in the jungle, not a low-caste area, because of Kauri-bai’s preoccupation with purity, which left her no time even to eat a meal (which insulted Annapurna, the goddess who gives food). The temple is, in fact, in a neighborhood housing lowcaste people, but it now also includes some modern development with uppercaste residents. That the area was formerly “jungle” is credible, as the location of the temple is in the southern part of Varanasi, which was uninhabited not very long ago.

  9. The leftovers or residue of sacrificial offerings *(uccista) *are regarded as possessing great spiritual potency in some Vedic texts. The *Atharva-veda *(11.7.1-3, 16), for example, celebrates the sacrificial residue as containing cosmic creative force. Stella Kramrisch, *The **Presence **of **Siva *(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 66.

  10. For example, *Tantrasara, *p. 449, and Rajes Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Matarigi **Tantra **Sdstra *(Agra: Sumit Prakashan, 1989), pp. 138-39.

  11. Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Matarigi, *p. 140.

  12. *Tantrasara, *p. 449; Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Matarigi, *p. 140.

  13. In many festivals celebrating village goddesses in South India, a low-caste woman called a *matarigi *plays a central role. During the festival, the *matarigi * represents the goddess. Possessed by the goddess, she dances wildly, uses obscene language, drinks intoxicants, spits on spectators, and pushes people about with her backside. She seems to take special delight in abusing members of the high castes. During this festival an inversion of the usual social codes and rules takes place. The *mdtangi *personifies social topsy-turvy. Exactly what the connection might be between these low-caste women and the goddess Matarigi is not clear. See Wilber Theodore Elmore, *Dravidian **Gods **in **Modern **Hinduism: **A **Study **of **the **Local **and **Village **Deities **of **Southern **India *(Hamilton, N.Y.: Published by the author, 1915), p. 31; see also Edgar Thurston, *Castes **and **Tribes **of Southern **India, *7 vols. (Madras: Madras Government Press, 1909), vol. 4, pp. 295-307, 316-17.

  14. Robert I. Levy, *Mesocosm: **Hinduism **and **the **Organization **of **a **Traditional **Newar **City **in **Nepal *(Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1992), pp. 84-85.

  15. Ibid., p. 263.

  16. The leader of the Sabaras (Savaras) in Bana’s *Kddambari **is *named Matariga. *The **Kddambari **of **Bana, *trans. C. M. Ridding (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1896), p. 28.

  17. *Mahdkdla-samhitd *(Allahabad: Ganganathjha Research Institute, 1974), p. 106.

  18. Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Mdtangi, *pp. 149, 157.

  19. Ibid., p. 147.

  20. *Sdradd-tilaka *12.128.

  21. Ibid. 12.98.

  22. The spiritually transformative role of female hunters, who would be regarded as marginal and polluted by high-caste Hindu society, is emphasized in the story of the Buddhist tantric yogi Maitripa, who travels into the mountains of South India in search of Savari, a well-known tantric teacher (whose name associates him with the Savaras, a tribal people). Maitripa finds Savari in the company of two female hunters, who have long, matted hair, wear bark and leaves as clothing, carry hunting gear, and have freshly killed game at their feet. At first Maitripa is repulsed by the women, but later he learns that they are advanced spiritual teachers. It is from them that Maitripa eventually gains illumination. Miranda Shaw, *Passionate **Enlightenment: **Women **in **Tantric **Buddhism *(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 50.

  23. *Mahdbhdgavata-purdna, *Madhya-khanda 2.69-72.

  24. *Tantrasdra, *pp. 446, 448.

  25. Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi**evam **Mdtangi, *p. 104.

  26. Ibid., p. 105.

  27. *Tantrasdra, *p. 449.

  28. Das, p. 548.

  29. Diksit, *Bagaldmukhi **evam **Matangi, *p. 128.

Kamalā

  1. *Dhydna *mantra of Kamala; *Sdkta-pramoda *(Bombay: Khemraja Srikrsnadasa Prakasan, 1992), p. 353.

  2. *Dhydna *mantra of Kamala; *Sdradd **Tilaka **Tantrum, *ed. Arthur Avalon (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982), p. 420.

  3. *Dhydna *mantra of Mahalaksmi; *Sdradd **Tilaka **Tantrum, *p. 424.

  4. For the text and translation of this hymn, see Bandana Saraswati, “The History of the Worship of Sri in North India to cir. A.d. 550” (Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1971), pp. 22-31.

  5. For the symbolism of the lotus, see F. D. K. Bosch, *The **Golden **Germ *(The Hague: Mouton, i960), pp. 81-82.

  6. For a discussion of these images, referred to as Gaja-laksmis, see Niranjan Ghosh, *Concept **and **Iconography **of **the **Goddess **of **Abundance **and **Fortune **in **Three **Religions **of **India *(Burdwan, West Bengal: University of Burdwan, 1979), pp. 75-87; Saraswati, pp. 159-61; and Kiran Thaplyal, “Gajalaksmi on Seals,” in D. C. Sircar, ed., *Foreigners **in **Ancient **India **and **Laksmi **and **Sarasvati **in **Ar t **and Literature *(Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1970), pp. 112-25.

  7. Heinrich Zimmer, *The **An **of **Indian **Asia, *2 vols. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1955), vol. 1, pp. 160-61.

  8. Jan Gonda, *Ancient **Indian **Kingship **from **the **Religious **Point **of **View *(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1969), pp. 7-8.

  9. Upendra Nath Dhal, *Goddess **Laksmi: **Origin **and **Development *(New Delhi: Oriental Publishers, 1978), pp. 65-66; Saraswati, pp. 150-53.

  10. Dhal, pp. 68-69.

  11. See Saraswati, pp. 138-47.

  12. See particularly the myths of the demons Bali and Prahlada in Saraswati, pp. 138-47, and Dhal, pp. 68-69.

  13. Dhal, pp. 91-93; Saraswati, pp. 173-77; Ananda Coomaraswamy, *Yaksas, *2 parts (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1971), pt. 1, pp. 32ff.

  14. Jan Gonda, *Aspects **of **Early **Visnuism., *2d ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969), pp. 164-67.

  15. K. S. Behera, “Laksmi in Orissan Literature and Art,” in Sircar, ed., *For**eigners **in **Ancient **India, *p. 101.

  16. Saraswati, p. 242.

  17. F. Otto Schrader, *Introduction **to **the **Pancardtra **and **the **Ahirhudhnya Samhitd *(Madras: Adyar Library, 1916), pp. 34-35.

  18. See *LaksmiTantra, **a **Pancardtra **Text, *trans. Sanjukta Gupta (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972).

  19. For Sri-Laksmi in Sri Vaisnavism, see John Carman, *The **Theology **of **Rdmdnuja *(New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1974), pp. 238-44; Vasudha Narayanan, “The Goddess Sri: The Blossoming Lotus and Breast Jewel of Visnu,” in John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff, eds., *The **Divine **Consort: **Rddhd **and **the **Goddesses **of **India *(Berkeley, Calif.: Berkeley Religious Studies Series, 1982), pp. 224-37; an<^ Vasudha Narayanan, *“Karma *and *Krpa. *Human Bondage and Divine Grace: The Terikalai Sri Vaisnava Position” (DePaul University, Chicago, n.d.).

  20. M. C. P. Srivastava, *Mother **Goddess **in **Indian **Art, **Archaeology **and Literature *(Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1979), p. 189.

  21. Dhal, p. 176.

  22. *Sdradd **Tilaka **Tantrum, *pp. 420, 432.

  23. *Sdkta-pramoda, *pp. 373-76, 378.

  24. Ibid., pp. 369, 375, 377.

  25. Ibid., pp. 369, 374, 375.

  26. Ibid., pp. 370-74, 379.

  27. Ibid., pp. 373-75. 379,

2 8. Cited in June McDaniel, *The **Madness **of **the **Saints: **Ecstatic **Religion **in Bengal *(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 150.