***The **Paralyzer ***
In the middle of the ocean is a pavilion of jewels with an altar inside it. On the altar is a lion throne on which the goddess Bagalamukhi is seated. Her complexion is completely yellow, perfectly yellow, and she wears a yellow dress, yellow ornaments, and a yellow garland. I call to mind she who holds the tongue of the enemy in her left hand and a raised club in her right hand.1
She has assumed a serious mood and is maddened with intoxication. Her brilliance reflects the golden hue of her body. She has four arms and three eyes and is seated on a lotus. On her forehead is the crescent moon, which is yellow in color. She wears yellow clothes, has high, firm breasts, and wears golden earrings.2
Origin Myths
I have found three myths concerning the origin of Bagalamukhi. According to the first myth, once upon a time in the Krta Yuga a cosmic storm threatened to destroy the universe. Many creatures were killed, and Visnu, who was reclining on the cosmic serpent, Sesa, was himself disturbed. He went to a sacred pond named Haridra (turmeric) and undertook austerities to find a solution to the problem. (Visnu himself is often called Pitambara, “he who wears yellow clothes.”) He prayed to Tripura-sundari, who appeared and lit up the entire world with her presence. She brought forth Bagalamukhi, who sported in that pond of turmeric and then calmed the storm with her great powers. She is also known as Pltambara-devi because she appeared in a lake of turmeric.3
In the second myth, a demon named Madan undertook austerities and won the boon of *vak **siddhi, *according to which anything he said came about. He abused this *siddhi *by killing people. Enraged by his mischief, the gods worshiped Bagalamukhi. She stopped the demon’s rampage by taking hold of his tongue and stilling his speech. Before she could kill him, however, he asked to be worshiped with her, and she relented. That is why he is depicted with her.4
The third myth touches on the origins of both Bagalamukhi and Dhumavati. Once upon a time, Siva was living on Mount Kailasa with Parvati. She became so hungry that her body was racked with pain. She complained to Siva, asking him for something to eat: “O Siva,” she said, “give me some food. I am famished.” Siva told her to be patient and wait a bit, after which he would give her anything she wanted. But having said this, Siva ignored her and went back to doing yoga. She appealed to him again, saying that she was desperate for food. He again asked her to wait awhile. She protested that she could not wait, that she was starving to death. When he still was uncooperative, she put Siva himself into her mouth to devour him. After a little while smoke began to issue from Parvati’s body. This smoke was her *may **a *(magic power of illusion). Then Siva emerged from Parvati and said: “Listen, O Goddess, a woman without a husband, as you just were, is called a widow and must strip herself of the adornments and marks of a married woman. That woman, you, who left her husband by swallowing him, will be known as Bagalamukhi. And the smoke that came from her will be known as the goddess Dhumavati.“5
These three myths are so dissimilar that it is difficult to think of them as variants of each other. They seem to represent three different meditations on Bagalamukhi’s origin. In the first myth, Bagala is associated with Visnu and plays a role similar to one of his *avataras. *That is, a cosmic crisis arises, and Visnu initiates action to meet it. Bagala emerges to restore cosmic stability. This myth does not overtly emphasize her ability to stun or paralyze *(stambbana), *for which she is famous, but the stilling of the storm does imply this power. The myth also promotes the superiority of a goddess over an eminent male deity, in this case Visnu, by implying that he could not deal with a situation and had to summon the goddess for help.
In the second myth, Bagala is again propitiated by the gods (the implication is that the male deities collectively petition her) to rescue the world from a power-crazed demon whose very words can kill and destroy. She stops the demon’s rampage by grasping his tongue, preventing him from further speech. She is almost always portrayed in this act. In this myth her power to paralyze is explicit and stressed. She is often said to give the power of paralyzing the movements and activities of enemies.
She is also said to be the giver *oivdk **siddhi, *the power of superior speech by which all opponents can be defeated. In this myth, by stopping the demon’s tongue, she exercises her peculiar power over speech and her power to freeze, stun, or paralyze.
In the third myth, Bagala is cast in the familiar role of Siva’s wife. As in the version of the origin of the Mahavidyas as a group in which Satl challenges Siva to allow her to attend her father’s sacrifice even though Siva has not been invited, so here Parvati and Siva are at odds. Parvati is hungry and wants to eat at once, while Siva, apparently indifferent to her hunger and impatience, puts her off and ignores her, or at least ignores the intensity of her need. As in the Sati myth, Parvati directly challenges Siva: she satisfies her hunger by eating him. Although the denouement of the story asserts Siva’s primacy by having him, in effect, curse Parvatl, condemning her to assume the forms of Bagalamukhi and Dhumavati, Parvati’s power over Siva is dramatic and memorable. The myth also hints at the meaning of Bagalamukhi’s name, which may be translated as “she who has the head or face of a crane.” Like a crane, she swallowed whole what she ate—her husband—and perhaps this is why she is called Bagalamukhi.
The Names Bagalāmukhī and Pītāmbarā
One of Bagalamukhi’s most-used epithets is Pltambaradevi. Both names are strikingly distinctive, suggesting peculiar and particular characteristics. The significance of the names is far from clear, however. The name Bagalamukhi probably means “she who has the face of a crane” or “the crane-faced one” (from Sanskrit *baka, *“crane”). Indeed, some scholars describe Bagalamukhi as having the head of a crane.6 She is in fact shown with the head of a crane in at least one painting I have seen, which has been identified as from Kangra, about the year 1800.7 Other sources, however, say that she has the head of a duck8 and the nose of a parrot.9
Some assume that the name is a corruption and that the original meaning had nothing to do with her having a bird face. Rama Shankar Tripathi of the Kasi Visvanath temple in Varanasi told me that her name is actually Valgamukhi *(valga *means “bit” in Sanskrit) and that the name refers to her ability to control one’s enemies. Just as a bit in a horse’s mouth controls it, so through the power of Bagalamukhi one can control others. Another informant agreed that her name originally was Valgamukhl but said that *valga *means “to paralyze” and refers to Bagalamukhi’s giving the *siddhi of’**stambhana, *“paralysis.“10
What is troubling about interpreting Bagalamukhi’s name as meaning “crane faced” is that iconographically she is rarely shown with a bird head. In the Bagalamukhi temple in Bankhandi in Himachal Pradesh, a framed picture of Bagala hangs just outside the *garbha **grha. *In this image, she sits on a crane that is attacking the demon with its beak and claw. A second crane is flying to the attack. In another image the pavilion in which she sits is decorated with swans.11 There are examples of other Hindu goddesses having bird heads. Some of the sixty-four *yoginis, *for example, are said to have bird heads: parrot, hawk, peacock, eagle, pigeon, or owl. Other goddesses are associated with birds as their *vdhanas *(vehicles). Sarasvati is associated with a swan, Matarigi with a parrot, Dhumavati with a crow, and Laksmi with an owl. But in the scene of her afflicting the demon, Bagala is almost always depicted anthropomorphically and without any bird symbolism. It is also difficult to interpret her name as a corruption of *valgd, *meaning either “bit” or “to paralyze,” as she is never shown employing a bit, and the derivation of “paralyze” from *valgd *is etymologically dubious.
Perhaps the best we can do is speculate on the significance of her name, taking all of the above opinions into account. Bagalamukhi is strongly associated with supernatural or magical powers, the ability to immobilize and attract others. Such uncanny abilities may be associated with birds, who perceive more acutely than humans. This is the interpretation of at least one author, who says that crows, for example, give advance information of people’s arrival.12 The crane, in its ability to stand absolutely still while hunting, is a symbol of intense concentration. In this sense, the crane is an appropriate symbol of the yogi.13 The crane also seems to be able to attract prey to itself by remaining motionless. It is perhaps these kinds of perfections or “magical powers” that Bagalamukhl possesses and gives to her devotees. The parrot, on the other hand, which in at least one case is said to be the type of bird’s head Bagalamukhi possesses, might suggest her ability to grant *vak **siddhi, *the power to make everything come true that one says (the very power with which the demon Madan caused such trouble in the world that Bagalamukhl destroyed him).
The attempt to interpret Bagalamukhi’s name as implying her ability to rein in an enemy by means of a bit also stresses her association with magical powers of control. Even if the etymology is mistaken, it underlines this aspect of her cult. The imagery of the bit also suggests the theme of mounting and riding another being, a common image in shamanistic possession. The idea here is that one being (usually a spirit) controls or possesses another as fl rider controls and possesses a horse. The image of mastery or control is vivid here. It may be that Bagalamukhi is invoked to aid a worshiper in gaining possession of or control over another being or spirit.
Bagalamukhl is also often known as Pitambara-devl, “she who is dressed in yellow.” She is often said to like yellow, to be dressed in yellow, and to prefer yellow offerings. In her *pujd**paddhati *(instructions for her worship), the worshiper is directed to offer her yellow items whenever possible, to wear yellow clothes while worshiping her, to sit on a yellow garment, and to use turmeric beads (which are yellow) when doing *japa *(repeated recitations) of her mantra.14 In her *updsand **paddhati, *or special *pujd, *use of yellow is compulsory.15 Her temples are often painted yellow. That is, the name Pitambara-devi reflects a striking feature of her cult and worship. Unlike the name Bagalamukhi, which does not seem to have any obvious connection with her worship and cult, Pitambaradevi is born out in practice. The problem with this epithet, however, is understanding the significance of yellow for this particular goddess. That she likes yellow, wears yellow, and prefers yellow offerings is something most texts and informants mention. The reason, however, is rarely commented upon.
Mahant Rama Shankar Tripathi told me that women in South India wear yellow and that it is an auspicious color. He also suggested that yellow symbolizes the sun and gold. He said that the lust for money paralyzes people (hence Bagalamukhi’s ability to paralyze) and that the sight of yellow, which represents gold, has the same effect. I have also been told that yellow is the color of ripe grain and fire, the former suggesting abundance and the latter purity. The four yugas, or world ages, have the following colors: Krta, white; Treta, yellow; Dvapara, red; and Kali, black.16 In this system, yellow is next to white in excellence, as the yugas decline in purity from the Krta, which is the best, to the Kali, which is the worst. The five *bhutas, *or elements of creation (earth, fire, water, wind, and space), are denoted by colors and shapes. Earth is designated as yellow. This may imply that Pitambara-devl is associated with the earth and worldly blessings. Bagalamukhi’s yantra, interestingly, shows two squares superimposed on each other at an angle, which may also imply her association with the earth, the square being the shape for the earth element.17 Turmeric is also associated with marriage, particularly in South India.
“Turmeric, which gives the yellow colour, is par excellence the colour and symbol of marriage in the south (and in other parts of India as well) generally.“18 Although yellow seems auspicious or pure in most of these cases, its exact relation to Bagalamukhi remains obscure.
Magical Powers
More than any of the other Mahavidyas, Bagalamukhl is associated with magical powers, which are sometimes referred to as *siddhis, *“accomplishments” or “perfections.“19 Among her epithets in her hymn of a thousand names are She Who Gives the Eight *Siddhis, *She Who Gives Magical and Mystical Powers *(rddhis *and *siddhis), *and She Who Gives All *Siddhis.20 *The invocation written around the edge of an amulet containing her yantra in the *Tantrasdra *reads: “O Bagalamukhi, please arrest the speech of wicked people, paralyze their faces, fix their tongues and destroy their intellect.“21 At the end of her *stotra *(hymn) in the *Rudraydmala, *it is said that those who worship her will be able to make their enemies deaf and dumb, destroy their intelligence, and turn their wealth to poverty. Worshiping her will also make hostile people friendly toward the adept.22 One author says that Bagalamukhi is worshiped to gain control over one’s enemies, to paralyze others, to attract others, to bring about the death of another, to counter the influence of the planets, to get wealth, and to win court cases.23 Her paralyzing power applies to motion, thought, and initiative. In the hymn of her hundred names in the *Rudraydmala, *she is called She Whose Form Is the Power to Paralyze and She Who Paralyzes.24 She gives the ability to stupefy. She also gives the power of forceful and intelligent speech by which one can defeat any opponent, no matter how brilliant.25
In the *Sankhydyana-tantra *she is compared to the Brahmastra, the missile of Brahma, a supernatural weapon used by the god in war.26 In fact, one of her most common epithets is She Who Is the Form of the Brahmastra (Brahmastra-rupini).27 The *Sankhydyana-tantra *also has a special section about worshiping her for the acquisition of magical powers.28 In some texts, specific recipes for worship are given for the different *siddhis *sought from Bagalamukhi. If, for example, one wishes the *siddhi **oimarana *(the power to kill an enemy by simply willing it), one should make a burnt offering. In this case, though, the sacrificial fire should be the fire of the cremation ground. In this fire one should offer mustard oil and the blood of a she-buffalo. For *uccatana *(upsetting or ruining a person) one should burn the feathers of a crow and a vulture, and so on for the other *siddhis.29 *
A contemporary author tries to explain the nature of the *siddhis *Bagalamukhi bestows on her devotees by comparing them to the ability of certain animals to detect the presence of other creatures in situations where human beings would not be able to. They seem to have either more-acute senses or extrasensory perception. He explains that every living creature gives off subtle waves that pervade its whole body and permeate the environment it occupies. These waves linger for awhile after the departure of the creature who made them, he claims, and can be detected by dogs and crows, for example. Bagalamukhi bestows such heightened sensory abilities on her devotees, and with them her devotees can overcome, outwit, and control other people.30
In the case of each of the Mahavidyas, and indeed in the case of almost every Hindu deity, rewards can be expected from correct and sincere worship. Similarly, in the ancient meditative tradition of Hinduism, going all the way back to the earliest texts on yoga, one finds the assumption that worldly benefits, rewards, and special powers may be achieved through meditation. These are the eight *siddhis, *in fact. That Bagalāmukhī should be associated with such pragmatic and practical rewards and accomplishments, then, is neither surprising nor unusual; it is merely explicit. Positive or negative interpretations can be placed on this aspect of Bagalamukhl. One author says that she “represents the ugly side of living creatures, like jealousy, hatred and cruelty.“31 Another informant, also by coincidence a monk of the Ramakrishna order, says that Bagalamukhi’s powers of *stambbana, *“paralyzing,” represent her control over the *tive pranas *(breaths) inside us. “She controls the vital breath; she conquers the tongue, which means self-control over greed, speech, and taste.“32 Indeed, we find in Bagalamukhi’s epithets references to both her power to give worldly enjoyment and her power to grant wisdom, knowledge, and liberation. In her thousand-name hymn, for example, she is called She Who Gives *Moksa *to All, She Who Is the Bestower of Ultimate Liberation, and She Who Gives Wisdom.33 On the other hand, she is also called She Who Bestows Ultimate Enjoyment, Giver of Wealth, and Giver of the Pleasures of Dharma and *Artha *(power).34
Bagalamukhi’s associations with sexual desire and pleasure probably can be understood as part of her bestowing the power of attracting others, including sexually attracting them. Several of her epithets in her thousandname hymn associate her directly with *kdma, *“sexual desire,” or the god of sexual desire, Kama-deva. She is called, for example: She Who Dwells Where There Is Sexual Desire, Who Likes Sexual Desire, Whose Form Is Sexual Desire, Whose Eyes Are Full of Desire, Who Gives Sexual Desire, and Who Takes Pleasure in Sexual Play.35 Another string of epithets associates and identifies her with the female sexual organ: She Whose Form Is the Yoni, Who Dwells in the Yoni, Whose Form is the *Lirigam *and Yoni, Who Has a Garland of Yonis, Who Is Adorned with Yonis, Who Enjoys the Union of the *Lirigam *and Yoni, Who Is Worshiped with the *Liriga?n *and Yoni, and Who Is Absorbed with the *Lirigam *and Yoni.36
Śava Sādhanā
In many depictions of Bagalamukhl and in some of her *dhyana *mantras, she is sitting on a corpse.37 A hymn to her in the *Riidrayrimala, *for example, describes her as having her seat on a platform set in the middle of the ocean of nectar. The throne is decorated with red lotuses, and she sits on the corpse of an enemy she has killed and tossed onto the throne.38 At the same time, she is pulling the tongue of a man or a beastlike creature. This combination of the goddess seated on a corpse while pulling the tongue of a demon suggests certain features of *sava **sadhana *(spiritual practice using a corpse), which is described in some tantric texts.
The presence of corpses in the iconography and worship of several of the Mahavidyas is striking. Kali, Tārā, Bagalāmukhī, Chinnamasta, Matarigl, and Bhairavi are often pictured or described as standing or seated on a corpse or *apreta *(ghost). Others, such as Dhumavati, although not seated or standing on a corpse, are sometimes said to be surrounded by funeral pyres or to be worshiped in cremation grounds. This association with corpses can be interpreted in several ways.
First, many informants say that the corpse is that of a demon whom that particular goddess has defeated in combat. This interpretation is usually cast in the framework of Vaisnavite *avatdra *mythology: the goddess emerges to protect the cosmic order by killing a demon who has usurped the gods. The myth of Bagalamukhi’s origin that features the demon Madan supports this explanation.
Second, the corpse may be said to represent ignorance or the passions that the goddess has defeated or controlled. Swami Annapurnananda, for example, explained the demon and corpse in the Bagalāmukhī image as the bodily rhythms being mastered by yogic control.
A third interpretation is that the corpse represents the male pole in the Siva-Sakti vision of reality, in which the male tends toward the static and the female toward the dynamic. This is exactly how the image of Daksina-kali is usually interpreted. She represents the underlying rhythm and power of the creation, which invigorates and empowers all beings and represents life itself, while the “corpse,” Siva, represents the unchanging, immobile, eternally blissful aspect of reality.
The corpse also might be interpreted as a reference to *sava **sadhana *(spiritual endeavor employing a corpse), which is described in detail in several tantric texts. The *Tantrasara *of Krsnananda Agamavagisa39 describes this practice as follows: The *sadhaka *is to take care, first of all, to select the right location, the right time, and the proper type of corpse with which to undertake this worship. A deserted house, the bank of a river, a mountain, a sacred place, the root of a *bilva *tree, a forest, and a cremation ground are all recommended as suitable. The best time is said to be the eighth lunar *tithi *(a lunar day), bright or dark, on a Tuesday night. The corpse itself should be intact and should belong to a young member of the Candala caste (a low caste) who drowned, committed suicide, or was killed by a spear, lightning, a snake, or on the battlefield facing the enemy. The *sddhaka *should avoid using the corpse of a person who was very attached to a spouse, lived an immoral life, was prominent, or died of famine.40
The *sadhaka *takes the corpse to the place of worship, reciting a mantra to purify it as he does so (let us assume the adept in the following ritual is a male). He offers the corpse three handfuls of flowers and makes obeisance to it saying: “You are the lord of all heroic persons, lord of *kulas, *blissful, you are the form of Ananda-bhairava (a form of Siva), and you are the seat of the goddess. I am heroic myself, and I bow to you. Please arise for the purposes of making my worship of Candika fruitful.“41 The *sadhaka *bathes the corpse with perfumed water while uttering mantras, then makes a bed of *kusa *grass and places the corpse on it with its head toward the east. Having put some betel nut in the corpse’s mouth, he turns the corpse over and smears sandal paste on its back, making a square in the middle of which he draws a yantra with an eight-petaled lotus and four gates. He puts a woolen cloth over the yantra, and if the corpse moves he spits on the corpse. He then worships the guardians of the directions and the sixty-four *yoginis *with vegetable offerings. Next he worships the *sava **asana *(corpse seat) and sits on it, mounting it as he would a horse.42 He expresses his intention *(sankalpa), *saying what he desires as a result of the worship. He then ties the corpse’s hair into a knot. Next he makes offerings to the deity, placing them in the mouth of the corpse. Getting off the corpse, he binds its feet with a silken cord and draws a triangle around them. Remounting the corpse, he presses its hands firmly down on the *kusa *grass, practices *prdnaydma *(breath control), and meditates on his guru and the deity in his heart, repeating the deity’s mantra fearlessly. While doing so, he scatters mustard and sesame seeds in all directions. Again getting down from the corpse, he takes seven steps and, returning, repeats the deity’s mantra. If he hears a voice asking him to make some offerings, he should reply: “Next time I shall offer an elephant and other things.” Then he should say: “Who are you and what is your name? Please give me a blessing.” After this, he unbinds the feet of the corpse, bathes it, and buries it or places it in a body of water.
It is not clear in this description of *sava **sadhana *exactly whom the *sadhaka *might be worshiping and whom he might be trying to control. At some points it seems clear that he is propitiating the corpse itself or the corpse as the seat or location of a deity. At other points it seems as if he is trying to control the corpse or the spirit that may inhabit it. The image of mounting the corpse in the fashion of riding a horse is particularly vivid and reminds one of possession cults, such as voodoo, in which spirits are said to mount those whom they possess. The tying of the corpse’s feet and the pressing down of its hands seem to indicate that the *sadhaka *is trying to control or tame the corpse or the corpse’s spirit.
It is also not clear whose voice addresses the *sadhaka *in this corpse ritual. It might be the deity whose mantra he is reciting, or the spirit of the corpse, or *apreta *or *hhuta *(ghost) associated with the corpse.
The *Tantrasdra *mentions another possibility: a goddess named Karnapisaci, who lives in the heart of a corpse. She favors the successful *sadhaka *by coming invisibly to him and whispering in his ear the correct answer to any question. The text says: “Ascending her, getting her power, he [the *sadhaka] *can go anywhere and see the past, present, and future.“43 Perhaps this deity is summoned or commanded by *sava **sadhand *and it is she whom the aspirant seeks to contact through this rite. Karna-pisaci is also described and discussed by a contemporary tantric practitioner as a deity whom one encounters in the cremation ground and from whom one may obtain knowledge of the present and past.44 This deity has clear shamanistic overtones. A central theme in shamanism is the acquisition of a spirit who gives the shaman special or mystical knowledge from the spirit world. Both in *sava **sadhand *and in the propitiation of Karna-pisaci, it seems that the *sadhaka *is interested in gaining access to such a spirit.45 It is in cooperation with, or through the power of, this spirit that the adept comes to possess magical powers for overcoming, controlling, or defeating his enemies.46 This is the possible connection between Bagalamukhi, who is so consistently associated with granting magical powers, and *sava **sadhand. *
The image of Bagalamukhi seated on a corpse while pulling the tongue of an “enemy” might also relate to the themes evident in *sava **sadhand. *A description *oisava **sadhand *by a contemporary adept often mentions the possibility of the corpse reviving or becoming aggressive. This particular *sadhaka *stresses the importance of remaining fearless in such circumstances and facing and overcoming the corpse, the corpse’s spirit, or the spirit possessing the corpse. Describing his own experience with this ritual, he tells how he was instructed to deal with the eventuality of the corpse becoming enlivened. “The old man had warned me that if she [the corpse was a young female] tried to get up I should knock her down and pin her firmly.“47 He was also warned that the corpse often begins to growl and scream at the *sadhaka *who is seeking to control it.48 In Tibetan Buddhist tantric corpse *sadhand **(chod *rites) the adept is warned that if the corpse comes to life it must be subdued, which may involve biting off its protruding tongue before the ghost can devour the adept.49
The “enemy” that Bagalamukhi beats sometimes has animal characteristics, which may suggest its ghost or spirit nature. A painting in a private collection in Bharat Kala Bhavan in Varanasi shows Bagalamukhi pulling the hair of a demon who has a tail and a dark complexion (see figure 32). In another painting of Bagalamukh! in Bharat Kala Bhavan, the demon she abuses is monkeylike in appearance (see figure 33). It may be that the depiction of Bagalamukhl seated on a corpse while afflicting a “demon” is meant to suggest that she overcomes or controls the corpse’s spirit, which has been revived or summoned by means of tantric rituals such as *sava **sadhand. *By bringing the spirit under her control, she becomes the mistress of magical powers, as does the *sadhaka *who worships her.
This analysis of corpse imagery also might be relevant to other Mahavidyas. Kali and Tārā are often said to stand or sit on corpses, Chinnamasta sometimes stands on a corpse being consumed in a funeral pyre, and Dhumavati is sometimes pictured in cremation grounds. This is a striking aspect of the Mahavidyas and begs for interpretation. In *sava **sadhand *it is specified that the corpse should be fresh, for then the spirit of the dead person is still nearby. The ghost of the corpse has not been settled and lingers in the liminal area between life and death. It still dwells in the land of the living, not being able to depart for the land of the dead until the appropriate *srdddha *rituals have been performed. In this sense, the spirit of the dead person is a potential *preta *or *bhiita, *an unhappy spirit that can cause trouble for the living. The spirit of a person recently killed, especially if the death has been violent, is a preeminent example of a liminal being, a being betwixt and between identities, realms, structured contexts.50 Such a spirit, like *pretas *and *bhutas, *who are stuck permanently between worlds, does not belong anywhere. They are outside all structures.
Victor Turner has argued that many religious rituals, beliefs, and practices seek to create liminal situations or to transform human beings into liminal figures. The reason for this, he argues, is that transformation of consciousness or identity, which is the goal of many rituals and beliefs, cannot take place easily, if at all, within the structures of the normal world. In many cultures, for example, initiation rituals often take place outside the normal confines of society—in the bush, the woods, or specially prescribed places—in liminal space. The rituals often use the imagery of rebirth to speak of the aim of the rites, which is to transform the initiates.
Similarly, perhaps, tantric rituals aim at transforming the aspirant, awakening in him or her an expanded consciousness and the acquisition of a new identity. An appropriate place to undertake such rituals is the cremation ground, the liminal place par excellence. To associate or identify with a fresh corpse, to employ one as a “seat” for ritual purposes, or to court the company of ghosts and troublesome spirits, enhances the liminal context of tantric rituals, instilling them with transformative potential.
Bagalāmukhī Temples
Shrines dedicated to Bagalamukhi are not very common; her worship is undertaken primarily through individual *sadhand, *which does not require a public shrine or temple. I have, however, heard of and visited a few Bagalamukhi-Pitambara temples.
One is in the old part of Varanasi, not far from Manikarnika Ghat. The temple is attached to a private house, and I was told by the priest there that it was a “private temple” but open to the public. The image of the goddess is normally kept hidden, which is typical in goddess temples. This one is covered with clothing and a silver mask. The priest told me, however, that the image underneath depicts Bagalamukhi in her familiar form, namely, pulling the tongue of a demon and about to strike him with a club. The priest said that the goddess gives the *siddhis *of detachment and *marana *(the ability to kill by simply willing it). He did not mention *stambhana, *which is the *siddhi *usually associated with Bagalamukhi. To the right of the goddess is an image of Siva and on her left an image of Ganesa. The statue of a crouching lion faces the goddess, which is typical in goddess temples. Pictures of the ten *avatdras *of Visnu hang in the adjoining hall, and outside the temple, on the porch, are large paintings of Garuda and Krsna. The goddess, then, has strong associations at this temple with both Siva and Visnu. The large painting of Garuda, Paksaraja (the king of birds), may be significant in light of Bagalamukhi’s association with the crane, although the priest did not comment on this association. According to the priest, *tdntrikas *do not worship at this temple, and *ball *(blood offerings) are not offered there. It is used primarily by ordinary householders and residents of the area. The sandals of the founding *mahant *(chief temple priest) are prominently enshrined in the hall adjoining the main sanctuary that houses the image of the goddess. None of the other Mahavidyas is enshrined or depicted at this temple, and the goddess’s association with this group is nowhere in evidence.
Another temple to Bagalamukhi is located in Bankhandi, Himachal Pradesh. Bankhandi, “where the arrow split the ground,” so named because long ago a sadhu established a spring by repeatedly jabbing an arrow into the ground, is a small town, and the temple is located outside it in the woods. According to the temple priest, the goddess came from Tibet, where she had killed demons who were assaulting her devotees. The tradition that Bagalamukhi came from the north is interesting and is supported by her popularity in Nepal. The king of Kangra became the goddess’s devotee and established her worship there. Since that time, the priest said, she has been the protective deity of the area. The priest said that the temple was “four or five hundred years old.” The goddess grants all desires and gives protection from all harm and blesses people with children (all standard functions of a goddess). She is unmarried, according to the priest, and there was no sign of a *lirigam *nor any image of a male consort. The priest said that her *vahana *is sometimes a crane, and indeed a framed painting in the temple showed Bagalamukhi seated on one. The crane is attacking the demon with its beak, and another crane is flying to join in. The priest said that the goddess likes yellow, which is the color of a crane’s beak. The entire temple, inside and out, is painted yellow. The actual image of the deity, which the priest assured me resembled in detail the descriptions of the goddess in her *dhyana *mantras, was not visible except for the head, which was of rough, black stone.
The most famous temple to Bagalamukhi is at Datiya in Madhya Pradesh, which I have not visited. It was established sometime in the 1930s by a sadhu who eventually became known as Puja Swami. Bagalamukhi was his *ista **devata *(chosen deity), and he established her image to benefit India, which at that time was in the throes of the Independence movement. Patriotism remained a strong theme in the *sddhana *of this founder priest, and I have been told that he undertook special worship to invoke Bagalamukhi’s power of *stambhana *against the enemies of India (both internal and external) on several occasions. An image of Dhumavatl is also installed at this temple, and it seems clear that Bagalamukhi’s association with the Mahavidyas is emphasized there. According to one report, left-handed tantric worship of Dhumavatl takes place at this shrine, although the founding priest did not practice it himself. This same description says that Bagalamukhi’s image is beautiful and she is associated with material blessings and welfare, while Dhumavati’s image is terrible and she is associated with destruction.51