INDEX

Abhinavagupta, 82

Abhiṣekha ritual, 22

Adharma, 42. See also Dharma

Aditi, 9–10, 18, 152

Ādityas, 9

Adultery, 81, 82–83, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91–92

Advaita Vedānta, 4

Afzalkhan, 110

Agnāyī, 17

Agni, 6, 14, 15, 74, 178, 195; and Pṛthivī, 9; Śiva as, 47

Agnicayana ritual, 66

Agni-purāṇa, 117, 191

Ahithsa, 146

Anom kings, 187

Aindrī, 156, 159

Aiyai, 145–146

Akṣobhya, 171

Alakṣmī, 20, 34, 154

Ambikā, 36

Ambivalence, 198, 200, 201, 208–209

Amitābha, Dhyāni Buddha, 165, 166

Amman, 198

Ammavaru, 201

Amoghasiddhi, Dhyāni Buddha, 165

Amṛta. See Nectar of immortality

Aṁśa, 9

Ānandamath, 181–182

Ancestor rituals, 193

Andhaka, 158, 159

Androgyny, 29, 50, 57, 58, 92–93

Anekaḳotibrahmandajanal, 133

Animals: goddesses and, 219; sacrificed, 15, 112, 113, 114, 146. See also Buffalo; Goat

Annakutā festival, 143

Annapārṇā, 126, 143, 175

Anti-structure, 130

Aparājitā, 107

Aprameyā, 133

Araṇyānī, 16

Ardhanārīśvara, 49, 50, 52, 53

Arjuna, 107–108, 139

Aruḷ. See Grace

Āryā, 66, 152

Aryaman, 9

Āryans, 55–56

Āryāstava, 141

Asceticism/ascetic austerities, 71; of Bappa, 110; of Bhagīratha, 188; of demons, 96, 101; v. dharma, 39; heat generated by, 42, 43, 48; v. householder, 46–48, 49, 52; of Mahādevī, 159; of Pārvatī, 42–43, 44, 53, 119; of Prajāpati, 178; of Sarasvatī, 63; of Śiva, 35, 38, 39, 40, 46, 48, 52, 53–54

AŚiva, 152

Asparājītā, 179, 181

Assam, 38, 145, 186, 187

Aśvinas, 56

Aśvins, 7, 15

Atharva-veda, 9

Atīśa, 166

Ātman, 93, 141

Austerities, See Asceticism/ascetic austerities

Avalokiteśvara, 165, 166

Avatāras, 138. See also Viṣṇu, descends in forms

Āyāna, 86, 88

Ayodhya, 70, 71

Bagalā, 162

Bali, 23, 25, 33–34, 188

Baluchistan, 212, 214

Bāṇabhaṭṭa, 117, 155

Banaras, 143, 177, 183–184, 246 n. 24; death rituals in, 192–193, 194; as sacred, 191

Banares Hindu University, 64

Bānāsura, 176

Bappa, 110

Bee, 239 n. 23

Bengal: animal sacrifices in, 146; Buddhism in, 165; festivals in, 113, 115, 146; goddesses in, 3; Kālī in, 116, 120, 122, 125; Kṛṣṇa in, 88–89, 90, 91; as mother, 181; Rādhā in, 3; Śakta devotionalism in, 122, 125, 126; Vaiṣṣavism, 3, 81, 89, 90, 91

Bhaga, 9

Bhāgavad-gītā, 102, 139

Bhāgavata-purāṇa, 83, 84, 117, 159, 176

Bhagīratha, 188

Bhairava, 162

Bhairavī, 162

Bhārati, 11, 15

Bhārat Mātā cult, 181, 184, 185

Bhāsa, 155

Bhātarsi Deota, 203

Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa, 82

Bhavabhūti, 117, 119–120, 145, 147

Bhavānī, 109, 110

Bhīmadevī, 170

Bhoga, 52

Bhūdevī, 17, 179

Bhukti, 58

Bhuvaneśvarī, 162

Blood, 128–129, 148, 176

Blood sacrifices, 18, 112–113, 114, 116, 117, 145–146, 171, 173–175, 205–208, 218

Bloodthirstiness, 97, 99, 100, 112, 139–140, 144, 145, 146, 156, 158

Boar, 152, 181

Brahmā, 30, 156; created, 133, 201; and creation, 137; and Durgā, 96, 100; and Ganges River, 189, 196; and Kālī, 122; as male and female halves, 57; meditates, 57; and Sarasvatī, 55, 57, 58, 59, 63; and Śiva, 37

Brahman. See Reality, ultimate

Brāhmaṇas, 10, 11, 12, 13, 55, 57, 178

Brahmānī, 156, 159

Brahmaputra River, 189

Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa, 58, 82, 92, 93, 94

Bṛhaddharma-purāṇa, 109, 163, 164, 165, 191

Bṛhalī, 152

Bṛhaspati, 6

Bṛhatkathāmañjarī, 145

Brubaker, Richard, 208

Bruner, Jerome, 78

Bubhaneśvar, 148

Buddha, 153, 155

Buddhiśaktisvarupīnī, 59

Buddhism, 56; Bengal, 165; goddesses in, 153, 172–173, 187; Tantric, 167, 172, 177; Tibetan, 165–166, 167, 171, 172, 177

Buffalo: demon (see Mahiṣa); sacrificed, 112, 114, 146, 205–208

Caitanya, 88

Calcutta, 146

Cāmuṇḍṛ, 117, 145, 146, 147, 148–149, 156, 159

Caṇḍa, 101, 118

Caṇḍālas, 118

Caṇḍamārī, 117, 146–147, 148

Caṇḍī, 117

Caṇḍīdās, 86–88

Carmamuṇḍā, 147–148

Cārudatta, 155

Caste, 63, 248–249 n. 12

Catastrophe, 198, 204–205, 207, 208, 209, 211

Cauvery River, 189, 191

Chastity, 74, 76, 78

Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra, 181–183

Cheating Death, 166

Children, afflicted, 152, 153, 154–155, 160

Chinnamastā, 172–177; and blood, 173, 175, 176; in Buddhism, 172–173; and cremation ground, 173, 176; described, 172–173, 175; as Hindu deity, 173, 177; and lotus, 173; as Mahāvidyās, 165; as Narasiṁha, 161; as nude and headless, 172, 175; represents life-death-sex cycle, 173, 175, 176; self-decapitation of, 162, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177; as Vajrayoginī, 172–173, 175; worshiped, 173, 177

Chola sculpture, 145

Churning-of-the-ocean myth, 26–27, 67, 112, 154. See also Creation

Cow, 7, 10, 12, 16, 33

Creation: Brahmā in, 137; Brāhmaṇas on, 178; Dānu and, 16; Durgā and, 97, 102, 104–105; of gods, 133, 201; Kṛṣṇa in, 58, 93; Mahādevī in, 133, 136–137, 141, 161; myths, 26–27, 67, 112, 154, 178; Pāñcarātra School on, 30; Pārvatī in, 49, 50; Prajāpati in, 178; primordial waters in, 16, 21, 26; Ṛg-veda on, 188; rivers in, 188; Sarasvatī in, 58, 62; Śiva in, 37, 38, 49, 50; sound in, 11, 13, 18; Śrī-Lakṣmī in, 21, 26–27, 30, 68; Vāc in, 12; Viṣṇu in, 30, 67–68, 161

Cremation grounds, 53, 148; Chinnamastā in, 173, 176; Kālī in, 116, 117, 118, 124, 125, 126, 130, 147, 214

Cry of Suffering to Tārā, 167

Dakṣa, 9, 23, 36, 37, 53, 119; sacrifice by, 38, 162, 163, 186; v. Śiva, 38, 39

Dakṣiṇakālī, 130

Damayantī, 78

Dance: Kālī’s, 119–120, 130; of Mātrkās, 156; Śiva’s, 47, 48, 53, 119, 120, 122, 203

Danturā, 148

Dānu, 16

Darmadra, 166

Dāruka, 118

Dasamahāvidyās, 119, 138

Dasarā festival, 106–107, 108, 110–111

Daśāvatāracarita, 82, 83

Dawn, 7, 8, 14

Death, 129, 131; cheated, 167, 168, 172; goddesses and, 13, 124, 125, 128, 146–148, 149, 167, 168, 172, 198, 206, 208; rituals, 191, 192–193, 194; and sexuality, 173

Delusion (māyā), 100, 104–105, 135–136

Demons: austerities by, 96, 101; buffalo (see Mahiṣa); Durgā v., 95, 96–97, 98, 99, 100, 101–102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 112, 114–115, 118, 138; goddesses, 153–154, 159; Kālī v., 118, 119, 120, 124; Mahādevī v., 138, 144, 156, 158, 159; Pārvatī v., 96; Śiva and, 203; in Śrī-Lakṣmī, 23–25; and village goddesses, 205, 206, 208. See also Bali; Kaitabha; Madhu; Niśumbha; śumbha

Destruction: goddesses and, 13, 124, 125, 128, 146–148, 149; by Siva, 47, 137

Devī. See Mahādevī

Devī-bhāgavata-purāṇa, 58, 63, 82, 99, 109, 156; on MahāDevī, 133, 137, 138, 139, 179

Devī-māhātmya, 96, 132, 139; on Durgā, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106; on Kālī, 118; on MahāDevī, 145, 148, 179; on Mātṛkās, 156, 158

Devī-purāṇa, 109

Devotion: divine-human, 82, 85, 89–90; of goddesses, 4; to Kṛṣṇa, 81–82, 84–85, 88–89, 90, 91, 92, 94; of Pārvatī, 35–36, 52–53, 54; of Rādhā, 81, 82, 85, 88–89, 90; to Rādhā, 90–91, 94; by ritual suicide, 145–146; of Sītā, 4, 79–80. See also Śākta devotionalism

Dharā, 179

Dharma (god), 23

Dharma, 28, 40, 63, 129; and adharma, 42; v. asceticism, 39; Durgā and, 96, 101; and mokṣa, 4, 52; and mukti, 58; Pārvatī and, 4, 46, 47

Dharma-śāstras, 4, 29, 99, 115

Dhārni Deotā, 203

Dhiṣaṇā, 15

Dhūmāvatī, 162, 163

Dhvanyalokālo-cana, 82

Dimock, Edward, 211

Dīpavalī (Dīvalī) festival, 33, 34, 116

Disease, and goddesses, 155, 160, 198, 200, 204, 205, 208, 209, 211

Diti, 152

Divine couples: Kṛṣṇa and Rādhā as, 91, 93; Rāma and Sītā as, 65, 78–79, 91; Śiva and Pārvatī as, 52, 91; Śiva and Satī as, 40; sky and earth as, 25; Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī as, 91

Divine essence. See Śakti

Douglas, Mary, 129

Dubois, Abbé J. A., 106

Durga (demon), 96

Durgā, 3, 36, 95–115, 132, 166, 175; blood sacrifices to, 112–113, 114; as bloodthirsty, 97, 99, 100, 112; and Brahmā, 96, 100; character of, 97; cosmic interventions by, 101–102; creates goddesses, 97, 102; and creation, 104–105; as delusion, 100, 104–105; v. demons, 95, 96–97, 98, 99, 100, 101–102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 112, 114–115, 118, 138; Devī-bhāgavata-purāṇa on, 99, 138, Devī-māhātmya on, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106; and earth, 105; and fertility, 95, 111–112, 113, 114; festival for (see Durgā Pūjā); forms of, 95, 96, 101, 114, 118, 165; guards dharma, 96, 101; as hunger, 100; hymns to, 107–108; as independent, 97, 99, 115; intercedes, 102–104; and Kālī, 97, 112, 118, 124, 125, 165; Kālikā-purāṇa on, 108–109; as liminal, 97, 99–100, 101, 115; and lion, 95, 97, 106, 109; Mahābhārata on, 107; as MahāDevī, 138; and Mātṛkās, 118; in medieval Hinduism, 96, 109; and military themes, 106–111; as mother, 95, 113, 114, 181; and mountains, 99, 107; names for, 99, 100, 104, 105, 107, 117; and nine crops, 111; as non-Āryan, 96; origin of, 96–97, 101, 104; and Pāṇḍava brothers, 107, 108; and prakṛti, 104, 105; protects warriors, 107–109; and Rāma, 107, 108, 109; Rāmāyana on, 107, 108; and śakti, 97, 104, 105; as sexually dangerous, 114–115; as Śiva’s wife, 95, 113, 114, 115; as sleep, 100; suitors of, 97–99; in Tamil, 114–115; in Vedic literature, 18, 95; and Viṣṇu, 96, 97, 100–101, 102, 104; worshiped, 99, 100, 102, 106–115, 177

Durgā Pūjā, 95; animal sacrifices in, 112, 113, 114, 146; in Bengal, 113, 115; daughters return in, 113–114, 115; as harvest festival, 111, 112; military themes and, 106, 107, 109, 110–111; ribald behavior in, 112, 113; Śrī-Lakṣmī worshiped in, 33

Dussaha, 154

Duty, 31

Dvāraka, 83

Dwarf, 28, 188

Dyaus, 8, 9, 25

Dyāvāpṛthivī, 8

Earth, 25, 105; as goddess, 17, 178–184; goddess rooted in, 186; Mahādevī as/and, 143, 149–150, 179–181, 186, 187; as mother, 181; Pārvatī as, 50; Pṛthivī as, 8, 178, 179; sacred power of, 185; Satī as, 40; Sītā as, 68, 70; sky and, 40, 50

Eck, Diana, 192, 196

Elephants, 21, 22, 34, 163

Fertility, 214, 218–219; agricultural and human as interdependent, 113; Durgā and, 95, 111–112, 113, 114; and Ganges River, 194, 196; of Indra, 25; Kālī and, 146; kings and, 22, 67–70; lotus and, 21; of Pṛthivī, 9; of Sarasvatī, 10–11, 55, 56, 58; of Sinivālī, 15; of Sītā, 65, 66, 67, 70; of Śrī-Lakṣmī, 4, 20, 22, 23, 26, 28, 33, 58, 68; and Yakṣas, 26

Festival: Annakutā, 143; in Banaras, 143; in Bengal, 113, 115, 146; Dasarā, 106–107, 108, 110–111; Dīpavalī, 33, 34, 116; Durgā’s (see Durgā Pūjā); function of, 207, 209; harvest, 111, 112; as liminal, 207; for Mahādevī, 143; in North India, 63–64; as ritual disorder, 209; Sarasvatī’s, 63–64; Śrī-Lakṣmī’s, 33; for village goddesses, 199, 202, 204–208, 209; vows in, 206

Figurines, 212–215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220

Fire: cult, 55; as purifying, 189

Forbes, Alexander, 106–107

Forest, 16, 41

Gaja-Lakṣmī, 22, 34

Gandharvas, 60

Gaṇeśa, 34, 44, 45, 95, 114

Gaṇgā, 3, 56, 57, 79, 190, 192

Gaṇgā Laharī, 193

Gaṇgā Mā, 193–194

Ganges River: Agni-purāṇa on, 191; ancestor rituals on, 193; Brahmā and, 189, 196; Bṛhaddharma-purāṇa on, 191; and death rituals, 191, 192–193; descends from heaven, 188–189, 192, 195; and fertility, 194, 196; Gupta period on, 191–192; health restored by, 194–195, 196; hymn to, 194; and Kārttikeya, 195; and Kṛṣṇa, 188; as link between worlds, 192–193; as mother, 193–194; names for, 193; nourishes, 194; as Pārvatī’s co-wife, 195; personified, 191–192; pilgrimages to, 191, 192–193, 194, 196; as sacred, 188–196; as śakti, 195; and Śiva, 188, 189, 192, 195–196; source of, 191; as threshold, 191–192; and Viṣṇu, 188–189, 192, 196

Garuda, 156

Garuḍa-purāṇa, 117

Gauḍavaho, 107, 117

Gaurī, 46, 119, 145

Geography, 4; sacred, 38, 40, 56, 178–196 (see also Ganges River); pīṭhas; Tirthas

Giriputrī, 41

Girirājaputrī, 41

Girīśā, 41

Gītāgovinda, 82, 83, 85, 86

Goat, 146

God(s), 3, 5, 6; cowherd, 81; create goddesses, 96–97, 101, 104, 156; divine play of, 105; as dominant, 17; and goddesses, 16–17, 23–26, 222 n. 24 (see also Divine couples); intervention of, 102; king of, 23; and Mahādevī, 137–138; and Mātṛkās, 151, 156, 160; mother of, 9, 66; power of (Śakti), 49, 156; Sanskrit, 197

Goddess(es): ambivalent, 208; and animals, 219; animal sacrifices to, 146; battle/warrior, 18, 63, 176, 177 (see also Durgā; Kālī); Bengal, 3; in Buddhism, 153, 172–173; on coins, 37; created, 96–97, 101, 102, 104, 156; as dangerous if unmarried, 115, 202, 203–204, 227–228 n. 52, 235 n. 58; demon, 153–154, 159; as dominant, 216; earth as, 17, 178–184; on figurines, 212–215, 216, 217, 218, 219–220; forest, 16; geographical, 3, 4 (see also Gaṇgā); and gods, 16–17, 18, 222 n. 24 (see also Divine couples); “grace” of, 204, 208, 211; headless, 172, 173, 175, 176; hungry, 148; India, as, 178, 181–184; Indo-European, 223 n. 3; as Mahādevī manifested, 4, 5, 18, 42, 138–139, 140; male attendants of, 198; masculine roles of, 4; minor, 14–17; as mother, 5, 7, (see also Mātṛkās); natures of, 5; nude, 116, 125, 172, 175, 176; powers of, 63; and prakṛti, 3; and prayer, 11; river, 55–57, 58; as role models, 63; and sacred sites, 185–186; sacrificial, 11, 15; śakti personified by, 49, 63, 104, 122, 133, 156; on seals, 215, 217, 218–219, 220; sex roles expressed by, 4; and snakes, 211; swords named for, 109–110; Tamil, 198; Tantric, 122; tensions expressed by, 4; unity of, 41, 132–133 (see also Mahādevī); in Vedic texts, 2, 6–18; village (see Village goddesses); worshiped, 145–146, 153, 154, 212–220

Gopīs, 83–85, 159

Grace, 54; of goddesses, 204, 208, 211; of Śiva, 36, 53, 54; of Viṣṇu, 31, 32

Grāmadevatā, 197

Granthakārinī, 60

Guhyātiguhya-tantra, 161

Guṇḍadabbe, 145

Gupta ideology, 181, 191–192

Halimā, 152

Hanuman, 72, 73, 79, 80

Haravijaya, 147

Hariścandra, 139

Hārītī, 153

Harivaṁśa, 66, 83, 140

Harṣacarita, 155

Heat: of austerities, 42, 43, 48, 71; of fidelity, 71

Hemacandra, 83

Hermaphrodism, 50

Himalaya, 97, 114, 119

Himalaya Mountains, 36, 37, 40, 99

Himavat, 36, 37, 42, 140

Hinduism; on ahirhsa, 146; blood and death in, 128–129; Brahmanic, 2, 146; classical, 55, 56; epic period in, 19, 36–37; goddesses as dominant in, 216; ideals of, 77; later, 17–18, 23–29, 55, 57–64; on liṅga and yoni, 216, 217; marital roles in, 76–77; medieval, 18, 27–28, 40, 96, 109, 156, 216; mokṣa as goal in, 63; popular, 2, 3, 79, 146; post-epic period in, 2, 155–156; refinement of nature in, 63; river-crossing metaphor in, 56; rivers as sacred in, 189; śakti in, 133, 135; speech in, 59; woman’s role in, 76–77

Homages to the Twenty-one Tārās, 166, 168

Hotrā, 11, 15

Householder, 35, 43, 46; v, ascetic, 46–48, 49, 52

Hunger, 100, 146–148, 149

Hymns: to Durga, 107–108; to Gangā River, 194; to Kālī, 124, 125, 127–128; to Mahādevī, 140, 141, 142; to Pṛthivī, 9, 178, 179; to Sītā, 66; to Śrī-Lakṣmī, 20, 21; to Tārā, 166, 167, 168, 170. see also Mantra

Idā, 11, 15

Iḷa, 15

Immortality, 26; nectar/milk of, 26–27, 67–68, 112, 154, 194

India: as body of Devxyc, 187; as center of world, 56; as goddess, 178, 181–184; independence movement in, 181, 182; Kālī as, 181; as mother, 181, 182, 184, 185; North, 34, 65, 78, 197, 204, 211 (see also Bengal); as sacred, 178, 185; as Satī’s burial ground, 187; South, 146, 197, 198, 200, 202 (see also Tamil); villages in, 197

Indra, 6, 9, 16, 17, 67, 109, 156; brings rain, 25; fertility of, 25; and Kārttikeya, 152; as king of gods, 23; and Mātṛkās, 151, 153; and plow, 25; and Pṛthivī, 91; and rivers, 188; and Sarasvatī, 56; and Slta, 66; and Śrī-Lakṣmī, 23, 25, 27; and Vṛtra, 188

Indrānī (Śacī), 17, 18

Indus Valley, 212–220; goddess figurines in, 214–215, 216, 217, 218–219, 220; great mother cult in, 216; religion in, 215–216; Śaktism in, 216; stone symbols in, 215–216, 217

Jagaddhātrī, 126, 143

Jaganmātā, 60

Jagatīkandā, 133

Jagganātha, 193

Jainism, 56, 107, 245 n. 10

jajpur, 148

Jakata tales, 195

Janaka, 68

Jarā, 153–154

Jayadeva, 82, 83, 85

Jihvāgrāvāsinī, 59

Jñānaśakti, 59

Jumnā, 56

Jumna River, 84, 189, 191–192

Jyeṣṭhā, 154

Kādambarī, 117, 155

Kadrū, 152

Kaitabha, 96, 100, 101, 102, 104, 109

Kākī, 152

Kālī, 3, 18, 44, 46, 116–131, 202, 204; in Agni-purāṇa, 117; appearance of, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 124–125, 126, 130, 181; as battle goddess, 116–117, 118, 119, 120, 130, 131; in Bengal, 116, 120, 122, 125; in Bhāgavata-purāṇa, 117; and blood, 128; blood sacrifices to, 116, 117, 146, 173, 175; and Brahmā, 122; as Cāmuṇḍā, 117, 156; as Caṇḍī, 117; and cremation ground, 116, 117, 118, 124, 125, 126, 130, 147, 214; as Dakṣiṇakālī, 130; dances, 119–120, 130; as dangerous; as death, destruction, 124, 125, 128; v. demons, 118, 119, 120, 124; in Devī-māhātmya, 118; as dominant, 120; and Durgā, 97, 112, 118, 124, 125, 165; early representations of, 213, 214; and fertility, 146; festival for, 116; as forbidden, 124; as frightening, 116, 117, 124, 125, 165; in Garuḍa-purāṇa, 117; hymn to, 124, 125, 127–128; as India, 181; as Kṛṣṇa, 161; as liminal, 117–118, 131; as Mahādevī manifestation, 122–123; as Mahāvidyā, 119, 122, 161, 162, 164, 165, 172; mantra of, 122, 124; as mistress of universe, 124, 125; as mother, 126, 127; 128, 181; as nude, 116, 125, 162, 163, 181; origin of, 118; as Pārvatī’s alter ego, 118–119, 120, 124, 126, 165; as reality, 122, 124, 128, 129–131; in Śākta devotionalism, 122, 125, 126; as Śakti, 123; and/as Satī, 119, 163, 165; as savior, 124, 125; and Sītā, 119; and Śiva, 116, 118, 119–120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 131, 203; in Tantrism, 122–123, 124, 125, 126–127, 147, 164; as Tārā, 165, 171–172; and thieves, 117; threatens cosmos, 116, 120, 122, 124; as Vindhyavāsinī, 117; and Viṣṇu, 122; worshiped, 116, 117–118, 120, 122, 124, 125–126, 127, 128, 130–131, 147, 165

Kālidāsa, 37

Kālīghāt temple, 146 Kātikā-purāṇa, 108–109, 145, 147, 163

Kalpanaśakti, 59

Kāma, 42, 47, 142, 143, 173

Kāmadā-tantra, 123

Kāmagiri, 186, 187

Kāmākhyā, 145, 186, 187

Kāmākhyā-tantra, 122

Kamalā, 162, 163. See also śrī-Lakṣmā

Kāmarūpa, 38

Kaṁsa, 83, 84

Kaṇṇagi, 201

Kaṉṉiyākumari, 202

Kapila, 188

Kardama, 20

Karpūrādi-stotra, 124, 125

Kārttikeya, 36, 43, 44, 95, 114; birth of, 152; and Ganges River, 195; and Indra, 152; Mahābhārata on, 152–153; Mātṛkās and, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156

Kaumarī, 156, 159

Kauśika-sūtra, 66

Kauśikī, 119

Kavijihvāgrāvāsinī, 59

Kavitāvalī, 78, 79

Kena-upaniṣad, 36

Kesai Khati, 145

King/kingship, 4, 68, 181; and fertility, 22, 67–70; of gods, 23

Korṟṟavai, 176, 177

Koṭavī, 176, 177

Kṛṣṇa, 96, 107, 139; as androgynous, 58, 92–93; in Bengal, 88–89, 90, 91; Bhāgavata-purāṇa on, 83, 84; and creation, 58, 93; devotion to, 81–82, 84–85, 88–89, 90, 91, 92, 94; and Ganges River, 188; and gopīs, 83–85, 159; as incarnation of Viṣṇu, 83–84; as irresistible, 81, 82, 84, 85; Kālī as, 161; and Kaṁsa, 83, 84; and Mātṛkās, 154; and Rādhā, 81–82, 83, 85, 89, 91, 92–94; and reality, 58, 92; and Rukminī, 81; Śakti of, 58, 91, 92; and Sarasvatī, 58, 59; and Satyabhāmā, 81; in Vraja, 82, 83, 84, 85; worshiped, 88–89, 90, 91

Kṛṣṇananda Āgamavāgīśa, 171

Kṛttivāsa, 109

Kṣemendra, 82, 83, 145

Kṣetrapati, 66

Kubera, 25, 34

Kulli culture, 212, 213

Kumarāgupta, 181

Kumāra Kampaṇa, 110

Kumārī-tantra, 145

Kurma-purāṇa, 140

Kurukullā, 170. See also Tārā

Lakṣmaṇa, 70, 74, 79

Lakāmī. See śrī-Lakṣmī

Lakāmī-tantra, 30, 31

Lalitā, 90, 91

Lalitā-sahasranāma, 133; on Mahādevī, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 179

Laṅka, 109

Liminality, 207; of dead, 131; of Durgā, 97, 99–100; of infants, 131; of Kālī, 117–118, 131

Liṅga: Śiva’s, 38, 39, 49, 195, 217; and yoni, 40, 49, 52, 216, 217

Liṇga-purāṇa, 118, 154

Lion: Durgā rides, 95, 97, 106, 109; Viṣṇu as man-, 152, 159, 181

Lohitayani, 152

Lotus, 163, 173; and elephant, 22; and fertility, 21; as pure, 21; and Sarasvatī, 62; seat, 21; and Śrī-Lakṣmī, 21, 22, 32

Love in separation (viraha), 81, 82–83, 85, 89, 93

Lozang tenpe jets’en, 167

Madhu, 96, 100, 101, 102, 104, 109

Mahābhāgavata-purāṇa, 163, 164, 165, 191

Mahābhārata, 29, 36, 41, 67, 81, 107; on Kārttikeya, 152–153; on Mahādevī, 141; on Mātṛkās, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 160; Sabhā-parva of, 153; śalya-parva of, 152; Vana-parva of, 151, 153

Mahācinatara, 170–171, 172

Mahādevī, 132–150; appearance of, 137, 139–140, 141–142; as auspicious, 139–150; austerities by, 159; as bee, 239 n. 23; as bloodthirsty, 139–140, 144, 145; brings rain, 143; as cosmic queen, 137–138, 161; and creation, 133, 136–137, 141, 161; as dangerous, 139–140, 144, 146–147; and death, 146–148, 149; and delusion, 135–136; v. demons, 138, 144, 156, 158, 159; as destruction, 146–148, 149; Devī-bhāgavata-purāṇa on, 133, 137, 138, 139, 179; Devī-māhātmya on, 145, 148, 179; as dominant, 135, 137–138, 164; as dreadful, 139–140, 144, 149; earth/world and, 143, 149–150, 179–181, 186, 187; festival for, 143; as food, 141, 143–144, 149; forms of, 119, 138, 139–150, 159, 161; function of, 137–139, 140–141; gods are dependent on, 137–138; human sacrifice to, 145; and hunger, 146–148, 149; hymn to, 140, 141, 142; India as body of, 187; and Kāma, 142, 143; Lalitā-sahasranāma on, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 179; as liberation, 141; as mad, 140; Mahābhārata on, 141; Mahāvidyās and, 161; Mātṛkās as form of, 158; as mother, 133, 138, 139, 149, 186; names of, 133, 135, 135, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 179; negative aspects of, 135, 139–140; other goddesses manifest as, 4, 5, 18, 42, 122–123, 136, 138–139, 140, 141, 143, 164; and Pārvatī, 139, 140; as prakṛti, 135–136, 142, 143, 179; as protectress, 139, 140, 144, 145; as reality, 132, 133, 135, 136–137, 141; and śakti, 133, 135, 136, 142, 143; Saundaryalaharī on, 137, 141, 142; as sexual desire, 142–143, 149; and Śiva, 133, 142, 164; and Viṣṇu, 133, 138, 139; as warrior, 138, 139, 144; and wisdom and learning, 141; worshiped, 139, 140, 141, 145

Mahāmātṛkās, 152. See also Mātṛkās

Mahāmāyā, 100, 104, 135

Mahāmāyā-vijayavāhinī Tārā, 170

Mahāmohā, 100

Mahānavamī, 107

Mahānirvāna-tantra, 123, 140

Mahāsurī, 100

Mahāvāni, 59

Mahāvidyās, 161–165, 175; Chinnamastā as, 165; described, 163; as fearsome, 163, 164; function of, 163–164; as group, 164–165; Kālī as, 119, 122, 161, 162, 164, 165, 172; and Mahādevī, 161; named, 162; number of, 161; origin of, 162; and ritual, 164; as Śākta version of Viṣṇu’s forms, 161–162; and Satī, 162, 163, 164; and Śiva, 162, 163, 164, 172; in Tantrism, 164; worshiped, 161, 164. See also Tārā

Māhesvarī, 156, 159

Mahī, 11, 15, 179

Mahiṣa, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 110, 112, 114–115, 138

Mālatī, 117

Mālatīmādhava, 117, 119–120, 145, 147

Mālinī, 152

Manasā, 197, 210, 211

Mānasāra-śilpa-śāstra, 147

Manavāla Māmunikal, 32

Maṇḍalas, 21

Māṇikkavācakar, 46, 53

Maṇimēkalai, 145

Mantras, 6, 12, 107; Kālī’s, 122, 124; power of, 59; Śrī-Lakṣmī’s, 30; Tārā’s, 170

Manu, 57

Manu-dharma-śāstra, 70–71

Māra, 170

Māriyamman, 146, 197, 200–201, 211

Marriage, 15, 199

Marshall, Sir John, 217

Mātaṅgī, 162, 163, 207–208

Mathurā, 82, 83

Mātṛkās, 3, 41, 151–160, 176, 177; afflict children, 152, 153, 154–155, 160; Bhāgavata-purāṇa on, 159; as bloodthirsty, 156, 158; dance, 156; as dangerous, 151, 152, 153, 155, 159; v. demons, 156, 158, 159; described, 151–152, 153, 156; Devī-bhāgavata-purāṇa on, 156; Devī-māhātmya on, 156, 158; and disease, 155, 160; and Durgā, 118; and gods, 151, 153, 156, 158, 160; as group, 151, 158, 160; as inauspicious, 151, 152, 153, 154, 159; and Indra, 151, 153; and Kārttikeya, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156; Kṛṣṇa and, 154; Mahābhārata on, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 160; and Mahādevī, 156, 158, 159; as malevolent, 155, 159; Matsya-purāṇa on, 158–159; in medieval period, 156; named, 156, 159; Natya-śāstra on, 155; as non-Āryan, 155; number of, 151, 152, 153, 156, 158, 160; origin of, 97, 156, 158; in postepic period, 155–156; as protective, 151, 153; and śiva, 155, 158–159; as śiva and aŚiva, 152; speak several languages, 153, 155; Vāmana-purāṇa on, 156, 158; Varāha-purāṇa on, 159; in Vedic texts, 151; as village goddesses, 155, 160; as warriors, 156, 158, 159; worshiped, 154, 155–156

Matsya-purāṇa, 158–159

Māyā. See Delusion

Menā, 37, 42, 43, 114

Milk. See Nectar of immortality

Mīnākṣī, 202–203

Mitra, 6, 9

Mohinī, 67

Mokṣa, 101, 164, 191; and dharma, 4, 52; as goal, 63; in Tantrism, 123; and unity of opposites, 123

Mother, 5, 7; Aditi as, 9, 10; Bengal as, 181; Durgā as, 95, 113, 114, 181; earth as, 181; Ganges River as, 193–194; of gods, 9, 10, 66; India as, 181, 182, 184, 185; Kālī as, 126, 127, 128, 181; Mahādevī as, 133, 138, 139, 149, 186; Pṛthivī as, 8, 9; Rādhā as, 93; Rātrī as, 14; Sarasvatī as, 11; Sītā as, 66, 78, 79; Vāc as 12; of world, 78, 79. See also Mātṛkās

Mountains, 37, 41, 99, 107. See also Himalaya Mountains

Mount Kailasa, 43, 202

Mount Meru, 147, 179, 189, 191

Mṛcchakaṭika, 155

Mulkti, 58

Mūlaprakṛti, 135

Muṇḍa, 101, 118

Music, 11, 55, 60

Nanda, 83

Nārada, 109

Narasiṁha, 159, 161

Narasiṁhī, 156

Narmada River, 189

Nature. See Prakrti

Nataya-śāstra, 155

Navarātra festival. See Durgā Pūjā

Nectar of immortality, 26–27, 67–68, 112, 154, 194

Nigama-kalpataru, 122

Nīlamata-purāṇa, 21

Nirnayasindhu, 107

Nirṛti, 13

Nirupamā, 133 NirutTārā-tantra, 122

Nirvāṇa-tantra, 122

Niśumbha, 96, 101, 102, 118, 119, 156, 158

Ocean. See Churning-of-the-ocean myth

Order, 203, 204. See also Dharma; Rta

Orissa, 33

Padmā. See śrī-Lakṣmī Padma-purāṇa, 82

Palālā, 152

Pallava sculpture, 145

Pāñcaratra schol, 29–31

Pañcatattva ritual, 123–124

Pāṇḍava brothers, 107, 108

Paṇis, 16

Parameśvarī, 133

Pārendi, 15

Parjanya, 9, 66

Pārvatī, 3, 34, 35–54, 78, 79, 132; alter ego of, 118–119, 120, 124, 126, 165; as androgynous, 50; austerities of, 42–43, 44, 53, 119; child of, 41–42, 43, 44; complexion of, 42, 44–46, 119; as creation force, 49, 50; dark side of, 46; v. demons, 96; devotion of, 35–36, 52–53, 54; and dharma, 4, 46, 47; as domesticator, 46, 47, 48, 120–122; as Durgā, 95, 96, 114; as earth, 50; as forester, 41; and Ganges River, 195; as Gaurī, 46, 119; as grace, 36, 53, 54; as householder, 35, 43, 46, 49: and Mahādevī, 42, 139, 140; as mediator, 53, 54; and mountains, 37, 41; myths, 38, 41–46; nature of, 41; not in Vedic texts, 18, 36; and prakṛti, 49; as preserver, 47, 48; as reincarnation of Satī, 35, 36–37, 42; as role model, 35; in Śākta texts, 41; as Śakti, 35–36, 49–50; and Śiva, 4, 35–36, 41–44, 46–50, 52, 53–54, 91, 116, 120–122, 195; as student, 54, 122; and Soma, 47; Śrī-Lakṣmī compared to, 35, 36; in Tamil śaivism, 53–54; worshiped, 53

Pativratā, 71, 76

Paurṇamasī, 90

Peasant culture, 212–214

Periyapālayattamman, 197

Periyavāccān Pillai, 32

Picchilā-tantra, 122

Pilgrimages, 184, 191, 192–193, 194, 196

Pīthas, 38, 40, 184–187

Poetry, 55, 60

Pollution, 189

Power. See Śakti, śrī

Prahlāda, 23–25

Prajāpati, 9, 12, 13, 20, 178

prakṛti, 58; Durgā and, 104, 105; Mahādevī as, 135–136, 142, 143, 179; Pārvatī and, 49; Rādhā and, 92; as reality, 3; Sarasvatī and, 62; Śrī-Lakṣmī as, 31

Pratibhā, 59

Primordial waters, 16, 21, 26. See also Churning-of-the-ocean myth

Pṛthivī, 10, 11, 126, 140; and Dyaus, 8, 9, 25; as earth, 8, 17, 178, 179; fertility of, 9; and gods, 9, 17; hymns to, 9, 178, 179; as mother, 8, 9

Pṛthu, 67

Pūjā. See Durgā Pūjā; Festival

Puraṁdhi, 15

purāṇas, 37, 83

Purification: by fire, 189; rites, 63, 129; by river, 56, 57, 189–191, 192; by Sarasvatī, 11, 55, 56

Purity, 21, 62

Purusa, 49, 58, 92

Pusan, 15

Pūtanā, 152, 154, 159

Rabindranath Tagore, 183

Rādā, 4

Rādhā, 3, 18, 81–94; adultery of, 81, 82–83, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91–92; as androgynous, 92–93; belongs to another, 89–92, 93; Bengal Vaiṣṇavas on, 3, 89, 90, 91; Brahma-vaivarta-purāṇa on, 92, 93, 94; in creation, 93; devotion of, 81, 82, 85, 88–89, 90; devotion to, 90–91, 94; as emotional, 81, 82, 85–86; as goddess, 91, 92, 93, 94; jealousy of, 94; and Kṛṣṇa 81–82, 83, 85, 89, 91, 92–94; as mother, 93; names for, 93; poems to, 86–88; and prakṛti, 92; as Śakti, 91, 92

Rādhāvallabhins, 94

Rain, 22, 58, 66, 143

Rājagrha, 153

Rājasuya, 22

Rākā, 15

Raksasī, 152

Raktabīja, 101, 118

Raktadantikī, 148

Rāma: cult, 79, 80; and Durgā, 107, 108, 109; as ideal king, 68; origin of, 68, 70, 74; and Rāvaṇa, 109, 119, 139; and Sītā, 65, 67, 68, 70–78, 79, 91; as supreme deity, 78, 80; as virile, 68; worshiped, 65, 78

Rāmānuja, 225

n. 53

Rāmāyana (Kṛttivāsa’s), 109

Rāmāyana (Vālmīki’s), 36, 66, 78; on Durgā, 107, 108; on Hindu ideals, 77; on Rāma, 68; on Sītā, 65, 68, 70, 71–72, 76, 79, 80

Rāmcarit-mānas, 78, 79, 80

Rām Līlā, 78, 79

Rāmnagar, 177

Rāmprasad Sen, 125, 126, 127–128, 165, 171–172

Rati, 42, 173

Ratnakara, 147

Rātrī, 14

Rāvaṇa, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 108; slain, 109, 119, 139

Ray, Niharranjan, 185

Reality: Kālī as, 122, 124, 128, 129–131; Kṛṣṇa and, 58, 92; Mahīdevī as, 132, 133, 135, 136–137, 141; prakṛti as, 3; Śakti as, 135; in sound, 59; in Tantrism, 122; as transcendent female, 132, 133; ultimate, 58, 136–137, 141

Revati, 152

Ṛg-veda, 12, 67; Aditi in, 9; appendix to, 20; on creation, 188; gods in, 6; as mantras, 6; minor goddesses in, 14–17; Nirṛti in, 13; Pṛthivī in, 8, 9, 178, 179; Rātrī in, 14; rivers in, 187–188; sacrifice in, 15; Samarā in, 16; Sarasvatī in, 10, 11, 56, 59; Sarasvatī River in, 187–188; speech in, 11; Sūryā in, 15; Uṣas in, 6–7

Ritual: abhiṣekha, 22; Agnicayana, 66; ancestor, 193; consecration, 22; death, 191, 192–193, 194; life-cycle, 63; and Mahāvidyās, 164; pañcatattva, 123–124; purification, 63, 129; sacrifice, 15, 66, 178; on Sarasvatī River, 57; and Satī, 164; of subjugation, 172; suicide, 145–146; Tantric, 123–124; Tārā and, 172; Vāc and, 12

River: in creation, 188; crossing, 56–57, 184, 185, 186, 192; goddess (see Sarasvatī); Indra and, 188; as purifying, 56, 57, 189–191; in Ṛg-veda, 187–188; as sacred, 56, 57, 184, 187–196. See also Ganges River; SarasvatīRiver

Ṛsi. See Sage

Ṛta, 7–8, 10

Rudra, 17

Rudrāṇi, 17, 36

Rudra-yāmala, 171

Rukminī, 81

Rūpa Gosvāmin, 90

śabaras, 99, 117

Śabda-brahman, 13

śabdavāsinī, 59

śacī, 17, 18

Sacrifice, 18, 116, 117, 171, 173–175, 218; animal, 15, 112, 113, 114, 146, 205–208; Dakṣa’s, 38, 162, 163, 186; at Durgā Pūjā, 146; goddesses of, 11, 15; human, 145; humiliation in, 205–206; to Mahādevī, 145; in Ṛg-veda, 15; ritual, 15, 66, 178; Śiva and, 38, 39, 40; Soma’s, 15, 23; in South India, 146

Sādhaka. See Tantrism

Sādhana, 123

Sādhanamālā, 171, 175

Sagara, 188, 193, 194

Sage, 6, 11, 12, 152, 154, 188

Śailasutā, 41

Śaivism, 36, 53–54

Śākambharī, 105, 143, 179

Sakhībhavas, 94

Śākta theology, 18, 38, 41, 122, 125, 126, 161–162; on pīṭhas, 184–187

Śakti, 13, 17, 18; of Ammavaru, 201; of bliss, 91; Durgā and, 97, 104, 105; as essence of divine, 133, 135; Ganges River as, 195; as god’s power, 49, 156; Kālī as, 123; Kṛṣṇa’s, 58, 91, 92; Mahādevī as, 133, 135, 136, 142, 143; Pārvatī as, 35–36, 49–50; personified in goddess, 49, 63, 104, 122, 133, 156; Rādhā as, 91, 92; as reality, 135; Sarasvatī as, 58; Śiva’s, 35–36, 49–50, 122; Śrī-Lakṣmī as, 30, 31; Viṣṇu’s, 30, 31

śaktirūpinī, 60

Samādhi, 139

Sama-veda, 12

Śami tree, 108

Sāṁkhya philosophy, 135

Saṁskāras, 63, 129

Saramā, 16, 152

Saraṇyū, 16

Sarasvatī, 3, 55–64, 95, 114; appearance of, 58, 60; as ascetic, 63; and Ásvinas, 56; birth of, 57–58; blessings of, 62; as bountiful, 56; and Brahmā, 55, 57, 58, 59, 63; Brāhmaṇas on, 11, 55, 57; and Brahmans, 60; character of, 58, 60, 62, 63; as cosmic, 60; and creation, 58, 62; and culture/arts, 11, 17, 55, 57, 59, 60, 141; Devī-bhāgavata-purāṇa on, 63; fertility of, 10–11, 55, 56, 58; festival of, 63–64; as healer, 56; and Indra, 56; and Kṛṣṇa, 58, 59; and Lakṣmī, 58; in later Hinduism, 17–18, 55, 57–64; and lotus, 62; and Mahādevī, 141; as mother, 11; and music, 11, 55, 60; names for, 59, 60; and prakṣti 62; as pure, 62; as purifying, 11, 55, 56; and rain, 58; Ṛg-veda on, 10, 11, 56, 59; and religious rites, 60; as river goddess, 10, 11, 55–57, 58; and sacrificial goddesses, 15; as Śakti, 58; and Sarasvatī River, 55–57, 187–188; Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa on 56; and Soma, 58; as speech, 17–18, 55, 57, 59–60, 62; and swan, 62; and thought/learning/knowledge/wisdom, 17, 55, 57, 58, 59–60, 62, 141; and Vāc, 11, 55; and Viṣṇu, 58, 59

Sarasvatī River, 55–57, 187–188

Sarvādhārā, 133

Sarvagā, 133

Sarvalokeśī, 133

Sarvaśastravasīnī, 60

Sarvavidyāsvarūpinī, 60

śatākṣī, 125, 143, 175

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 56

Satī, 46; body of forms pīṭhas, 38, 40, 186–187; as earth, 40; as faithful, 40, 41; and/as Kālī, 119, 163, 165; as Kāmākhyā, 186–187; and Mahādevī, 42, 140, 164; as Mahāvidyā, 162, 163, 164; as mediator, 39–40; myth of, 35, 37–41; reincarnated, 35, 36–37, 42; rituals and, 164; and Śiva, 35, 37, 38–41, 163, 164, 172, 186; suicide of, 35, 38, 39, 40–41, 163, 186; and Viṣṇu, 186; worshiped, 186–187; yoni of, 38, 39, 40, 186, 187. See also Pārvatī

Satyabhāmā, 81

Saundaryalaharī, 137, 141, 142

Savitṛ, 15

Sāvitṛi, 72, 78

Self (ātman), 93, 141

Self-decapitation, 145–146

Self-immolation, 145, 146

Serpent, 27, 67, 147

Seṣa, 147

Sexuality: and death, 173; of Durgā, 114–115; of Mahādevī, 142–143, 149; religion based on, 215–216; of Śiva, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 48–49, 52, 195

Shaman, 209

Sheep, 146

Siddhahemaśabdānuśāna, 83

Śilappadihāram, 145, 201

Sinivālī, 15

Sītā, 3, 65–80, 81, 109, 132; abducted, 70, 72–73, 74; and agriculture, 65–66; appearance of, 72–73; as Āryā, 66; birth, 68, 70; chastity of, 74, 76, 78; as devotee, 4, 79–80; as earth, 68, 70; exiled, 74, 76; and fertility, 65, 66, 67, 70; hymn to, 66; and Indra, 66; as intermediary, 79, 80; and Kālī, 119; as mother, 66, 76, 78, 79; as model wife, 65, 70–78, 79, 80; and Parjanya, 66; in popular Hinduism, 79; and rain, 66; and Rāma, 65, 67, 68, 70–79, 91; Rāmāyana on, 65, 68, 70, 71–72, 76, 79, 80; tested, 73–74, 76; in Vedic texts, 18, 65; worshiped, 65, 79

Śītalā, 204, 211

Śiva, 30, 34, 96, 97, 109, 156, 246 n. 24; as Agni, 47; as Ardhanārīśvara, 49, 50, 52, 53; asceticism of, 35, 38, 39, 40, 46, 48, 52, 53–54; as Bhairava, 159; and Brahmā, 37; children of, 41–42, 43, 44; created, 133, 201; and creation, 37, 38, 49, 50, 158; in cremation ground, 53; v. Dakṣa, 38, 39; dance (tāṇḍava) of, 47, 48, 53, 119, 120, 122, 203; v. demons, 203; destroys cosmos, 47, 137; and Durgā, 95, 113, 114, 115; as forester, 41; and Ganges River, 188, 189, 192, 195–196; grace of, 36, 53, 54; and Kālī, 116, 118, 119–120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 131, 203; v. Kāma, 47; lihga of, 38, 39, 49, 195, 217; as mad, 47, 48; and Mahādevī, 133, 142, 164; and Mahāvidyās, 162, 163, 164, 172; and Mātṛkās, 155, 158–159; and Mīnākṣī, 202–203; and mountains, 37, 40, 40, 41; nature of, 47; as non-Brahmanic, 155; as otherworldly, 46; and Pārvatī, 4, 35–36, 41–44, 46–50, 52, 53–54, 116, 120, 122, 195; and puruṣa, 49; and sacrifice, 38, 39, 40; Śakti of, 35–36, 49, 50, 122; and Satī, 35, 37, 38–41, 163, 164, 172, 186; sexuality of, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 48–49, 52, 195; sister of, 36; as sky, 50; student of, 54, 122; as Tantras source, 122; and village goddesses, 203; and Viṣṇu, 186; in world, 38–39; yoga of, 46, 53, 54

Śivadūtī, 156

Śivaji, 109–110

Śiva-purāṇa, 37, 50

Skanda-purāṇa, 96

Sky, 8, 9, 22, 25, 40, 50

Sleep, 100

Smallpox, 204, 211

Smṛtiśakti, 59

Ṣoḍaśī, 162, 163

Soma, 6, 11, 15, 23, 47, 58

Somadeva, 107, 117, 146–147, 148, 179

Songsten gampo, 166

Sound, 11; absolute as, 13; creation through, 11, 13, 18; reality in, 59. see also Speech

Speech; goddess of, 11, 12, 13, 55, 57, 59; Sarasvatī and, 17–18, 55, 57, 59–60, 62

Sphoṭa, 13

Spirit; endeavor for, 123; pure, 49, 58, 92

Śrī, 19–20

śrī-Lakṣmī, 3, 18, 19–34, 66, 78, 79, 95, 114, 132, 138; as androgynous, 29; children of, 20; compassion of, 32; and cow, 33; as co-wife, 58; and creation, 21, 26–27, 30, 68; in demons, 23–25; and Dharma, 23; in Durgā Pūjā, 33; and elephants, 21, 22, 34; fertility of, 4, 20, 22, 23, 26, 28, 33, 58, 68; as fickle, 26, 28; and Gaṇeśa, 34; and gods, 23–26; and good fortune, 33–34, 68; hymns to, 20, 21; and Indra, 23, 25, 27; as Kamalā, 163; and Kubera, 25; Lakṣmitantra on, 30, 31; and lotus, 21, 22, 32; as Mahādevī, 140; mantra of, 30; as mediator, 31–32; as model wife, 19, 28–29, 34, nature of, 20–21, 26, 28, 31, 32; origin of, 20, 26; Pāñcarātra school on, 29–31; Pārvatī compared to, 35, 36; as perfection, 21; as prakṛti, 31; as royal, 4, 19, 20, 23, 28, 68; as Śakti, 30, 31; and Sarasvatī, 58; and social order, 29; and Soma, 23; Śrī-sūkta on, 20; Śrī Vaiṣṇava school on, 29, 31–32, 54; in Vedic texts, 19, 20; and Viṣṇu, 19, 26, 27, 28–29, 30, 31–32, 34, 65, 91, 179; and wealth, 19, 25, 32, 33, 34, 58; worshiped, 20–21, 30, 32–34; and Yakṣas, 25–26

Srinivas, M. N., 77

Śrī-sūkta, 20

śrī Vaiṣṇavism, 36; on duty, 31; on Śrī-Lakṣmī, 29, 31–32; on Viṣṇu, 31

Śruti, 6

Subandhu, 165

Subjugation, rituals of, 172

Sudarśana, 139

śūdraka, 155

Suicide: ritual, 145–146; Satī’s, 35, 38, 39, 40–41, 163, 186

śumbha, 96, 101, 102, 118, 119, 156, 158

Surabhi, 152

Suratha, 139

Surya (sun), 6, 7, 15

Sūryā, 15

Suttee, 35, 40–41. see also Satī, suicide of

Svārga-sopana-saranī, 193

Swan, 62

Tāmasī, 100

Tamil: culture/epics, 145, 201, 202; Durgā in, 114–115; goddess, 198; śavism, 53–54 Tāṇḍava. See Śiva, dance of

Tantras, 54, 122

Tantra-sāra, 171

Tantrism, 172, 177; duality in, 124; goddess in, 122; hero (practitioner) of, 123, 124, 125, 126; Hindu, 171; Kālī in, 122–123, 124, 125, 126–127, 147, 164; left-handed, 122, 123, 171; Mahāvidyās in, 164; maṇḍalas in, 21; mokṣa in, 123; reality in, 122; ritual in, 123–124; Tārā in, 165, 167, 170–171

Tapas. See Asceticism/ascetic austerities

Tārā, 162, 165–172; blood sacrifices to, 171; as cheater of death, 167, 168, 172; as compassion, 165–166, 167; described, 167–168, 170, 171, 172; forms of, 166, 168, 170–171; function of, 166; in Hinduism, 171–172; hymns to, 166, 167, 168, 170; Kālī as, 165, 171–172; as Mahāvidyā, 172; mantra of, 170; origin of, 166; powers of, 168, 170; and rituals, 172; Sādhanamālā on, 171; as savior, 165–167; in Tantrism, 165, 167, 170–171; as Tārā Kurukullā, 170, 172; in Tibetan Buddhism, 165–167, 171, 172; Vasavadattā on, 165; worshiped, 166–167, 168, 170, 171

Tārāka, 37, 41–42, 43

Tārā Kurukullā, 170, 172

Tārārahasyavṛttikā, 171

Tārā-tantra, 171

Tibet, 165; Buddhism in, 165–167, 171, 172, 177

Tīrthas, 184, 185, 186, 192, 193

Tiwari, J.N., 176

Tortoise, 27, 67

Tripura Bhairavī, 147, 163

Tripurasundarī, 163

Tulsī Dās, 78, 79, 80

Turner, Victor, 207, 209

Tvaṣṭṛ, 6, 16

Umā Haimavatī, 36

Upaniṣads, 136

Upa-purāṇas, 96

Uṣas, 9, 17, 18; as cow, 7; as dawn, 7, 8, 14; as light, 7; and Ratrl, 14; in Ṛg-veda, 6–7; and ṛta, 7–8; and wealth, 7

Vāc, 11–12, 13, 17–18, 55

Vāgdevī, 57, 59

Vāgīśā, 59

Vaimitrā, 152

Vaiṣṇavī, 156, 159. See also Mahādevī

Vaiṣṇavism, 179, 181; on adultery, 89; on avatāras, 138; Bengal, 3, 81, 89, 90, 91; on divine intervention, 102; purāṇas in, 37, 83; on Rādhā, 3, 89, 90, 91

Vājasneyi-saṁhitā, 66

Vajrayoginī, 172–173, 175

Vākpati, 117

Vallabhācārins, 81, 89

Vālmīki, 65, 66, 72, 78, 79, 80, 108

Vāmana-purāṇa, 58, 119, 156, 158

Varāha-purāṇa, 159

Vārāhī, 156, 157, 159

Varuna, 6, 8, 9, 10

Varunānī, 17

Vasavadattā, 165

Vāsuki, 27, 67

Vayu, 97

Vedagarbhā, 60

Vedānta, 54

Vedānta Deśika, 31

Vedas (Vedic texts), 1; Āryans of, 55–56; on Durgā, 18, 95; on goddesses, 1, 2, 6–18; lack one great goddess, 18; on Mātṛkās, 151; on Sarasvatī, 11, 55, 56, 57; on Sītā, 18, 65; on Śrī-Lakṣmī, 19, 20; as śruti, 6; Vac creates, 12. See also Brāhmaṇas; Ṛg-veda

Vedic: Āryans, 55, 56; sacrificial ritual, 178

Venīsaṁhāra, 82

Vidyāpati, 86

Vilāsavatī, 155–156

Village goddesses, 2, 3, 197–211; as ambivalent, 198, 200, 201, 208–209; and catastrophe, 198, 204–205, 207, 208, 209, 211; as celibate, 202; character of, 197–198, 201; and death, 198, 206, 208; and demons, 205, 206, 208; and disease, 155, 198, 204, 205, 208, 209, 211; as disruptive, 198, 200, 203, 204, 205, 206–208, 209, 211; festivals for, 199, 202, 204–208, 209; as guardians, 199, 203, 204, 208, 209; as independent, 202, 203, 204; and injustices to women, 200–202, 205; male consorts of, 201–202; Mātṛkās as, 155, 160; in myths, 200–204; in North India, 197, 204, 211; as order, 203, 204; origins of, 200–201; rooted in village, 198–200; and Śiva, 203; in South India, 197, 198, 200, 202; symbolic marriage of, 199; worshiped, 20–21, 198, 199, 200, 204–208

Vinatā, 152

Vindhyas, 99

Vindhyavāsinī, 99, 107, 117

Vīrabhadra, 38

Viraha. See Love in separation

Virājā, 94

Virginity, 202

Viśākhā, 90

Viṣṇu, 21, 25, 38, 78, 109, 154, 176; as androgynous, 29; and Bali, 188; Bhāgavad-gītā on, 102; and Bhūdevī, 179; as boar, 152, 181; and churning-ocean myth, 27; as cosmic king, 181; as cosmic serpent, 67; and creation, 30, 67–68, 161; creation/birth of, 93, 133, 201; descends in forms (avatārās) 26, 27, 28, 42, 67, 102, 138, 156, 159, 161–162, 179, 181, 188; as divine king, 27–28; and Durgā, 96, 97, 100–101, 102, 104; as dwarf, 28, 188; and Ganges River, 188–189, 192, 196: grace of, 31, 32; and Kālī, 122; as Kṛṣṇa, 83–84; and Mahādevī, 133, 138, 139; maintains order, 28, 137, 161; as man-lion, 152, 159, 181; in medieval period, 27–28; and Prthivī, 9, 17; śakti of, 30, 31; and Sarasvatī, 58, 59; and Satī, 186; and Śiva, 186; and Śrī-Lakṣmī, 19, 26, 27, 28–29, 30, 31–32, 34, 65, 91, 179; Śrī” Vaiṣṇavism on, 31; as tortoise, 67; yoga of, 186

Viṣṇudharmottara-purāṇa, 159

Viṣṇu-purāṇa, 28, 29, 96, 176

Viśvadhāriṇī, 133

Viśvādhikā, 133

Viśvagarbhā, 133

Viśvakarama, 9

Viśvakarman, 6

Visvarūpā, 60

Viśvarūpa, 16

Vivasvat, 16

Vraja, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 94

Vratas, 33

Vṛtra, 11, 16, 67, 109, 188

Vyāpinī, 133

Whitehead, Henry, 197–198

Woman: daughter-in-law role of, 77, 113–114; as faithful, 40, 41; injustice to, 65, 200–202, 205; as model wife and mother, 19, 28–29, 34, 65, 70–78, 79, 80; in religion, 1–2; status/role of, 76–77, 99, 113, 114

Yajur-veda, 12

Yakṣas, 25–26, 34

Yakṣīs, 16

Yama, 16, 97

Yamī, 16

Yamuna, 192

Yasatilaka, 107, 117, 146–147, 148, 179

Yaśodī, 83, 91

Yaśovarman, 107

Yoga, 52, 135; Śiva’s, 46, 53, 54; Viṣṇu’s, 186

Yoginī-tantra, 122

Yogisvarī, 159

Yoni, 49, 52, 216, 217; Satī’s, 38, 39, 40, 186, 187

Yudhiṣṭhira, 107, 108

Zhob Valley, 212–213, 214