आगमे वैष्णवे विश्वासटिप्पन्यः

To the preceding pages, the Vaisnavism of South India has been shown as being based on the Vedas, epics and other ancient works and as later developing under the Influence of the Puranas and Agamas. The variety of sources and influences makes it inevitable that the leading concepts like those relating to the avatara or the vyuha evolved a’ different times in different ways There does not seem to be any uniformity in treating them. Modern scholars cannot trace these concepts definitely to any sources or chart the stages in their evolution.

Earlier in this work It has been suggested that the Pancarātra is only a revised version of the Ekänti-dharma which was dealt with for th first time in the Vaikhānasa sistem The yantra concept whieh could have served as a link between those of japa and pratimā did not find scope in the Vaikhānasa system. But it is the pratima (image or icon) that occupies a place of importance in both the Agamas

The Vedas do not seem to refer to the wosship of the Images of God The Vaskhanasa Agama however declares that such worship is the best way of approach to God And the use of Vedic mantras is enjoined by both the Vatkhānasa Sūtras and the Vaikhānasa Ägama. In fact, they claim that any sacred rite performed in the holy fire is only worship of God (Visnu) Vedic ritual was thus treated as a form of worship of God. Because of this, the Mimāṁsakas and other orthodox followers of Vedas opposed to Idol worship, did not care to criticles the Vaikhānasas.

The

The Pañcarātra system, however, fared diffesently. It was criticised as foreign in origin and subject to foreign influence,

440

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

for allowing worship by those not entitled to Vedic studies and evolving Tantrika mantras for their use, and for using yantra and mudra. In the course of this book, these criticisms have been

met.

It may be remembered that the criticisms on the Pañcar@tra Agama Invite reference to the Utpattyasambhavādhikarana of the Vedanta Sutras, forming the last section in the second part of the second chapter Sankara approves of all the tenets and rituals of the Pañcarātra except for the declaration about the *birth’ of the jiva or individual self (who is known in the system by the name of Sankarşaņi), this is becau e the Vedas hold the jiva to be uncreated Rāmānuja, as pointed out already, has effectively answered this criticism

But the question may be raised whether this section contemplates any criticism of the Pancaratra. After all, its first Sutra,

“Utpaltyasambhavat”, means only “due to the Impossibility of birth (or production or rise) (of something) “. Here there is no reference to the Pañcarätra which seems to be brought in only because some of its texts appear to speak of she creation of the jiva The Sutra can be directed against any system opposed to the acceptance of Brahman as the cause of the DBiverse It can refer to the hypothesis of inert Sakti being such cause, on the strength of some Upanisadic texts, as suggested by Madhva Though this view seems reasonable, it does not explain Rāmānuja’s stand Perhaps he thought it necessary to answer the crucisms of Bhaskara and Sudkara against the Pañcaratra He demonstrates that there is no substance in them because the Pancaratra really does not hold the jiva to be created. His followers uphold his line of treatment in strict adherence to the principle that the strength of a group lies in the unity maintained by the individuals therein. We may also note that Vijñānabbiksu (who wrote extensively on yoga) thinks that this section refutes theorles about the origination of Brahman-a view that may solve many difficulties.

CONCLUSION

441

The Puranas speak with different voices about the Pāñcarā tra The Visnu, Bhagavata, Varaha, Brahma-varvarta. Garuḍa, Pādma, Agni, Liñga, Vāmana and some others support 1. But the Kürma, Vayu, Parāśara, Samba and some others attack it The contents of some Purānas like the Skända and Aditya are heterogeneous. Such evidence could be neither dismissed nor readily admitted

The same diversity of opinion is found among Kalpasülras and Smrts. Pancaratra practices are supported by the Kalpasūtras of Agnivesa, Baudhayana, Daksa and others, but condemned by Asvalayana and others. Similarly, the Smptis of Visņu, Sandilya, Vasistha, Satatapa and Vrddha-vasistha and the Yoga-yaiñavalkya and others are in favour, while those of Harita and Yama are against There are indecisive opinions in Viramitradaya and even in Yoga-yājñavalkya and the work of Satatapa.

In this welter of conflicting opinions, the testimony of the early statements made in the Mahābhārata and those in the Visnupurana and Bhagavata must be taken to be of primary authority.

RAMANUJA

The Impact of Vaisnava Agamas on the Vaisnavism of various schools, claiming a hoary antiquity and a firm basis in the Vedas, epics and the Purānas, may be seen in Important features of their precepts and practices The school of Rāmānuja (1017-1137 A D) is most closely linked with the Pāñcaratra The Agama had Influenced Vaisnavism in the south even before the days of the Azhvars. The prevalence of Vaskhanasa temples in the region from an early period attests to the Influence of this Agama also.

The Visistadvaita system of Vedanta, expounded authorita- tively by Ramanuja, has won recognition all over India. But its followers are most numerous in the region new comprising the

ASV-56

442

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

States of Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Karnataka. It has some centres in the north like Pushkar, Brindavan etc The life of

the Vaisnavas of the Ramanuja school is almost uniform in all these places except for a ‘ow in al variations. The temples here are regulated by either the Pancaratra or the Vaskhānasa Agama They all observe the custum of reciting the songs of Azhvārs which is a sort of universal rale morg this school of Vaisnavas, though the Agamas do not dir.c.ly enjoin 1’.

ميا

(TOLEA

In general, the cosmological specrlanions of the games have not had much imoset on Visistädvara Vienavim their philosophy has exerted Influence or it. The religious lite of these Valsna as has been deeply influenced by the Pañcarā tre Nevertheless, this influence is not all-inclusive: in several matters they prefer to follow the dicta of Smrtis 1516 This Is evident from. to take one example, the differences of opinion, based on Smrt texts, in regard to fixing In the annual calender Important festivals like the Sri Jayanti, Śri-rām-navami, Nrsimha-jayanti, Sravani-dvādasi and others

A striking feature of Vaisnavism is the growing conviction from the time of Ramanuja onwards that it is an imperave duty to worship every day the icon in the temple or the icon or the sālagrāma at home. This mode of worship he gained Importance as part of the bhakt movement. The earlit tradition of the Upanisads appears to have been tos res the galning of knowledge concerning God through a life of discipline, abstract thinking and meditation

Eminent sages like Vyası, Narada and others, out of humanitarian zral, sought

easter approach to Gid. Relying on the assurances of the Lord in the Bhagavadgita,1517 they taught bhakti to be the eastest as well as the surest means to realise God.

1516, Vide SR. p. 46. Cf. RTS. II 444-5; PR, p. 130

1817, Bh G. XII, 7, 10, XIII. 10 etc.

CONCLUSION

443

At this stage, the Agamas came forward with directions for worshipping God in the fioltized form of idols in temples. They too were animated by the zeal to serve humanity and help them in their troubles and afflictions. The Vaisnava Agamas have made a significant contribution towards this. It is noteworthy that there are relatively more Visqu temples In Tamil Nadu than in other States.

The Importance given by Ramanuja and his followers to the worship in temples accounts for the large number of Valsņava families living in th neighbourhood of temples in places like Tirumalai, Srirangam, Kañcipuram, Kumbakonam and others. The temple festivals in these places draw large crowds year after year. On other days also, plous persons feel it an obligatory duty to make at least one visit to the temple every day and offer their services to God according to their capacity. This tendency has influenced to a considerable extent the dally life of the Vaisnavas generally and particularly in the places mentioned above and others like Tiruvallikkeņi (in Madras city), Mannargudl, Azhvar Tirunagari, Melkote (in Karnataka) etc.

Though yogic practices are dealt with in both the Agamas, stress is laid primarily on upasana (worship), particularly of God in the form of Idols 1518 It is declared as the means for pleasing and approaching God. Elements of prapati enter into it, as It is the acknowledged means for salvation.

Music and dance are an essential part of the worship of God, particularly in temples. This receives emphasis in the Pancarātra 1519 It is also mentioned in the Purānas, 1520 Dance is not now permitted in temples, and music is confined to playing the pipe (nādasoara). The flute, lute etc., are now not

In use.

1518 VK pp 507-10, P.S. II. 1.1-8.

1519, Pas IV. 11.

Bh, P. XI. 11-38, 14, 243 Cf. Garuda-purane, CCIA. 6-1.444

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The four-thousand hymns of the Azhvars, according to tradition, were set to music by Nathamuni But the way in which they are now recited in the temples is not musical It is easy to guess that the musical mode was lost or abandoned at some time. Among the factors contributing to this might be the feeling that concentration on music might lead to neglect of meaning and even devorienai fervour, and that the reciation of the hymns in the temples would be restricted to those having musical talent and training.

Likewise the bhajana-gosthi or choral group singing songs in pralie uf God is not in high favour in South India It seems to be just tolerated on occasions like the Dhanurmasa (Decemb.r 15-January 15) or annual festival processions. The emphasis is on service to God in temples in some capacity or other, service to devotees and passively witnessing celebrations of festivals.

MADHYA

In addition to Ramanuja, three other teachers of South Indla bave made substantial contributions to Vaisnavism- Madhva from Karnataka and Nimbārka and Vallabha from Andhra, All of them have been Influenced by the Pancaratre and the Purānas. Rāmānuja differs from others in coming under the influence of Azhvärs also Among the forms of God, these teachers give special importance to arcă and vibhava (or avatära).

Madhvacārya (1199-1277) belonged to Udupi near Mangalore. He wrote a number of works on philosophy and religion demonstrating the ultimate supremacy of Visņu. His Tantra- sara-sangraha treats in four chapters the practical aspects of Vaisnavism. Pranava is stated to denote Brahman who is identical with Vişņu. The Astaksara 18 the source of all mantras and is the most important among them.1521 The Savitri is said to have

Tantra-sāre-sangraba, 1. 2, 13,

CONCLUSION

445

sprung from the Aṣṭāksara recited twice,1522 Nyāsa is described for mantras and letters 1523 God (Vişņu) is to be worshipped in the cakrābja-mandala, the heart, mountains, water or the ground.1524 The conch, discus and such other things are emblems of Visnu who is said to have two consorts, Laksmi and Bhu 1525 The materials for making images, their detalled measurements and other particulars are given in Chapter III, as also the procedure for consecratio0. The four vyhas are mentioned 1526 This work clearly shows that Madhva was closely following the Pancarātra tradition and deeply learned in the lore of mantras.

The Vişnu-rahasya that he often cites describes fully the worship of idols, particularly those of Vispu. Idols are of two kinds, cala and acala. The former is sald to be the Vaisnava Brahmin

चलाचलविभेदेन प्रतिमा द्वितयं मम ।

aar gacorat fast fgfærawer #AT ||

Visnurahasya, X. 2.

The statement that the Vaisnava Brahmin is the cala form of the Lord may mean no more than that he should receive worship as if he were divine, because the worship of the devoice is pleasing to Him 1627 Since this is not made clear, a

conservative Interpretation would be that the text is merely

eulogistic suggesting that

honourably treated.

Vaisnava Brahmins should be

1522 Ibid 14

1523

Ibid I 37-39a, 44. II.

Ibid I 49

1525

Ibid L. 18, 19

1526 Ibid IV 168

1527 Vide RTS, I. 489-90 where a passage is cited from the Padmottara

446

AGAWAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISE

The acala type Is of two kinds-what is sahaja (naturally formed) and ähita (consecrated). Of these, the sahaja pratimă may be a tirtha (a sacred river like the Ganga or a holy tank ilke that at Pushkar), a kṣetra (a sacred spot like Piayaga, Kast, Kuruksetra or Badari, or an idol found in the earth at such a spot) or a sila (ie, a sālagräma which requires no consecration before being worshipped).1528 All are qualified to worship this form.

Worship in the temple has to be performed thrice every day 1529 Only Brahmins are said to be capable of off ring worship there, 1630 Even among them, learned though they may be, certain blemishes of character or conduct act as disqualifications.1531

Stress is laid on mano-yoga, the fervour and sincerety of devotion 1532 Without this, observance of external formalities Is a mere show Hence worship is said to be both internal and external 1633 The former is done with the mind, and the dangers involved in its performance by those with uncontrolled minds are vividly described.1534 The latter is to be done with the physical body, and using wealth and other possessions for performing homa or extending charity 1535

Visnurahasya, X. 7a-10

1529, Ibid. X 119

1530 Vide

fanta fe year arêt !

Ibid. X 14b-21
Ibid LII 43a, 49a.
Ibid. LII 14
Ibid. LII. 15-42a.
Ibid. LII, 49b-84.

Ibid, X, 136,

CONCLUSION

447

Though the Visnurahasya does not deal with the construction of temples, other Important aspects of the Pancarātra are discussed and described. This may explain why Madhvācārya quotes frequently from the Visnurahasya and why It has enjoyed the favour of writers owing allegiance to the Dvaita system.

But it must be different from the Päñcarātra

text having the same name 1536

In spite of the Importance attached by the followers of Madhva to temple worship, there do not seem to be many temples governed by them The temple at Udup) is under the control of the pontiffs of eight mathas there, each of whom takes charge for two years In turn The Idols in the mutts at places like Mantralaya (in Kurnool district of Andhra) and Tirukkoyılür (10 Tamil Nadu) are worshipped by the ascetics here according to the Pañearātra Festivals are celebrated in the temple at Udupi with processions, but there is no chorus of Vedic chanters following the idol. The aseetic himself offers the holy water used for worship to the disciples and the congregation

The Ahnika, mentioned above, 19 informative on the daily life of the Madhvas All acts should be anderken only for pleasing Visnu and they form part of worship The worshipper should wear on his forehead a tilaka in sandal paste in the form of the urdhoa-pundra.1537 Similarly, a mark in the form of the lotus must be worn on the chest, in the form of the bamboo leuf ou each arm. and in the form of the flame of a lamp 10 other places This seems to be an attempt to reconcile the differing rules in the Isvara, Parameṣthya and Naradiya Samhitas,1538 Culously enough, there is no mention of the

1536 LT Introduction p 11 It is not however clear that a work having this name is meant here. See Schrader p. 10

1537 Madhva’s Krināmṛta-maharnava, 11 227-9

448

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

pandra of the form of the Lord’s foot 1539 The use of sacred mud from Srirangam, Dvaraka, Śrīkurmam, Simhadri, Prayaga, Vāraba (Srimusnam) and groves of tulasi, along with holy water from the worship of salagrāmas, is allowed. While performing acamana, the names of the four vyuhe Deities should also be uttered along with the twelve names of Vispu beginning with Kesava 1540

The followers of Madhva observe the sacrament of läpa by getting their shoulder-blades branded with the heated metal emblems of the conch and the discus It is their belief that the marks on their shoulders should not be allowed to fade out. Many Impress every day with sandal paste the forms of the conch and discus as rdhoa-pundra not merely on the shoulder- blades but also on the chest, arms etc 1541

The Ahnika details the procedure for worship and describes the pūjā-mantapa where it is to be performed Worship is to be offered with devotion even to Ananta, Garuda and others forming the retinue of God. After snapana, the Doādasa-stotra of Madhva must be recited. Vessels containing food to be offered must be placed on the bijaksara of Sri written on decorating designs made with coloured flour on the floor, and consecrated with the mila-mantra The mantras for offering food

1538

See PA pp 72-3

1539

A Brahmaratra text cited in SR p 72 refers to this form.

1540 Ähnika, pp 16-17

1541

Sankha-cakrānkana is a dīksa which confers superiority Without

at and the urdhva-pundra no undertaking yields fruits Vide

ततचक्रं तथा शंखं यस्या गाते न विद्यते ।

हव्यं कव्यं तथा स्पृष्टं देवाश्च पितरोऽपि हि ॥

àa gefta gfar: gar eçi qor agri

Ibid. VII, 64-85a.

CONCLUSION

440

consist of the names of the five vital airs in association with those of Aniruddha, Pradyumna, Samkarsana, Vasudeva and Narayana. The mula-mantra must be uttered for Brahman. The Jitante-stotra of five sections 1542 is to be then reclted. After performing Vaisvadeva, the preceptor, Brahmins and the retinue of Visnu must be worshipped. After completing the worship, one must draw on the forehead a straight black line (using charcoal from the incense offered) on the pundra of sandal paste.

Thus the Pañcarätra is held in high esteem by the Madhvas as the best among the sastras.

Vide·

अन्येषामागमनां तु वकारोऽन्ये भवन्त्यपि । TTACIJET G7Esta amié carita ft 1 watsfe adgreby acñafanuð ||

Visnurahasya, VII. 32-33a.

to be

In accordance with its dictates, they use the pista-pašu in sacrifices. They hold that even kamya rituals are performed without expectation of reward when they become akāmya, pleasing to the Lord 1543 While doing any act, particularly any act the Veda enjoins, one must have knowledge, devotion and detachment,1544 Vide

भगवद्भक्तिज्ञानवैराग्यपूर्वकं च कर्म कर्तव्यम् |

Madhva’s Karma.nirnaya.

1542

The printed text, according to the followers of Ramanuja, has

six sections.

1543 Madhva’s Krsnamyta-mahārnava, 234b. Cf. Mahabharata- tätparya-nirnaya, XXIX, 56.

Such acts should never be given up. Krsnamrta-mahārnava, 235b.

ASV-57

450

AQAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

NIMBARKA

Nimbarka (circa 1200 AD), born in Andhra and originally called Bhaskaracārya, was an ascetic reputed to be an avatara of the sun-god who put down heretics. A story about his name, Nimbärka, relates a miracle. Once he played host to a Jaina ascetic with whom he was having a philosophical debate. Suddenly they realised that they had debated till the sun about to get As neither of them could take food after sun-set he made the sun stand still in its course, asking the Jaina to walt under a nïm (namba) tree and serving food to him there Hence the name of ‘Nimbärka " or ‘Nimbaditya ‘.1545 Niyamanandācārya was another name of his 1546

after the

The sect founded by him is called

• Hamsa * incarnation of Viņu as a gwan who taught the Veda to Brahma,1547 In the same form he taught the pure tradition to Sanaka, Sinandana, Sanatana and Sanatkumara Nimbärka received it from Narada. His cult is known as Sanatkumāra. Narada-sampradaya, Vide:

इंसस्वरूपं सनकादिकेभ्यस्तत्त्वोपदेशाय विधाय शुद्धं तत्त्वं परं भागवत धर्म सत्मम्प्रदायार्थमुपादिशद्यः । 801coramiet azgudang andazu afcfaðm निम्बार्कनानातिगभीरवोधं श्रीनारदानुग्रहभाजनेन ॥

(Kesavi Kasmira-bhatta’s c mmetry on the Bhagavadgita last sloka)

1545 HH Wilson Religious Sects of the Hindus, o 86 Das Gupta’s History of Indian Philosophy (I p 399) says that he was a native of Nimba or Nimbapura in Bellary District and that he died in 1165 See P N Srini- vasachary’s Bhedabheda, p. 155 Giridhara Prapanna’s Dadašloki-vyākhya Laghu-mañjüşā, 6 says he belonged to Brndāvana near Delhi.

1546 Devācārya, Siddhanta-Jahnavs, p 6

The Hamsa-incarnation is mentioned in Bh P X 2,40 CI. Ibid. XI 4, 17. His appearance thus before Siva (XI. 19 13) and before Brahma (XI, 17, 3) is also mentioned,

CONCLUSION

451

Among the followers of Nimbārka are both householders and recluses. They are largely found in Upper India, near Mathura and in Bengal They wear the urdhoa-pundra with white earth or the sandal paste offered to God with a circular black mark in the centre. They also wear a necklace of tulart beads. Radha and Krsna are worshipped by them 1548

Nimbarka’s philosophy can be described as Svabhävika- Bhedabheda It makes a wonderful adjustment of conflicting metaphysical views It seems an adaptation of the tenets of the ancient thinker, Audulomi, referred to in the Brahma-Sutras,1549 It admits dvaitā dvaita between phenomena and the noumenon and bhedabheda between the self and Brahman 1650 who is both saguņa and nirguna Brahman is the abode of auspicious qualities, free from Imperfections and both the material and Instrumental cause of the universe The immanent Sakti of Brahman Is responsible for creation 1551

It is further held that Brahman is Radha Krsna,1552 having a dual spiritual form made of beauty and bliss. The six gunas listed by the Pañcaratra are among Brahman’s Innumerable qualities, thus testifying to the influence of the Agama on Nimbärka 1553 Prapatti is a path to mohsa open to all. Self- surrender to the grace of God is the most important of its six elements 1554 Devotion to Radha-Krsna deepens Into Intense

1548 For these particulars, see H H Wilson, Religious Sects of the Hindus, p 86

1549

Brahma-sutras, 1 4 21; IV 4 6.

Cultural Heritage of India, Vol I p. 573.

1551 The Philosophy of ‘Bhedabheda’. pp 158-9.

1552 Ibid p 155

1553

Vide Laghumaîtjüsä on Dasaślokt p 18.

}

1554 Keśava Kāşmıra Bhatta’s commentary on Bh, G., p. 2; XVIII, 66; Bhagavadgita-tattva-prakāŝikā, XVIII, 73,

452

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIJM

love, evoking a revelation of God’s blissful nature and leading to mokşa The friendship of the gopis should be sought 1556 Sayujya or Brahmānubhava characteris.s mokşa 1566

Nimbarka wrote the Dasasloki, a brief conspectus of his system, and a commentary on Brahma sūtras called Vedānta- pārvāta-saurabha. HIS immediate disciple, Srinivā、ācārya, commented OD it in

Vedānta-kaustubha ; which received a commentary, Kaustubha-prabha, from K Siva Kasmira Bhatta. Devacārya explained the Brahma-sütras Nimarka’s lines in Siddhanta jahnavi which has 器 super-commentary, Setu, by Sundara Bhitta Vanamali M śra discusses the system in detail in his Vedanta-siddhanta saṁgraha (also known as Sruh siddhānta) In seven chapters Ta Bhagavadgità is roterpreted according to Nimbarka by Kesiva Kaşmira Bhatta in Tativa-prakāšıkā

}

Nimbi ka holds Krṣņi, associated with Radha, to be the Supreme Reality 1567 Hayagriv is specially mentioned in the Sruti-siddhanta 1558 The three ultimate principles, Brahman (Krsna), cat (the self) and acit (inert matter), are real, co-eternal and both different and non-different from one another. Vide:

agrimatsfa gan: earacqat faar ga i

Vedānta-pārijāta-sawrabha, II 1 22.

Brahman’s auspicious qualities and freedom from imperfections are stressed. Vide for instance

स्वभावतोऽपास्तसमस्तदोषमशेषकल्याणगुणैकरा शिम् । व्यूहोङ्गिनं ब्रह्म परं वरेण्यं ध्यायेय कृष्ण कमलेक्षणं हरिम् ॥

Dasuslohi 4

1555

Cultural Heritage o’ India, II p 152

1656 Vanamāli Mısra’s Vedanta-siddhanta-samgraba (also called Sruti- siddhanta), II 60

1557 P N Srinivasachari’s Philosophy of Bhedabheda, p. 158, The name ‘Krina’ is thus derived

914 adufa faqoofa (fa gom: 1

1558 $ruti-siddhānta, 1. 1, IV, 1

CONCLUSION

453

There are many

similarities between the systems of

Rāmānuja and Nimbarka. Prapatti and its elements are common to both. Sayujya characterises mokşa. Inert matter is of three kinds-immutable (aprākṛta), mutable and time 1559 Brahman is Visnu and His body is eternal. Brahma and Rudra are subordinate to Him. Visvaksena, Garuda and many other eternally free selves attend on Him 1660 The main purpose of His descents on the earth is only to enable His devotees to have Intimate communion with Him.1581 The term, māyā’, understood an knowledge.

Vide:

arar aga mafara faurgatana i

aur wnafgazamıètsfq gfafaufta qa i

Kesava Kaşmira Bbatta’s Bhagavadgīṭā-bhāsya, IV. 6. Similar views had been advanced by Ramanuja earlier. 1562 1 ne Gila’s main teaching is the doctrine of self-surrender. The above-quoted commentary thereon observes :

उपास्यस्य सर्वशरणत्वाभिधानाच्छरणागति- परमेवेदं गीताशास्त्रमित्यवगम्यते |

Ibid. XVIII. 73.

The similar views of Ramanuja’s school have been referred to earlier 1563

1659 For the Nimbarka school see Siddhanta-jahnavi, p 77, and Datafloki, 3 Compare Rahasyarak、ā on Ramanuja’s Śriranga-gadyam. p 69

त्रिगुणकालशुद्धसत्वरूपेण अचेतनत्रैविध्यम् ।

Kesava Kasmira Bhatta’s Bhagavadgita-bhavya, p. 2

1881

Ibid p 3. Cf Ramanuja’s bhāsya on Bh G IV 6.

Śrabhāṣya, I 1. 21. Durgācārya offers the same explanation on Nirukta, V 15 Sridhara interprets māyā as knowledge under Bh. P,

X 8 30

See also P. N. Srinivasachari’s History of Vidisṭūdventa, p, 374,454

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

seems

Rāmānuja’s methodology

have Influenced Nimbarka, as may be seen particularly in his commentary on the Brahma-sülras. Through Ramanuj. again, he must have come under Pañcarātra Influence The system is not directly mentioned by him, but he uses the word, vyūhāngin’ 1564 Similarly, Srinivasācārya mentions sadgunya without referring to the Agama, 1585 But Kesava Kasmira Bhatta cites passages from the texts of the system which is mentioned by name 1568 According to Vanamali Misra, the Pañcaratra in the best among the source-books 1667 Manu Smrti and other authoritative tex’s

are based on it 1568 He refers to the four oyuhas 1589 Charting the course of the soul attaining release, he says that it proceeds to Aniruddha, then to Pradyumna, thence to Sankars ni and finally to Vasudeve thɩ Paramtaman. 1570 The fivefold sacrament Is described in detail and enjoined as obligatory 1571

controvert views

Nimbarka and his followers accept the Pañcarātra whole- heartedly

does not take pains to questioning the Agama’s authority or to the Brahma-sutra section at the end of against the creation of the universe by Sk I without the control God. Srinivasa arya also docs not refer to these

1564 D-tasloki, The word 13

taken

reject the theory that Chapter II, part 2, is

by the commentator Purusottama a pupil of rinivasacirva, to mean the four ‘vyuhas’ and also several kinds of divine descents like the purusāvatāra, the quni vatura and lilivatāra Giridhara-papanna in his commentary, Laghu mañjüşü, gives a brief account

1535

Bhagavadgītī tattya-prakāsīkā. p 2

1568 Kaustubha-prabha on Brahma-sātris II 4 44 In his Tattva- prakātikā, under Bh G VII 2 and IX 30 Sattvata-tantra and $r«-sattvata are cited Nārada-pāñcarătra is quoted under XVIII 73

Under X. 3, statement is identified as found in ‘Pañcaratra-vacana”.

Vedänta-siddhänta-sangrahe, 11. 78.

1568., Ibid IV 81-82

Ibld. IV, 26-33
Ibid. II. 61-83.

1671, Purusottama’s commentary on the Dafaslokā,

CONCLUSION

455

controversies. But Kesava Kasmira Bhatta adopts Ramanuja’s views on the matter He stresses particularly the authority of the Mahabharata in the matter. There is an ingenious suggestion by him that if Vyasa criticised the Päñcarātra It must have been some other school of thought with the same name.

Nimbarka’s followers however do not adopt temple They have implicit faith in their preceptors who are Perhaps the worship of Idols conducted in the mathas by leading preceptors is adopted by the followers.

worship grhasthas or recluses.

VALLABHACARY A

Vallabhācārya (1478-1531) is said to have been born in Andhra. In his view, Brahman having sat, cit and ananda as Its attributes is the cause of the world. But It is nîrvidesa In the sense of not having any ordinary or material attribute It is one, Infinite and the laner controller of all the selves. The difference perceived between them and Brahman is not natural, but due to His will Between the two, there is also non- difference which is perfect and not due to Illusion (māyā), Hence this system is called Suddḥādvasta.

The Supreme Being is Krsna and the way of attainment the Pusti märga. Vallabha’s teachings rely largely on the Bhagavata, which is admitted as the fourth prasthāna. Accordingly it is to be understood in its sevenfold meaning as sasira, skandha, prakarana, adhyāya, vākya, pada and aksara 1572 * Pusti’ means ’ nourishment’-from love of the Lord derived from His grace which nourishes is object. The grace may be ordinary, (maryāda) or special (pusti). The latter destroys the effects of time, karma and svabhāva 1573

Cultural Heritage of India, Vol I, p. 598.

1573, Vide

conquecar fe gfø: averfturfaar i कालादिबाधिका ।

कृष्णानुग्रहरूपा

Tattvartha-dipa, II. 229,

456

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISO

The first step to attain God’s grace is to surrender to Him.

This evokes God’s grace and purifies

The next step is to render Then comes ätmanivedana

service to God in the form of an idol. which consists in offering all of one’s belongings to God, never using anything before an offering is made of it Service creates a strong attachment to the Lord called nirodha which is of three kinds-prema, asakti and oyasana,1574

Pusts may be suddha or misra, svārtha or parārtha Rituals enjoined by the scriptures are inferior to devotion, they belong to the path of maryada in which God’s grace becomes limited in some way or other. But the pusti märga is free of such limitations It can also be called the path of airguna- bhakti, as it transecnds the materis affections of sattva, rajas and tamas. Such devotion has no object to gain and is disinterested 1575

This path leads to enjoyment of divine vision The devotee has no need of renunciation. His enjoyment shows everything including maksa as worthless 1576 The cowherdesses of Brndāvan are treated as the acaryas of this path.1577 The devotee has to

Vide

कृष्णसेवा तदा कार्या मानसी सा परा मता ।

Vallabha’s Siddhantamuktā valë.

qqzfacgfaqisanagıeft: fada: |

Hariraya on Vallabha s Nirodha-laksana, p 232.

1575 प्रेमपूर्विका सेवा हेतुः फलाभिसन्धानं

agfear aget fafter an i

Vallabha’s Subodhini on Bb. III 29 12.

1576 The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol I, p 603,

Vide

भगवत्युत्तमश्लोके भवतीभिरनुत्तमा ।

दुर्लभा ॥

wfmn: gafåar fæsar gåtarafa gêur i

Cf. The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. II. p. 605.

CONCLUSION

457

cultivate their mental attitude, the gopi-bhava. The bridal mysticism of such devotees requires the cultivation of some feminine traits. This leads to the bhagavad-bhava in which the self finds the Lord in all things connected with Him, and He is realized as Sarvätman. In moksa the self acquires the brāhma body and satisfies all desires. There is no fall or return from that state.

Vallabha declares that the pusti-marga is the real purport of the Vedas, the eples, the Päñcarātra and all sacred texts.1578

Vide

अर्थोऽयमेव निखिलैरपि वेदवाक्यै रामायणैः सहितभारत पाञ्चरात्रैः ।

अन्यैश्च शास्त्रवचनैः सहतत्त्वसू निर्णीयते सहृदयं हरिणा सदैव ||

Tattvärthalipa, I. 140.

It is open to all without any distinctions It is best among all the paths to salvation because there is no fear of a fall.

Vide·

मार्गोऽयं सर्वमार्गाणामुरामः परिकीर्तितः ।

यस्मिन् पातभयं नास्ति मोचकः सर्वथा यतः ॥

Ibid, II. 222.

The preceptors here are called Gosvamins 1579 which is often written and spoken of as ‘Gosains. Their dress is costly and

1578 In his Vatt on Tattvārtha-dapa, ( 3 ) Vallabha calls the Bhāgavatā, Gītā and Pañcarātra as Bhagavat-chastre.

One view is that this was originally a title of Caitanya and the preceptors of his cult After Vallabha’s followers wrested control over a temple at Gokula from the followers of Caitanya, they are said to have taken the title. A. K. Majumdar, Caitanya, his Life and Doctrine, p. 273.

ASV-58

458

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISH

food luxurious. Their followers, among whom are many rich merchants and businessmen, are required to dedicate body, mind and wealth to them

Gold icons of Gopala, Krsga and Radha are worshipped in their temples.

The Kripa image has a dark hue and is richly decorated. Worship is conducted eight times every day.1580 The ritual does not follow any traditional procedure, but consists of offering flowers, perfumes and food to the accompaniment of prayers of praise,

Festivals are celebrated in temples They include, in addition to Krsna Jayanti, the Räsyätra in October. The dances of the gopis are commemorated through song and dance. Pictures and Images of Gopala are worshipped in the house

Vallabha’s followers mark the forehead with two red, vertical lines meeting at the top of the nose, with a round, red spot between them Similar marks are also found on the arms and chest of the devout. They wear rosaries of tulasi beads and greet one another as Sri Krsna and Jaya G pal’ 1581

Mathura, Brndavad, Puri and Dwaraka are their holy places. The greatest sanctity is attached to Sri Nath Dwar temple near Agra. Every one in the sect has to visit the place at least once in his life and contribute to its upkeep.1582

Vallabha holds that the Brahma-sutras reject the validity of the Pañcarātra because it teaches the birth of the sulf He agrees with it however on all other points, According to him it expounds the puşti-märga.

For details, see H, H. Wilson, Religious Sects of the Hindus, pp. 72-73.
lbid. p. 75.
Ibid.

Vide:

CONCLUSION

459

पूर्वकं

alarm̃garaazân arfixneter gås fafgaçãa fmuaro: xaong sqrearanîî a: 1 अयमेव वैष्णवो मार्ग इत्युच्यते । 1583

Vallabha’s Bhakti-haṁsa, pp. 169.

This describes the Pancarätra method of worship and comes under maryada in Vallabha’s system, 1584 The vy@has aro however held to be Inferior to God as Purusottama,1585

RAMANANDA

Rāmānanda was born at Prayaga.1586 The date is uncertain. He is claimed to be a direct disciple of Ramanuja or the fourth-1587 or the fifth in descent from him through Devananda, Haryananda and Raghavananda. On account of a dispute with bis preceptor, Raghavananda, he was ostracised. This led to his founding a new sect open to all without distinction of caste or creed. The regional language replaced Sanskrit as the medium of instruction His twelve disciples were representative of all the castes and many professions. Bhakti and prapatti from the south were taken to the north by him,1588

He recognised no distinction devotees 1689

between God and His

Hls teachings were marked by a spirit of

1584

1583 See also Tativārthadipa, I 140

Raghunatha en Bhakti-hamsa, pp 48-49

1585

1586

Cultural Heritage of India, I. p 607

Ibid p 378

1587

HH Wilson Religious Sects of the Hindus, pp. 23-24. Vide also Bhakti-mālā.

1588

Cultural Heritage of India, IV. p. 378, P. N. Srinivasacharı’a History of Visiṣṭädvaita, p. 543,

1589 Ibid. II. 287, H. H. Wilson, Religious Sects of the Hindus, pp. 24, 28-29.

460

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

synthesis. Whatever feeling (bhāva) is natural to one should be the basla for the means to attain God Devotees could be house-holders or recluses 1590

The incarnation of God (Vişņu) as Rama is held in the highest reverence among all His forms. Therefore the followers of this teacher are sometimes called • Rāmavats * The sālagrāma and the tulasz plant are also worshipped. Mendicants called ’ Bairdgï’, numerous in the Indo-Gangetic plain and largely hailing from the poorer classes, chant the names of Rama and Kṛṣṇa 1691

Ramanuja’s liberalism, based on the Valṣpava tradition coming down through the epic and the puranas, must have Influenced Ramananda in preaching that distinctions of caste should not be observed

among devotees. However, no

Devānanda or Harinanda is known

among the Immediate disciples of Rāmāouja Perhaps the tenets of this school went to the north through men who were impressed by the teachings of Ramanuja, and have also thus influenced several small sects In North India through Ramananda, among whom the followers of Kabir are often included.

CAITANYA

Visvambhara, born la 1486 AD, was called Gauranga on account of bis fair complexion. After he became a monk, he was known by the name of Caitanya. His father was Jagannatha Méra and his teacher Vasudeva Sarvabhauma, the great logician During a pilgrimage be received the Gopala-mantra at Püri from Isvara Pori Meditation on it led him to an ecstatic state filled with the vision of Krsna and made him a worsnipper of the Lord in this form along with Radha 1582

Ibid. p 25.
Ibid. pp. 27-28
A. K. Majumdar. Caitanya, His Life and Dectrine, p, 108, 133.

CONCLUSION

461

Though Caltanya’s teacher, being a disciple of Madhavendra Püri,1593 belonged to the Madhva tradition. Caitanya himself taught not Dvaita, but Acintya bhedabheda. He held that the difference and non-difference between the selves and God is inscrutable. This doctrine was later elaborated by Ripa, Sanatana and Jiva, each of whom had the title of ‘Goavimin*,1594

Narayana and the four vyuhas are admitted as shining forms of Krsn› (God) Free from the influence of the gunas of matter, He has three powers or energies-saarūpa or scnilence, tatastha or the self, and bahiranga, also called maya. They correspond to para, ksetrajña and avidyā faktis The svarūpa-fakts has the three attributes of sat, cit and ananda, also known as sandhini, samvit and hladinī respectively. Radha represents the last of these, 1595

The Ideal of Radha-Krṣṇa helps in realising the absence of dis inction between Krspa and His devotees Loving devotion to wards God (preman or bhakti-rasa) is taken to be the fifth important aim of life (or puruşartha), the other four being practice of virtue, acquisition of wealth, satisfaction of desires and attainment of salvation The sentiment of devotion and the various religious emotions under this head are dealt with in the Bhakti rasāmṛla-sindhu and Ujjvala-nīlāmaṇi of Rūpa-gosvamin and Bhakti-sandarbha of Jiva-gosvamin

Bhakti is said to be of three kinds-sädhana, bhāvo and Eich of there is a stage. The performance of enjoined

prema

1593 Ibid p. 47-50, Sripada Madhavendra ’ by Dr. H Vedanta Sastri, “A I Q. C. Summaries of Papers”, pp. 148-50. Majumdar records the tradition that the idol he worshipped was installed at Nath Dwar temple

1594 Majumdar, Op cit, ch XXIII.

1605, Majumdar, Op. cit., chs, XXIII and XXIV.

462

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

rites rouses incipleni devotion; which intensifies; and which finally serves as the means and end of enjoyment, 1596

Bhakti should be preferred to karma, jñāna 1597 and zalragya. It dispels doubts, destroys egotism and makes the effects of past actions wither away. The practice of Intense devotion requires that the injunctions of the Vedas, Smrtis, Puranas and Pāñcarātra texts be obcyed. Jñana and karma should be regarded as a joint upaya in which the rituals are to be performed according to the Pañcarātra 1598 Jñana can be practised along with and as subordinate to bhakti. Vispu’s name and mantras (particularly, the Gopāla-mantra) are to be uttered always. All action must be dedicated to Gid Pilgrimages are recommended. God’s forms, qualities and sports must be sung about

Prapatti can also lead to mokṣa

The idol of God should not be throught of as a piece of stone. When an idol is taken in procession it must circumambulated.

Worship of images is called devatä yäga and that of house. hold deities arcanā. Hell awalts those who neglect them. Initiation is necessary for this kind of worship.

Among men the devotees of Vispa are the best Among the gods, Siva and Brahma are to be worshipped as devotees of Vişnu

Distinctions should not be observ d among devotees.

One Gopala Bhatta from the south Introduced the principles of the Pancaratra into Gaudiya Vaisnavism. His reachi.pare found in Haribhakti-vilāsa 1599 The Influence of the Agama is

1598, Ibid. pp. 293, 299, chs. XXV, XXVI.

1597, Ibid. pp. 335, 337.

Ibid. pp. 324-332.
Ibid. pp. 332-334 gave an account of this werk in some detail,

CONCLUSION

463

considerable, Vyühas are admitted. Sankarsana is said to preside over ahankara, Vasudeva over citta, Pradyumna over buddhi and Aniruddha over manas “The pupils of Caltanya cite in their works the Sativata.samhstä, Hayasirsa-pañcarätra and other such texts. Rituals involve bhūtasuddhi and follow the Agama directions, 1600

The school of Caltanya has developed an elaborate and complex theory of divine descents Krspa or Purusottama in the Supreme Being and not a divine Incarnation. He has three forms. The svayaṁrūpa is natural and exclusive to Him. The tadekātma-rūpa is a hypostatic manifestation identical with Him and also distinct through appearance and possession of attributes This is subdivided into vilāsa (as in the case of Narayana and Vasudeva) having the same power as the original exclusive form; svāmša, which is Inferior and exemplified by Matsya, Sańkarsin and others; and avesa of sakti as in Ādi-sesa, of jñāno as in Sanaka, and of bhaktı as in Nārada,1601

There is also a fivefold division of divine descents. The

vyū has represent the purusãoatāra The,guna variety allows the play of the three gunas as in the case of the trinity of Brabmā, Visnu and Siva Twentyfour forms illustrate the lilavatāra type Every Manu’s reign involves a descent, as in the case of Hari, Vaikuntha, Vamana and others. Among the four yugas, each has its own special kind of descent,1602

The Supreme Being inspires certain souls and makes them descend as prophets They are God’s descents only in a

1600 Rūpa Gosvamin’s Sanksepa-bhāgavatāmṛta, p 205

S K De “The Doctrine of Avatāra in Bengal Vaisnavism Studies in Indology presented to M M Kuppuswami Sastri, p 26.

1602 Ibid pp. 27-29. See also S K De’s Early History of the Vaisnava Faith and Movement in Bengal “, p. 154 and Jiva-gosvāmin’s Śrī Kṛṣna-sandarbha where nine vyuha descents are mentioned. The additional five are Narayana, Hayagrīva, Varaha, Nrsimha and Brahmana,CONCLUSION

465

Baladeva Vidyabhūṣaṇa of the 18th century wrote the Govinda-bhasya on the Brahma-süiras in accordance with the teachings of Caitanya. It is in the main on the lines of Madhva,1808 A pupil of Pitambara-dasa and Radha-damodara, he held the individual self to be a part of God. Radha is the foremost among His energies (saktis) 1609 In another work, Prameya-rainā kara (VI. 1) he stressed the need for the five

The worship of the sālagrāma is yāga Vide

sacraments.

शालग्रामादिपूजा तु यागशब्देन कथ्यते ।

Prameya-ratnākara (VI. 3c).

The principle of visesa (particularity), perhaps taken over from Madhva by Radha-dāmodara in his Vedānta-syamantaka, is stated to help the Lord in whom it is inherent to distinguish Himself as Brahman and Paramāiman Baladeva explains this as supra- logical (acintya) 1810 Passages are cited by these writers from the Sattvata, Ananda and Visoaksena Samhitās.

The Impact of Rāmānuja’s teachings is seen in several respects. Seva to God, the preceptor and devotees is enjoined. Significantly, bhakti is identified’ with it, Vide

भज इत्येष वै धातुः सेवायाः परिकीर्तितः । तस्मात्सेवा बुधैः प्रोक्ता भक्तिः साधनभूयसी ॥

Jivagosvamin cited by A K Majumdar,

Caitanya, p 327 &pp 329-31.

Thirtytwo offences are listed as needing to be avoided while offering service to the Lord They are similar to the enumeration of Vedanta Desika in his Pāñcarā tra-rakṣā,1611

A. K Majumdar, Op. cit ch XXII
Ibid. p. 290,
Das Gupta, Indian Philosophy. IV. p. 442.
Majumdar, Op. cit. pp. 301-2, Cf. PR. pp. 138-4.

ASV-59

466

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Gopala-bhatta’s Harl-bhakti-vilāsa gives a detailed account of the worship of Images In temples and all rituals connected with it. It is on Pancarätra lines.1812 Gopala-visnu is the Supreme Deity according to Kramadipika which mentions the five sacraments This is another work of the school

Madhva’s Influence on Caltanya’s philosophy amounts to little But la the line of Calianya’s preceptors is Mädhavendra Püri, as mentioned in Gaura ganoddeśa-dīpikā 1813

Caltanya’s greatness is revealed in his stress on the practice of bhakti in many ways Worship of the idol at home and that at the temple is imperative. His social outlook was liberal In his teachings, women and Sūdras are permitted to worship the sälagrāma. But this right seems to be denied lo practice, 1814 Structures are enjoined to be raised for housing the delties But there seems to be no provision for building shrines for Radha and Krsna, 1615

Caitanya himself is worshipped as a dual descent of Rajha and Krsna He is sald to have been worshipped even during

his life-time 1618

The rasika aspect of the Radha Krspa cult Influenced the glorification of Rama and Sita on similar lines in a late work Vasistha-samhita. But this Rama cult does not appear to hava had many followers 1617

1612 Ibid pp 332-4

1613

Ibid p 284 Taere is discussion in ch XXII The authority of this work is disputed

1614 Ibid p 334

1615

Ibid.

1816

Ibid p. 292

1617 MR Misra, “A Note on the Vasistha-samhita” in “Summary of Papers of the 26th International Congress of Orientalists”, 1964, pp. 164-5. The work was copied in 1802 AD.

CONCLUSION

VIJ NA NABHIKSU

467

Vijñānabbiksu (c. 1550 AD), a well known writer on the Sänkbya and Yoga systems, commented on the Brahma-sutras in Vyjñānāmpla He was a Giud ascetic who held the Supreme Brahman to be Sri Krṣṇ Nārāyana is Kārya-Brahman

Atman

could be denoted by the word, ‘Isvara’. Though He is the Lord of all, He creates mahat etc., with His potency called ‘māyā ‘.

Though there is really one Self, a plurality of selves has to be admitted for practical purposes

Among the oyuha manifestations, Vasudeva alone is eternal. Samkarsina and others are His manifestations Samkarşaņa (Siva), Pradyumna and Aniruddha arise from Visņu, the subtle body of Brahman Na ayana and Visqu are the manifestations of Bhagavão Matsya, Kuma and other descents are lilāvatāras, while Bhagavan is an ameṣāvatāra 1618

The Utpatty-asambhavā dhikaraṇa of Brahmasūtras (II 2) is Interpreted by Vijñānabbiksu as denying that Brahman has birth. He thus wisely avoids the controversy about the validity of the Pañcarātra 1619

OTHER VAISNAVA SECTS

The Important schools of Valsnavism referred to so far Influenced some minor sects The founders of the schools could not have influenced these sects. They developed gradually. Ramananda, for example, could not have taught anyone

who later founded a sect. But he is said to have had twelve chief disciples, 1820 Some of them or their students and later

1618 Vijnanamrta, 1. 1. 5.

Ibid. II 2.

1620, Wilson and Bhaktmālā give different lists.

468

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

teachers seem to have started sects bearing their names. They belong to all castes and many professions. Stress on bhakti is the one common feature among them.

Among such teachers was Tulasi Das (1545-1624), a pupil of Jagannatha Das and his student, Nabhaji. (In another version he studied under Nara Hari Dasa, a pupil of Rāmāṇanda) 1621 He was a Brahmin of Hajipur near Citrakūta. After a sojourn at Bradavana with Nabhaji he wrote the Ramacarita-mänasa, a celebrated work which gives a Hindi version of the Rāmāyana He ardently advocated the worship of Rama and Sitä spic seems intended to prevent the disintegration of sanātana- dharma.

His

God is taught to be formless. But the love of His devotees for Him Induces Him to assume a visible form, just as the water, latent in ice and hailstones, becomes patent under certain conditions 1622 The real devotee finds God in the movable and Immovable things 1623

He is an ardent champion of bhakti and describes its nine varieties 1624 It is fostered by the company of holy men and recluses Devotion annihilates the sufferings caused by the cycle of births and deaths But the path of jñāna is hazardous: one following it is liable to fall 1625

The Lord is said to take His abode in the heart of the self for two reasons The self must not seek anything from Him: there must be genuine love for Him

1621, Cultural Heritage of India, IV 395.

Rama-carita-mānasa, 1. 115 1-2.
Ibid IV 3
Ibid III 344,

1625 Ibid. VII 118. 1-4,

CONCLUSION

469

In metaphysics, Tulasi Das considers as erroneous the theories that declare the world as real, unreal, or partly real and partly unreal The seeker of self-realisation must reject them. For they are of no help in realising one’s nature or that of God 1626 But some claim him to be a follower of Sankara, though he was a devotee of Rama and had the title of ‘Gosain (as borne out from his Jñānadipikā) 1627

Another teacher of a small Vaisnava sect was Nabbaji (1600) who wrote the Bhaktimālā He was initiated into Valsnavism by Agradās, though his connection with Ramananda is not proved, 1828

Widely prevalent in North India is the worship of Radbā and Krsna The importance given to God in a feminine form dates back to the distant past The Sakta Agamas play up this tradition and make male divinities inferior. Other Agamas tend to give equal importance to both the sexes in their conception of Godhead. Thus Laksmi and Sitä are given due importance in Vaisnava Agamas Ramanuja stressed the importance of worshipping the Father as well as the Mother of the universe. But the name of Rajna does not occur in the source-books of

the Krsna colt

A sect of Radha-vallabhis worship Krsna merely as the vallabha or lover of Radha to whom primary importance is given Harivamsa who founded a mutt at Bradavana in 1585, is said to be its founder. His Rādhā-sudhānidhi praises Rādhā 1629 On the whole, the cult does not seem to be very different from Bengal Va’snavism

Vinaya-patrika, III.
Munshi, “Indological Felicitation Volume”, XX, XXI and pp. 401-411

1628 H H Wilson Religious Sects of the Hindus, p. 31.

Ibid. pp. 98-100,

470

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIGN

Some Valsnava sects with limited following are found in Jaipur, Delhi, Orissa and a few other places. They bear such names as Saktibhāvas, Harischandis, Sadhana-panthis and Madhavis. The sect of Caran-dasis preaches high moral standards and enjolas regular worship of the sälagrāma,1630

The ‘bairagis and various orders of ascetics like the Nagas do not constitute different sects, though H H Wilson takes that view, 1831 They belong to the sects mentioned above and similar Vaisnava sects, their differences in observances being due more to their life as recluses than to the theoretical aspects of philosophy or religion.

A peculiar cult called ‘Radhaswami’ had for its fifth leader Param Guru Huzur Sahabji Maharaj (born in 1881). His Tathārthā-prakāșa states that the Supreme Being, superior to the perishable and the imperishable, is the Parama-puruşa The worship of Krsna who is His divine descent, yields spiritual benefits As renunelation is held to be impossible, the active life of performing the duties enjoined in the Sāstras is advocated Yoga is also recommended.

SPREAD OF VAISNAVIS M

Many of the Important developments of Vaisnavism in later times have been briefly glanced at in the last few pages But Vaisnavism has prevailed all over India from ancient times, as may be seen from numerous temples, Inscriptions and literary works. Many royal dynasties patronised the cult, but without narrow-minded fanaticism The regions over which they ruled constantly changed on account of wars and conquests not therefore easy to determine the history of Vaiṣavism in each region.

It is

1630 Ibid pp 100-103.

Ibid. 103-6.

CONCLUSION

471

The tolerant spirit suffered serious setback when Rāmānuja was persecuted and the Visņu idol at the Govindarāja shrine in Chidambaram was removed. These anti-Valsgava activities are attributed to Kulottunga I In the 11th century. There is a tradition that Ramanuja consecrated the temple st Melkote (10 Karnataka) in 1099 A D. and that he remained there till 1110 when the persecuting king died 1632 But other dates have been mentioned such as 1070 when Adhirajendra was the ruler 1633 The Chidambaram sacrilege is dated at 1087 A D.1634 Though all this led to ill feeling between Salvas and Valsnavas and many bitter attacks in writings were made by each against the other, the kings continued to extend their patronage to all cults, though they might have faith only in one of them. Hence inscriptions of a Vaisnavite tinge, Visņu temples and colns with emblems like Garuda on them do not prove any exclusive faith of the ruler or the people of the area in Visņu.

Below is attempted a brief survey of Vaisnavism in the several States of India in broad outline.

1 Tamil Nadu

Vaisnavism is known in Tamil Nadu even at the beginning of the Christian era Ancient classics like Silappadıkāram, Paripadal, Ahanānūru and Purananuru which belong to the early centuries after Christ contain references to the temples at Srirangam, Tirumalai, Tirumalirun colai (near Madurai) and Tiruvanantapuram 1635 The divine descents of Rama and Krsna were being worshipped Indicating an old tradition about them. Most of the temples referred to are in Pandya and Cola regions.

Guruparamparā prabhāva of Tṛtiya Brahmatantra-svatantra Jiyar. Kulottunga died only in 1120,

1633 Prof K. A Nilakanta Sastrı’s Cholas.

1634 T A Gopinatha Rao, History of Śrīvaisnavas, p. 44

1835

Vide E S Varadaraja lyer’s A History of Tamil Literature,

pp 203-250.

472

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

One striking feature of the classics is their freedom from narrow sectarian prejudices,

Manimekalai, a poem of the 3rd century, shows that there were debates and discussions between various sects, including Vaişpavism.1636 It refers to worshippers of Visqu living at Vañci,1637 along with followers of other sects. It is positive evidence on the prevalence of the cult in that area, but has no bearing on the conditions in other places.

The Azhvars (who perhaps flourished between 600 and 800 AD) have sung of about 82 shrines in Tamil Nadu, scattered along the east coast and spreading westward to the Pandya and Cera territories. Temple worship should have been well established long before their time. Epigraphic evidence shows that most of them followed the Vaikhanasa rituals The Uttaramerür temple and the cave temples at Mamallapuram appear to have been constructed according to the Marici- samhita of that school 1838 While this is teatimony to the popularity of this Agama, the absence of epigraphical references to the Pāñcarātra cannot prove that it was unknown.

Among the Pallavas Simbavisņu (r. 575 600) and his brother’s descendant, Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (r 710-75), were devotees of Visnu 1639 Rājarāja I (r 985-1014 A D.) of the Colas was well disposed towards Vaisnavism

His sister, Kundavai, built a Visnu temple at Dadapuram in South Arcot.

1836 See V Varadacharı • Treatment of the schools of religion and philosophy in Manımekalai”, SV VO Institute Journal, XIV, pp 9-26

1637 See Manimekalaı, XXVII 98-99 For the identity of Vañci see R. Raghava Iyengar’s Araiccittokuti, p 257

1638 Vide “Contribution of Tamil Nadu to Sanskrit in the Pallava period, mainly from epigraphs” by R Nagaswamy

by R Nagaswamy “Summary of Conference, Vol I, pp. 38-9. Cf,

Papers “”’,

International Sanskrit

Avantîsundarī, p. 156.

R. Satyanatha Iyer, History of India, Vol. 1, pp. 262, 321.

CONCLUSION

473

Considerable benefactions to Siva temples were also made. This harmony between the sects during the Cola perlod is marred by the persecution of the Vaisnavas in the 11th century already referred to: but the persecution did not spread to

Känci.1640

In the rock-cut monuments of the Pallava period as at Mahendravadi and Mamandur are found figures and paintings of Visnu. The Mahendra style is seen at Mamandur at Singap- perumal Kovil (near Chingleput), at the Ranganatha cave temple at Singavaram and at the Dharmaraja-mantapa at Mamallapuram In Mamallapuram itself, the Varaha-mantapa and the Adi-varība cave temple show the Mamalla style Tiruttangal in Ramanathapuram an admixture of the Calukya and Pandya styles may be seen 1641

The Valkuntha-perumal temple at Kañct is remarkable for Its huge structures and panelled sculptures. It is said to have been built by Nandivarman Pallava (710-75) 1642 But Tirumangai Azhvar calls the templeParamesvara-vinnagaram’ and associates the name Pallava’ with the stanzas In praise of the Lord as enshrined there,1643 This suggests that Paramesvara- varman (660 80) constructed it. Nandivarman’s name associated with another temple near Kumbhakonam called ‘Nandipura-vinnagaram. Perhaps he completed the Kañci temple and built the temple near Kumbhakonam, His successor, Dantivarman, constructed on similar lines a fine temple for Sundaravaradaperumal at Uttaramerür. 1644 Later

1640 Ibid pp 401-2.

Archaeological Remains Monuments and Museums, Part I. Rock-cut Monuments” by K, R Srinivasan, pp. 142-3, 145-6.

1842 Ibid. Part II, p 219-20

1643, Periya Tırumozhi, II, 9

1644

“Archaelogical Remains. Monuments and Museums

Part II,

p 221.

ASV-60474

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Vijayanagar rulers improved on the traditions evolved by the Pallavas, Calukyas, Colas and Pandyas. For example, the cornices with monolithic stone chains at the kalyana-manḍapa built by them at Sri Varadaraja Swami temple at Kanci is a fine example of artistic progress,1645

The spread of Valsṇavism In Tamil Nadu owes much to the diffusion of the Azhvars’ poems by Nathamunl, Yamuna, Ramanuja and their successors. The Pallava rulers, Jaṭāvarman Sundara Pandya, Kulottunga II, Rajendra Cola, Vijayanagar emperors and the Naik kings at Madurai and Tanjore made invaluable contributions by constructing, renovating and main- taining temples of Visnu 1646

Ramanuja’s followers are the most nurmerous among the Vaisnavas In Tamil Nadu. His efforts at moral and spiritual re- generation were directed in many directions He reformed the administration of the temple at Srirangam, wrote out a manual. Nitya, for the daily round of religious duties, graded religious and philosophical Instruction and practices according to the qualifications of each Vaisnava, Instituted or re-organised the recitation of Azhvars’ compositions daily in the temples and in the streets whenever the processional idol was taken out, and the celebration of the adhyayana utsava once every year, he deified the Azhvars; and founded seventy four eoclesiastical seats of authority and perhaps some mutts also

The

The reforms at Srirangam temple were extensive staff were divided into ten groups each with specific dunes. The Vaikhanasa mode of worship was changed to the Pañcarätra.

1845 Ibid. pp 236-7

1646 Vide (1) K, A. Nilakanta Sastri’s The Pandyan Kingdom and (11) The Colas II (1) V N Hari Rao Koyıl Ozhugu, (iv) P R Srinivasan. Inscriptional Evidence on Earty Hindu Temples and (v) Brahma-vidya, XXVI. pp. 18-21,

CONCLUSION

475

Seals with figures of Garuda, Samkha and Cakra were made to -be used by different authorities.1647

The Nitya inspired many later works of the same kind; to which reference has been made in earlier pages. Not content with the manual, he is said to have given the following instruction to suit different aptitudes and qualifications.

पटित्वा भाष्यं तत्प्रवचनमशकौ शठरिपुगिरि श्रद्धा, afkcar are: gyıftfaatmafkat i

प्रभोः कैङ्कर्य वा प्रपदनमनोरथंमननं

ayamai ara wag aftaufeftau: 1

Arāyırappaḍi Guruparaṁparā, p. 242.

Another easy duty he Imposed was the maintenance of flower- gardens for the benefit of temples.

Ramanuja arranged for the Installation of the images of Azhvärs in temples. Annual festivals were instituted for celebrating their birthdays The idols of the Azhvārs were assembled before the Lord to temples during the annual Adhyayana festival and accorded honours.

Seventyfour äcārya-puruṣas (spiritual preceptors) are said to have been authorised by him to instruct and initiate disciples and give them the sacrament of the pañca-saṁskāra. Most of them were householders and some of their descendants continue to exercise their spiritual office But the tendency nowadays for those who care for Initiation is to seek it at a mult.

It is quite probable that the systematic organisation of the mathas (mutts), religious institutions presided over by sannyāsims and entrusted with propagating doctrines, Initiating disciples and administering temples, was due to him. Such institutions

The “Koyil Ozhugu’ edited by V. N Hari Rae gives details.

476

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

continue to this day. In case the very Institutions founded by him bave not survived, later ones could have taken their place, 1848 Mathar are associated with the temples at Tirumalai and Srirangam. Among mathas started later may be mentioned those named after Ahobilam and Vanamamalal. The former, though started at Ahobilam in the Andhra region, has been presided over by sannyasins from Tamil Nadu, where it has several branches. Similarly, the Vanamamalai Matha, with its headquarters in Tirunelveli District, has branches in almost every place sacred to Visnu,

Ramanuja accorded primary Importance to Srirangam among the places sacred to Vaisnavas. The following Sanskrit prayer for the temple is attributed to him:

श्रीमत्रः श्रीरङ्ग श्रियमनुपद्रवामनुदिनं संवर्धय ।

Ramanuja’s successors made it incumbent on the part of every Vaisnava to recite this in every temple and home.

Among other contributions of Ramanuja may be mentioned the settling of Vaisnavs familles round temples to render service, help in their maintenance and derive spiritual benefit from them.

The term,

Valṣṇava*. in Tamil Nadu has largely come to mean a follower of Ramanuja, because the majority of the worshippers of Visnu owe allegiance to him. But there are also a considerable number of Madhvas in the region, and they are also Valṣṇavas. There are only a few representatives of other Vaisnava sects from other regions in Tamil Nadu.

Karnataka

In the Karnataka region Vaisnavism dates back to many hundreds of years before Ramanuja. But till his sojourn there, Jalnism was in a flourishing condition. Vişnugopa (r. 450-460)

1648 It is claimed that Sri Yadugiri Yatırăja Mutt of Melkote was founded by Ramanuja and has continued to this day.

CONCLUSION.

477

of the Western Gangas was more a saint than a king. He gave up Jainism and became a Valṣṇava. Durvinita (540-600) of the same family was also a worshipper of Visqu. 1849

Two of the rock-cut monuments at Badasal lo Bijapur District are dedicated to Visqu. Bas-reliefs on the walls represent the divine descents One of the monuments is known to have been excavated in 578 A D. by Mangalisa, brother of Kırılvarman. it contains the figure of Astabhuja-svāmin 1850

Bittideva (r 1111-1141) of the later dynasty of Hoysalas was an ardent Jaina who was attracted to Ramanuja when in exile from the Cola kingdom and became a Valṣṇava and called himself Visnuvardhana. It is said that this followed on Ramanuja freeing his son from possession by an evil spirit in 1099 1651

While the king continued to be tolerant towards Jainas and Salvism, he built at Ramanuja’s Instance the Narayana temple at Melkote.

The Hoysala style of architecture is seen in the temples built by him and his successors. He consecrated the Vijaya- narayana (also known as Cenna Kesava) temple at Belur in 1117. This temple became a complex of temples under Ballala If and others “The temple is a veritable museum of sculptures, large and small, and intricate vegetal and floral carvings “1652 A smaller temple in the same style was built at Somanathapura in 1268 1653

R Satynatha Iyer, History of India, I p 259.

1850

Brahmavidya, XXVI Pts 1-2 p 17. See also Congress of Orientalists Summaries of Papers “, p. 151.

International

T A. Gopinatha Rao, History of Srivaişnavas, p. 36. The dates of Ramanuja’s persecution and his flight to Karnataka require verification.

· Archaeological Remains, Monuments and Museums. Part II. Southern Temples” by K. R Srinivasan, pp. 210-11.

Ibid. p. 212.

478

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The Jalos version of Bittideva’s conversion adds that it war followed by thousands of Jains being ground by oil mills 1854 The allegation is not generally believed, but regarded as favourite embellishment In banding down accounts of disputations.“1655 This is supported by Vispuvardhana’s continued patronage of Jainism and Salvism. The same policy Continued under his son, Narasimba I (1141-73). His son and successor, Ballāla II (1173-1220), favoured Salvism, but was to- lerant. Narasimha 11 (1220-35) was a tolerant Valspava. Someśvara, bls son, neglected Vispu temples which were renovated by Jaṭāvarman Sundara Pandya who defeated him 1656 In the period that followed, perfect amity prevailed among the various sects. A temple to Harihara (combining in himself the characters of Siva and Visņu) was built.

新

The most important Valspava centre in Karnataka is Melkote. Rāmānuja is said to have stayed there from between 12 to 25 years. Apart from finding the mula bera of Nārāyaṇa and consecrating it, he also brought somewhere from the north the utsava idol and named it Sampatkumara'1657 The Nārāyaṇa (otherwise known as Ramapriya) temple is said to have been built in the Babudhanya year corresponding to 1098 A D.1658 During the annual festival in March-April the outcastes (or Tirukkulattār’ as Rāmānuja is said to have called them and now known as Harijans) were allowed to enter the

1654 Yatırājavaibhava, 97

1655

William Coelho, The Hoysāla Vamsa p 284

1658 lbid pp 251-95

The traditional account that he brought the idol from a Moslem ruler at Delhi clashes with the historical fact that Delhi was under Hindu rule till the 1190’s.
The difficulties in accepting this date are pointed out in S. Krishnaswamy Iyengar’s History of Tirupati, 1, pp. 273-5.

CONCLUSION

479

temple for worship on the occasion of the car festival and succeeding days.1659

The hill range on which the temple is built is known as Yadugirl or Yadavādri on account of traditions of association with the Yadava clan to which Sri Krsna belonged. On account of Rāmānuja’s stay there it came to be called “Yatlgfri 1660

Though the Azhvārs did not celebrate Tirunārāyanapuram in their compositions it is said that Ramanuja dedicated a decade of verses in Tiruvaymozhi (IV 1), where meditation on the divine feet of Tironārāyana (Sıīman-nārāyana) is recommended.

The daily worship at the temple is conducted according to the Pancarătra mode. Ramanuja’s directions are followed in the daily routine and the annual festivals. There is no shrine for Andal in the temple, and the features of the Adhyay ana festival in December-January differ in some respects from those of the same festival in Tamil Nadu temples. The dally recitation of the Azhvars’ hymns is carried on in Tamil even though the temple is in a Kannada-speaking region. (The life of the Vaisnavas in Karoāṭaka is not different from that in Tamil Nadu) 1661 The Idol of Ramanuja in the temple was Installed and consecrated at the request of his devotees when he left Melkote for Srirangam 1662

There are several Vaisnava mathas at Melkote The Yadugiri Yatirāja Mutt claims to have been founded by Ramanuja, The Ahobila and Vanamamalai Mutts have their

1659 CR Srinivasa Iyengar Life of Rāmānuja, p. 224.

1660

Yatīrājavaibhāva, 100-103

1661 It may be of interest to note that an inscription of Rajendra Cola, dated 1014 in Karnataka refers to a Śrīvaisnava community M N Parthasarathy in Ramānujavānī, January 1980, p. 89.

1862 Yatırāja-vaibhava, 103.

480

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

branches here. The Parakala Swami Matha also has a branch. This institution has its headquarters at Mysore. It is held to have been founded by Brahmatantra-svatantra-svamin, a direct disciple of Vedanta Desika. The idol of Hayagriva worshipped In the Matha by its heads is said to have come down from Ramanuja through Vedanta Desika. For a long time the rulers of Mysore owed allegiance to the Matha. It has branches outside Karnataka in Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Allababad.

even in

Scholars in Karnataka till the beginning of this century and a little later have made valuable contributions which can easily bear comparison with those in Tamil Nadu

Udlpi (near Mangalore) In the Karnataka region bas a temple of Sri Krsna bullt by Madhvacārya. It has several mathas some of which have branches in Andhra and Tamil Nadu. Udipi is a centre of pilgrimage for Madhvas.

Surveying the history of the Karnataka region as a whole, It is found that Vaisnavism flourished at different periods under the regimes of Kadambas, Calukyas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagar kings and Nayaks of Madural. These rulers held sway over the whole or some parts of the region 1663

3 Andhra

Inscriptions mentioning Visņu and His temples in the Andhra region are available from the 2nd century. At Chirmi in Krishna District an inscription of Yajňa Satakarni (c 165- 194) begins with an Invocation to Vasudeva. The Pallavas who succeeded the Ikṣvākus were upholders of vaidika-dharma. The queen of Buddhavarman (c 250 AD) made gifts to the Vispu temple at Datūra. About the same time a temple to Vişpu- bärakula was built at Kandukuru by Visnugopavarman, the

A, D, Karmarkar, Cultural History of Karnataka, p. 171.

CONCLUSION

481

general of the yuva-rājā, Visnugopa 1864 Nandivarman (c. 420) of the Salakayana family made gifts to Visnugrbasvamin. 1665 Vispuvardhana, the founder of the eastern Calukya dynasty who ruled coastal Andhra, was known as * Parama-bhāgavata”. 1866 Under the Vijayanagar emperors (14th to 16th century) Valsṇavism made notable progress. The Telugu epic, Āmukta- mālyadā of Emperor Krsnadeva-raya (1509-30), treating of the life of Goda and the Azhvars, testifies to the strength of the Vaisnava influence.

The most famous temple in the region is that of Srinivasa at Tirumalal Once on the northern borders of the Tamil region, it is referred to by the earliest Tamil literature. Nine of the Azhvars and Andal sing of it. Early inscriptions refer to constructions in the temple by Rajaraja Cola and Yadavaraya. Later, the Saluvas, Krsnadevaraya, Acyutaraya and Sadāsiva- raya made offerings to the temple 1667

There are other temples of Visnu at Tirupati at the foot of the Tirumalal hills and at Tiruccanûr near by Many temples were built or renovated by Vijayanagar rulers

Among them the Vithalasvami temple is said to be the finest of its kind în South India 1668 Other rulers who patronised Vaisnavism in the Andhra region include Mummad! Nayaka and the Reddi kings They were all tolerant to other faiths 1669

1664 Brahmavidya, Dis 1-2 Insoriptional Evidence in Hindu Temples”. pp

18-20

1665 Epigraphica Indica IX pp 317-9

1666 “Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute,” XLII, p 165

S Krishnaswamy Iyengar, History of Tirupati, Vol. I & II, See also S V VO R. Journal XIV, Pt 1, p. 48.

1668

S V.V.OR Journal, XIV Pt. II. pp 41-48.

1669 M Somasekhara Sarma, History of the Reddi Kingdom, p. 315,

ASV-61

482

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The temple at Ahobilam in Kurnool District has been extolled by Tirumangai Azhvär Those at Srikürmam (Srikakulam) and Simhacalam (Visakhapatnam) have associations with Ramanuja. There are other famous shrines at Mangalagiri (Guntur) and Bhadrachalam (Godavari).

The Smaria Brahmins of the region who joined the sect of Rāmānuja under his Influence and that of his successors seem to constitute a separate sub-community by themselves. Families belonging to the sect living in Tirupati from early times and this sub-community keep themselves somewhat aloof from each other. But the way of life of all Vaisnavas in Andhra does not differ from that in other regions The same is true of temple The Divyaprabandha and its commentaries are studied

rituals

in Telugu script and used.

Rāmānuja’s associations with Tirupati are numerous He demonstrated that the recent claim of the Saivas that the Deity in the temple was Siva was untenable The Deity Himself is said to have preferred the insignia of Viņsu 1870 A philosophical discourse which is now embodied in his Vedärtha-sangraha was delivered in the temple in the presence of the Lord Sudarsana Suri (13th centary) begins his commentary, Tātparya-dipika, thus.

«×[©¶g¶77€aì q: vititarà: go: 1 àgreféngearen gefearcqdqtfqarg »

When the image of Govindarāja at Chidambaram was thrown Into the sea, Rāmānuja recovered it and bad it installed at Tirupati, perhaps much earlier than 1135 at which tradition places this event. 1671 The conduct of the rituals of the temple

Yatırāja-vaibhava, 90-92.
S Krishnaswamy Iyengar History of Tirupati, I 281. T A Gopi- natha Rao discusses the question in History of Śrīvaișnavas, pp. 38-9.

CONCLUSION

483

was settled by him. But how far he was responsible for all its features is a matter of opinion,1672

There are several mathas at Tirumalai. There Is one cannected with the temple Branches of Ahobila, Vanamamalai and Parakala Svamin’s mathas are at Tirumalal Under their Influence Telugu-speaking Valṣṇavas have learnt to speak and read Tamil.

In Ramanuja’s days, his uncle, Tirumalai Nambi, and disciple, Anantarya, were rendering service at the Tirumalal temple. The family of Pillan, the second son of Tirumalal Nambi, settled in the heart of the State and enjoyed royal patronage in the Vijayanagar empire.

The followers of Madhya are also found in the region. Mutts of this faith are there Mantralaya near Adonl is the seat of a pontiff In later days, a group of Dasas emerged, who sang devotional songs in Kannada and spread bhakti.

4 Kerala

The temples of Visnu in Kerala are numerous They have been following for hundreds of years the tantrik mode of worship The Tantra-samuccaya of Narayana Nambutiri (born 1428) is a standard text book in twelve chapters dealing with the worship of various delties including Visņu. Temple architecture is also treated in Devalaya-candrikā This work on temples and Manusyālaya-candrikā on human residences are also attributed to him 1673 They quote there Tantra-samuccaya Sesa-samuccaya, dealing with matters not dealt with in this work, is of unknown authorship

1672

Itihasa-mālā, II, VII Cf T T D Epigraphical Report, 1930, pp 86-89, also S Krishnaswamy Iyengar.

1673 N V Mallaya, Studies in Sanskrit Texts on Temple Architecture,” Preface, p 111, and Brahmavidyā, XXV. pp 582-5 Mallaya mentions the several texts on architecture and temple worship on which Narayana Nambutırı’s work is based.484

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISH

Among the Visņu temples in Kerala, the most famous are those at Trivandrum, Guruvayur and Tiruvāṭṭāru

There are

also thirteen temples including that at Trivandrum which have been hymned by the Azhvars, but most of them are not well- known. The following is the list of the thirteen temples Included among the 108 holy shrines :

(1) Tiruvanparisāram Dear Nagercoll. (2) Tiruvaṭṭaru between Nagercoll and Trivandrum. (3) Tiruvanantapuram (which is the correct name of Trivandrum). (4) Tiruvaranvilal near Chengannur between Ernakulam and Quilon. (5) Tiruccen- kuarür Citrāru near by. (6) Tirukkadittänam near Chengana- cherl. (7) Tiruvallavazh near Kottayam.

near Kottayam. (8) Tiruvaṇvaṇḍūr near by. (9) Tiruppallyür near by. (10) Tirukkätkaral Ernakulam. (11) Tirumüzbikkalam near Alwaye. vittuvakkodu near Shoranur, (13) Tirunāvãy near by

near

(12) Tiru

Of these, all except Tiruvittuvakkodu have been sung by Nammazhvār That temple was hymned by Kulasekhara. Tirunavay has been glorified by Tirumangal Azhvār

The shrine

at Tirumūzhikkalam also has received poetic tributes from Tiru- mangal Azhvār Tiruvanparisāram is said to be the birth-place of Nammazhvar’s mother; there is a shrine for him in the temple. If the Guruvayur temple is earlier than the Azhvärs, it escaped their attention like other well-known temples in Tamil Nadu such as Srimuṣṇam and Madurāntakam,

Though the thirteen temples are in Malayalam-speaking Kerala, they have been celebrated in Tamil song Kuladekhara, one of the Azhvärs, is sald to have been the ruler of the regions round Kozhikkode (Calicut) All this suggests that Tamil must have been widely spoken in this area between 600-800 A,D. and that the temples must have followed the well-known Vaisnava Agamas.

But today they are mostly governed by Tantra-samuccaya and S’eşa-samuccaya. In some shrines the Pañcarātra and Vaikhanasa

CONCLUSION

485

modes are seen. The Pañcaratra has been incorporated into the Tantra-samaccaya in regard to the construction of temples, installation of idols and conduct of daily worship.

AI Trivandrum, however, no particular text is said to be followed The priests are governed by a tradition of instruction received through a long line of teachers, according to the directions of a sage called Divakara The ritual of worship includes nyasa and mudra

Kerala Vişņu temples do not have any marking like the ūrdhva-puṇḍra on the walls or anywhere else, unlike as in temples in Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Karnataka. Nor are there shrines to Sudarsana, Rāmānuja or the Azhvårs-not even in the temples glorified in the Divyaprabandha Laksmi gets a separate shrine only at Tiruna vay. On the other hand, most of them have a shrine for Sasta (otherwise known as Alyappan) In Trivandrum, Vyasa and Afvatthaman also have separate shrines,

The priests in these temples hold office by heredity and qualify themselves by Initiation They come from the ranks of either the Nambutiri Brahmins of Kerala or the Potts belonging to the Madhva sampradaya. The Namburls are followers of Sankarācārya, but are different from the Smirte Brahmins In Tamil Nadu and elsewhere. While they do not undergo the pañca-saṁskāra, the Pottis receive from the heads of the mathas a Udipl on the fayana-ekädofi day the marks of the heated emblems of the conch and discus, Nambutiris calle i Tantris conduct the festivals at important temples,

All the Kerala temple priests, whether Nambutiris or Pottls, wear a vertical mark of sandal paste (gopi-candana) on the forehead as well as on other specified parts of the body. They enter the shrines in wet clothes after a bath and without sny upper cloth. They distribute to the worshipper as prasāda holy water and sandal paste. The sathari is not in use in Kerala. Male worshippers in the temples are also not allowed to wear any upper cloth.

486

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

In most places, the temples have no vehicles or vahanas : the Deity is carried on a living elephant for processions

At Trivandrum, Tiruvāṭṭāru and some other places, a few vehicles are used At Trivandrum these consist of Garuda, Kamala (or the lotus), Indra, Sesa and the palanquin There, the main festival is conducted twice a year for Ananta-padmanabha and once a year for Krsna, Nrsimha and others. The festival is for ten days The palanquin is used on two days and the Garuda on four For the first eight days, the Deity is taken in procession Inside the temple twice a day, In the evening at half past four and four hours later On the ninth day called vettar (hunting), which is known as mṛgaya in the Agamas, the Delty is taken outside the temple So also on the tenth day when the avabrtha (or ārāttu) takes place at the sea near Trivandrum There is no Veda-parayana group in the processions.

The temple of Krsna at Guruvayur is the most famous in Kerala

It attracts worshippers even from outside Pilgrims fulfill vows (prärthanās) as at Tirumalai in Andhra Nārāyana Bhattatiri’s ( 1550) famous poem, Nārāyaniya, a beautiful epitome of the Bhāgavata, 18 addressed to Krsna as enshrined in this temple.

The Vaisnavas of Kerala cannot be distinguished from other sects through external appearance or specific observances They owe allegiance to the philosophy of Sankara. They wear the urdhoa-pundra with sandal paste and not with the sacred white mud and the red fricürna. Nor do they have the pañca. sainskära The only exceptions are descendants of Tamil Vaisnavas at Trivandrum There are a few villages near Palghat where urdhoa-pundra is worn as in Tamil Nadu. They are said to have a distant connection in the past with the Ahobila Mutt. In this region, there are also a few temples where the priests claim to be descendants of Vaikhānasas brought there in the past.

CONCLUSION

487

Unlike in other parts of India, worship of Parasurama as an avatāra is carried on in Kerala This is prohibited in the Pañcaratra. Vide:

wrdiacr#cigar: 1

Mahārästra

(Kriyā-kairava-candrikā, p. 196)

Like Kerala, the Mahārăştra region is free from sectarian exclusiveness The specific attention paid to Salvism bas not affected the worship of Visnu Historically, Vaisnavism has flourished in this area through the reigns of the dynasties of Satavahanas, Ikṣvākus, Rästrakūtas, Abhiras, Calukyas and others whose sway often extended into adjoining regions.

As early as the 2nd century BC we have the Naneghat inscription of Queen Nayanıkā, wife of Sir! Šātakarini I, which invokes Dharma, Sankarsana, Vasudeva and others The Inscription of King Vasisthiputra (c 155 A D) refers to Rama (le. Balarama) and Kesava (1 e., Krsn3),1674 The Abbira king, Vasisthiputra Vasusena (3rd century A D) who was a Saiva, Installed a wooden image of Aştabhujasvamin along with cakra and chatra There is a shrine of Siva in the next chamber.1675 The Antroll-Echaroll Inscription of Nannarāja of the Rästrakūta family and the Ellora plate of Dantidurga (r 745-56) bear the Garuda seal An Inscription of Govinda III (808) testifies to his Vaisnava faith 1676

The most famous Vaisnava temple of Maharastra is that of Panduranga Vitthala 1677 at Pandharpur Pilgrims flock to this

1674 Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, XLII. pp 163-7.

1676

Brahmavidya, XXV pp 1-4, 520-1.

1676 S V.U O, R. Journal XII pp. 38-7

1677

The word, Visnu became ‘Bițtı’ in Kannada and ’ Vițħala ’ in Mabārāştri

488

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

temple from far and near: most of them, however, are from Mahārāsṭra and Karnataka. They worship Siva in an adjoining sbrine before offering their homage to Vitthala.

Neither any ritual nor philosophy governs the worship here throng the temple

Bhajan parties

Though Vitthala is Kṛṣṇa, the temple does not contain any shrine for Radha or any gopi A shrine of Rukmini appears to have been added in later years.

Mahārāṣtra and Kannada salots have hymned Vitthala. They Include Jñanadeva, Namadeva, Ekanatha and Tukārām of Maharastra and Purandara Dăsa of Karnataka Nine kinds of bhakti are admitted by them 1678

Sri Cakradhara-svamin (13th century), a disciple of Govinda Prabhu, composed sūtrās in Marathi to expound a philosophy of bhakti. His ultimate categories were Parameśvara, Jiva, Devatā and the world Paramesvara is without form or attributes, but He descends to the earth to libcrate the selves from bondage Five Krsnas are mentioned-Dattatreya, Krsna of the Purānas, Krsna at Dvārakā, Govinda Prabhu and Cakradhara himself. His followers call themselves Mahanubhāvas, and they claim to have a philosophy representing a stage beyond any other school of Vedanta, Bhakti is the sole means of salvation, but it should be directed to Paramesvara and not Devaṭā 1679

Jñanesvara wrote a commentary (1290) on the Bhagavadgita based on Sankara’s bhāṣya, but going beyond it by combining poetry, mysticism and philosophy It has become famous as the Janesvari.

As in Kerala, so also in Mabārāstra there is no clear-cut distinction between Vaisnavas and Saivas There are some

1878 Cultural Heritage of India, IV pp 358-71

International Congress of Orientalists, 1964. Summaries of Papers, pp. 96-8.

CONCLUSION

489

exclusive worshippers of Visnu, but they are not allenated from other cults. Among the Vaisnavas here differences of caste, creed and sex have no religious significance,

Gujarat

The Western Satraps and Maitrakas were the earllest known rulers of the Gujarat region. They were succeeded by the Pratihāras (750-850), Paramaras (972-1055) and Calukyas (970. 1185). Moslem rule began in the 13th century. The Impact of their regimes is varied and complex.

Early rock-cut monuments in the area contain panels only of the river-goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna. No cult delty la represented there. There is also no inscriptional evidence of Vaisnavism The earliest surviving temples in Gujarat are small structures, simple in plan and design. A temple of Vartha at Kadwar near Prabhasa Patan In Junagadh District dates from 650-700 A Visņu temple of the tenth century at Sander (Mehsana District) shows the Solanki style in its earllest stages.1880 A temple of Pradyumna is mentioned in the Lita region in Pādatäditaka, a play by Syamalaka. The temples at Dwaraka and Dakore are reputed as hallowed by the presence of Kṛṣṇa. But the identity of ancient Dwaraka, the city bulls by Krsna, is the subject-matter of debate. One view is that it was at Junagadh at the foot of Mount Girnar, Another locates It in Jamnagar District and dates a rebuilding in the 5th century 1681

The people of Gujarat, where Jainism had considerable Influence, are predominantly of the Vaisnava falth, Sankara’s maya-vada does not appear to have appealed to them. They

Archaeological Remains, pp 179-80,
International Congress of Orientalists, 1964. Summaries of Papers V. Karmalkar, “Ancient Dwaraka and its location”. p. 141.

4 D. Sankalla, Antiquity of Modern Dwaraka, p. 212.

ASV-62

490

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

seem to have preferred abundance of life to renunciation, the cult of Kisņa to that of Rama. But the Bhagavadgītā is studied more than the Bhāgavata The path of devotion with ample provision for prapatti and karmayoga under the guidance of preceptors, is largely followed by people of all classes-business- men, farmers and labourers, 1682 The lyrics of Narasimha Mehta, a Vaisnava saint of the 14th century, have had immense influence on the people. Vallabhacarya’s teachings are also popular. In recent times (19th century), a Vaisnava cult founded by Sriman-narayan in which the concept of God as Purusottama is important and where Radha finds a place, has exercised considerable influence.

Madhya Pradesh

The region in and around Madhya Pradesh is Central India. The Sungas, Iksvākus, Guptas, Gurjara Pra tharas, Western Calukyas and Raştrakūtas were among its ruling dynasties.

There is evidence of the prevalence of Vaisnavism in this area from the 2nd century B C To this century belongs Hellodorus, son of Dion of Takşıdila and a Yavana ambassador from Antalkidas to Käsiputra Bhagabhadra He erected a Garuda pillar at Besnagar (ancient Vidiga) and recorded an Inscription on it There must have been a temple of Vasudeva of which this 18 the dhuajasthambha, 1883 Another Garuda column, octagonal in shape, in a narrow Vidida street, states In an inscription that it belongs to a temple of Bhagavan, built by the devotee, Gautamiputra (c 140 A D) 1884 In the Udayagırl hilis, one of the rock-cut caves (401 A D ) is Valspava.1685

1682, N A Thoothi, Vaisnavism of Gujarat, pp 60-75, 87

1683 J. N Banerjea Development of Hindu Iconography, pp. 102-3.

Brahmavidya, XXV Pts 3-4, pp 513 4
Ibid. XXV Pts. 1 2. p. 3.

CONCLUSION

491

They erected many

The Gupta emperors were Vaisnavas monuments to their faith at Devagiri and other places. The Daṣāvatāra temple is the work of skilled artists At Udayagirl, the images of Vartha and Anantagayin are of unsurpassed splendour. 1688 Near Iran (in the neighbourhood of Sagar) is a Mahavisņu temple built by Candragupta II In it is a colossal Image of Visnu with those of Varaha and Narasimha on the right and left sides. An inscription here (484) in Brahmi records the construction of a Nrsimha temple with a Garuḍa. dhvaja in the front. Figures of Garuda adorn this column both in the front and at the rear The Garuda, holding a serpent in both the hands, has the emblem of cakra behind the head,1887

An earlier inscription of Samudragupta (c 330-75) in the same place records the erection of a Visnu temple not found Dow Its plan has been reconstructed 1898 A Girnar Inscription (455-8) of the reign of Skandagupta mentions the building of a temple to Visņu under the name of Cakrabbṛt by Cakrapalits 1689

The Installation of an image of Visgu as Anantasvimin and Curakūtasvāmin, and the endowment of a village for the Delty are known from a Gadhwa inscription (467-8), 1890 Fifty years carller (423) It is recorded at Gangdhir that Mayuravarman, minister of Visvavarman during the times of Kumaragupta, built a Vişņu temple 1691 Mention may also be made of the temples

1688 Ibid. XXVI Pts. 1-2, p. 9. See also Studies in Indology (Memorial volume to Mm Dr Umesha Mishra) Vol, I, p. 47.

1637 SK Bhuyan Commemoration Volume, p. 116,

1688 Cunningham’s Report Vol II, Plate XXV. Archaeological Survey of India Brahmavidya, XXVI, Pts 1-2. pp. 2-3,

1889, Brahmavdya XXVI Pts 1-2, pp. 4-5

1890 Ibid. pp. 6-7.

Ibid. p. 8.

492

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

of Janardana at Iran (484) and of Bhagavat at Khoh (496 and 513). The latter two do not seem to belong to the Gupta regime, 1692

The temples át Khajuraho near Gwalior (950-1050), patronised by the Chandellas, are noted for their artistic beauty. Among the sculptures there the figures of Vişņu and Lakşmi and of Balarama and Revati deserve special mention, 1693

This brief survey shows the prevalence of Valsgavism in this area from very early times and the patronage it received from kings at some times But there is no evidence of a com- munity of Vaisnavas; nor have temples of great antiquity survived.

Rajasthan

The Rajasthan region till recently was split fato several small States like Mewad, Bhinnamala, Valabbi, Jodhpur and so on. It has a chequered history.

The Ghosundi inscription (1st century BC) in a place formerly in Udayapur State refers to a temple with a stone enclosure and called Narayana-vātikā.1694 It was dedicated to Sankarsana and Väsudeva A stone from a shrine known from the Morawell Inscription mentions the images of pañca-viras of the Vrsnis there 1695 Here may be a reference to the Vaikhānasa concept of pañca-viras, which seems hardly known outside South India. These inscriptions also testify to the worship of stone images from this early period

1692 Ibid pp 8-10

1693

P 542

Ibid. pp 11-12. See also Charudeva Sastri Felicitation Volume,

1694 Brahmavidyā XXV, Pts 3-4, pp. 514-5.

Ibid. pp. 515-6.

CONCLUSION

493

To the reign of Skandagupta (455-67) belongs a Junagadh Inscription referring to a temple of Visnu under the names of Sargin and Cakrabbgt, 1698 An almost contemporary inscription at Mandor represants the life of Krsna in figures. One of 686 refers to Vamana. A Jodhpur inscription of 868 lovokes Hrṣikesa. Ādiseşa, Kesava, Vasudeva, Gokula and Narasimha are mentioned in a Mandor epigraph of before 1100 A D. The Daulatpur plates, inscription and the Samvadi copper plate of Chāhmāna Ratnapila ( 1264) show Vaisnavs leanings. There are references to Visnu as Anantasvamin and as protector, Krşpa’s lilas are depicted in paintings at Jodhpur (1248). Inscriptions referring to Visnu are found also at Ekalinga, Srigarsi, Jaisalmer, Pushkara and other places.1697 The temple at Oslan is noted for its picturesque sculptures on Krsna’s life. Temples at Kekında, Kiradu and Sadri depict the same theme 1698 The historical poem, Jaivansh (c. 1800) of Sitaram Chaturvedi, describes a temple of Kalkin now found in Jaipur, 1699 The Krsna cult was popular with many ruling princes, as seen from the devotional lyrics of Mira, Vijaya Singh, Raj Singh, Nagridās and Band Themi The people were also devoted to Krsna. Many illustrated manuscripts of the Bhagavata are preserved in the art galleries of the region,1700

1898 Ibid XXVI Pts, 1-2, pp. 4-5

1697 Indian Historical Congress XVII. Session. R C. Agrawala, Vaışpavite Gleanings from the Medieval Inscriptions of Marwar “.

1698 (i) International Congress of Orientalists, 1964, Summaries of Papers, pp 227-8 (11) Studies in Indology (Memorial Volume of Umesh Mishra), K V, Soundararajan, The Bhigevata Cult in Rajasthan Temples”. (In) BORI. XLII, 42-82 (iv) Archaeological Remains, Pt. 1, p. 170. (v) CI A LU C, 1959, p. 103.

1700

P. 22

1701

International Congress of Orientalists. Summaries of Papers,

Vide Astadhyayt, IV. 3, 98, and Mahabhasya, Käsika and

Nyasa on this sütra494

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

9 East Punjab

The Punjab from which East Punjab in India and West Punjab in Pakistan were carved out when India was partitioned In 1947, was in ancient times an ideal Hindu colony, the bedrock of Vedic culture, The rivers of the region are mentioned in the Vedas. In historical times it is known that the eminent grammarian, Panini (c. 800 B C.), was born at Salatore near Attock in West Punjab Patañjall (150 B.C.) who wrote a great commentary on his work, belonged to this region. Both of them refer to the worship of Vasudeva and Sankarşaṇa,1701 Panini is said to have studied at Pataliputra in Magadha. It is reasonable to hold that the cult of Viṣṇu under the name of Vasudeva was prevalent then in the Punjab and Magadha. The records of Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, show that it flourished in these regions In the 4th century B C. An inscription of Dionysos confirms this. The Mathura region was its stronghold in late pre- Christian centuries 1702 Later, in the 5th century AD, the Tusam inscription records the construction of two reservoirs for the house (temple) of Kṛṣṇa under the name of Bhagavat, 1703 An undated prasasti from Pebowa mentions the construction of a Visnu temple by the princely Tomara family 1704

Under the influence of Islam, Sikhism and modern reform movements like the Arya Samaj, the religious situation in the Punjab has drastically changed. and there is not much evidence of Valṣṇava influence today.

1702 International Congress of Orientalists, Summaries of Papers, S Jaiswal, “The worship of Sankargana-Baladeva”. pp 132-3

1703 J Fleet, Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and their Successors. Vol. III, p 270.

Buddha Prakash, Aspects of Indian History and Civilisation, p. 181.

CONCLUSION

495

Kashmir

Kashmir saw the luxuriant growth of Hindu culture in the past. Every branch of learning was cultivated It was the home of many disciplines like poetles and the Tantra. Agamas of all kinds and the Pañcaratra in particular could have originated here. The early Ahirbudhnya and Pauskara Samhitās and Laksmi-tantra contain evidence suggesting that they were compiled in Kashmir 1705 The uyuha cult under the name of “Vaikuntha-caturmürti " flourished

early times la Kashmir 1708

The Agama-prāmāṇya of Yamuna (9th century) mentions a Kāṣmīrāgama-prāmāṇya.1707 Sri-valspava tradition does not mention such a work by Yamuna, though the context is suggestive enough, It will be, however, prodent to take it as the work of someone else until more evidence becomes available. In the meantime, the context Indicates that in the 10th century the authority of the Pañcarātra was admitted in Kashmir on the ground that the Ekayana recension of the Veda was its basis Utpala and other writers on the Spanda system quote from named Agama texts 1708

Kashmir Vaisnavism was a synthesis of many cults like the Vedic Pañcaratra, Sättuata and Bhagavata.1709 Its popularity is attested by the arguments of Jayanta Bhatta 1710 and Puşkarakṣa 1711 in favour of the Pañcaratra. Among the rulers

1708 Ahs, XXVI, 75, XXIX 28; LT XLVI 38; Pauš, XXXI 107-13. Consult the chapter on ‘Pañcarātra Texts’ earlier in this volume.

1708 RC Majumdar, The Classical Age, p. 418.

Agama-pramanya. p. 79. This passage in quoted in N.P. p. 180.

Van Buitenen takes it as the name of a work of Yimuna.

1708 Spandapradipikā, pp. 3, 40.

1709, 3 O Roy Early History of Kashmir, p. 184.

Nyayamaħjart, 1. pp 241-2; Agamaḍambara, IV. 82, 65.

1711, Nyayamanjarï-granthi-bhanga, pp, 112-3,

496

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Candrapida (r. 712-20), Jayapida Vinayaditya

of Kashmir, Pravarasena II (c 555), Muktāpiḍa, Lalitäditya (r 724 60), (r 775-806) and Utpala Avantivarman (r. 855-83) were Valṣpavas. They bullt temples to Vişņu under the names, among others, of Jayasvamin, Avantisvamin and Govardhanadhara.1712 The cult continued to flourish in Kashmir till its occupatiou by Muslims In 1339. Kṣemendra, the well known Sanskrit writer, was a Valṣṇava and a pupil of Bhagavatācārya Somapāda, though his father was a Salva. He called himself Vyasadāsa.1713

Uttar Pradesh

The region comprised in Uttar Pradesh was ruled over at various times by Mauryas, Guptas, Maukharis, Harşavardhana, Gabadawalas and others.

One of the earliest references to Vaisnavism in this area is found in the Inscription on the famous victory pillar of Iron erected at Meharauli near Delhi by King Candra About his identity there is difference of opinion, though there is a tendency to identify him with Candragupta 1.1714

It is said that Images of Krsna used to be made at Prabbāsa, southwest of Allahabad,1715

Shrines dedicated to Rama, Kausalya and others are found In Ayodhya, but they are of recent origin. The only famous

1712 P. N Kaul, History of Kashmir, pp 183-4

1713 Byhatkathāmañjarī, pp 19-20, ALOC, XXII Summaries Papers. R Dattatray, “Vyasadāsa, a name of Kṣemendra “. pp. 27-8

1714 R Satyanatha lyer, History of India, 1 pp. 214-5 See also (1) S S Rana. “King Candra of Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription”. Umesha Mishra Commemoration Volume, pp 669-75, (11) S R Goyal, Samudragupta and the North-West “, AIO C, XXII, Vol. II, pp. 153-68 ; and (111) International Congress of Orientalists, Summaries of Papers, pp. 253 60.

R. C Bhandarkar, Vaışnavism and Ŝaivism,

p. 84.

CONCLUSION

497

temple of some antiquity in the State is that of Badrinathe 10,000 feet on the Himalayas. This temple is closed for sim months when it is snow-bound The arcaka there is a Nambutiri

Brahmin from Kerala. It is said that the temple was res constructed by Sankara and that from his days the arcakes bave been Nambutiris

The Valspavas in this region are mostly followers of Ramananda, or they belong to subsects owing allegiance to him. They engage themselves in näma-sankirtana, and go on pilgrimages to sacred rivers like the Ganga and the Yamun

12 Bihar

Within modern Bihar lle the territories of enclent Valdill and Mithila and the kingdom of the Palas. There were dominated by Buddhism for long Its influence on Hindu culte is not easy to assess, Most of the monuments in this area BIO Buddhist,

The Gupta and Maukberi kings patronised Valgpaviem. The Guptas ruled from Pataliputra, and their coins had the emblem of Garuda. Klog Anantavarman (4. 550) of the Maukhari dynasty inscribed in a cave in the Baribar bill in Gaya District that he installed an image of Vigou as Kreps.1710 The Aphsad inscription (672) near Gayl mentions that Adityasena bullt a temple of Vigpu.1717 A feudatory of Dharmapăla (769-815) founded a huge Vignu temple at Sublasthall.1718 The Valgudar Inscription records the Installation of the image of Narlysna at Krimila during the reign of Madanapila (1143-62) 1719

Brahmevidya, XXVI, pts 1-2, pp. 18-13.
R, Satyanatha Iyer, History of ladie, 1, pp. 251, 862, 8889, 1718. R. O, Majumdar, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 14.
Buddha Prakash, Indian History and Civilisation, pp. 204-5.

ASV-63

498

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Gaya is one of the most sacred places for Hindus where they make offerings to the manes. The holy footprint of Visņu, Vișnu-pādo, in a temple there is worshipped by Hindus all over India. No fraddha ceremony is complete without reverential mention of Gaya, its Imperishable banyan tree (akşaya-vaţa), the footprint of Visnu and the Lord at the temple under the name of Gadadhara,

At Ranchi there are temples to Radharani, the beloved of Krspa. The temple at Jagannathpur is said to be the oldest1720

Bengal

Bengal was under the Guptas in the 6th century, but became Independent under Saganka There followed periods of anarchy, until the Pals dynasty rose. Even then, however, power rivalries and conflicts continued, and the rulers bad little time to patronise religious cults Moreover, Buddhism had a dominant influence, so much so that there was a fusion between It and Hinduism. Still a little evidence is available about Vaisnava influence.

A Baigram copper plate (448) In Bogra District refers to a temple of Vişņu under the name of Govindasvamin 1721 Samantasena’s son, Vijayasena (c. 1100), wanted to avold friction between Saivism and Vaisnavism and for this purpose built a temple to Pradyumnesvara His grandson, Lakṣmaṇasena. became a Valṣṇava 1722

Some centuries later, Vaisnavism became dominant in Bengal under the influence of Caitanya, who was inspired by the worship of Krsna at Pürl He sponsored the worship of Radba-Kṛṣṇa in which there is a great deal of bridal mysticlam. The jiva is conceived as a lover representing Sakti whose one

Sakkari Mookerjee Volume. pp. 439, 441-2.
Brahmavidya, XXVI, Pts 1-2, p 9.
R. C. Majumdar, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 428,

CONCLUSION

499

form is Radha. It was influenced by the earlier cult of the Sahaja-yana of the

the Buddhists which advocated living lo accordance with Nature Unfortunately, it degenerated into licentious living.

In the Caltanya cult, It has limited applleability. A jiva has to feel itself to be a woman with reference to another jīva, and can have full freedom in love, This was treated as the parakiya aspect which, when practised, would become spiritual love as Radha-bhāva. The justification for this doctrine seems to be based on the love of married gopis for Krsna,

Caltanya himself does not appear to have advocated this kind of life for the devotees of Krsna, His followers have expressed varying opinions. Jiva Goavimin held the relations between the gopis and Krsna to be eternal The gopis were wives of their husbands only through yoga-māyā Therefore, there is no parakaya aspect here. Ripa Kavirīja and Rupa Gosvimin concede this. Baladeva Vidyabbüsana and others argue that love must not be directed to a human being, as it cannot then become raja Any deviations from the teachings of the masters tending to bring discredit to the cult, must be attributed to Ignorance about them,

The cult of Gauda Valgpaviem of the Caitanya school has spread far and wide throughout India. Branches of Its Mutts are active in Important elties, carrying on propaganda and performing nëma-sankirtana. In recent times, the Hare Krṣṇa

sponsored by the International Krapa Consciousness Society and other organisations has spread abroad,

movement

Brick temples began to be built in Bengal from about 1700 A D. A Bishnupur in Bankura District there are a group of such temples,1729

Archaelogical Remeins, I, p. 189

500

AGADAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNATISH

Assam

Assam was known as Kamarüpa in the past. The Pralambas, Palas and Senas ruled over it up to the 13th century. Tantrik Buddblem and the Sakta cult were dominant there.

The Vaisnava movement became significant only under Sankarananda (1449-1568 7). He was a poet, musician. singer and painter. Though a Sakta by birth, he became a Vaisnava after extensive travels up to Ramefvaram, a meeting with Caltanya at Püri and a study of the Bhagavata under Jagadića Mista. He began to worship a wooden image of Vianu under the name of Madana gopala and resolved to bring the people together by congregational prayer. In his prayer-bouse which he called Näma-ghar, the object of worship was a book of prayers and not an image of Vişņu. All were allowed to participate in the prayer, including Moslems, The devotees were asked to render service to the holy book 1724

The

Sankarananda’s philosophy has for its central concept eka- Sarana or unswerving and exclusive devotion (to Krapa) It is based on the Gita and the Bhagavata Brahman is identical with Purusottama, Paramesvara, Nārāyaga and Vasudeva. sentient and the insentient are not different from Him.1728 The line of succession in preceptorship is not merely from father to son and from the older to the younger : it can also pass to some one deemed fittest to hold it.

His works include Bhaktıratnākara in Sanskrit, Kamarüpl renderings of the Mārkaṇdayapuräna and parts of the Bhagavata, and Bhaktipradipa in Kamarūpi based on the Garuḍapurasa.

Among Sankaradeva’s disciples was Madhavadeva (1489- 1590), a puritan who stressed devotion to God as the guiding

Cultural Heritage of India, IV. 1725. Vaisnava Movement in Assam.

pp 201.4.

CONCLUSION

501

star of mankind, Later, Anantadeva and Gopaladeva preached dāsya and vatsalya as indispensable to Valspavas.1720 Gurudeva Damodara (16th century), a saint from Assam and Cooch Behar, regarded Brahman as perfect, personal and Impersonal, qualified and unqualified. He realised this in the manifested form of Krsna 1727

Frequent earthquakes and beavy rains seem responsible for the absence of ancient temples in Assam, Some idols however can be found here and there. There are two dvārapāļakas at Badanga resembling Nara in the Nara-Narayana panel at Deogarh, Images of Harlbara and Viggu, belonging to the eighth century, are at the State Museum. After the pin th century, many Visnu images were made of basalt, sandstone and other kinds of stone, One of them (12th century) bas Laksmi on one side and Sarasvati on the other. In them Vispo is named variously, as Kedava, Acyuta, Hrgikeda, Vamana and Madhava. At the State Museum can be seen various Narasimha idols of the 12th century of the Sthanaka variety and a fine Varaha discovered at Sibsagar 1728

15 Orissa

In the past, Assam had close cultural links with Orissa, Vaişpaviem was patronlsed here under the Guptas. Under Choda Ganga Deva It struck firm roots, Krena was worshipped as Vasudeva in the early days, as Gopala-krępa later, and all later, probably under the influence of Tayadeva’s Gila-govinda, as Radha-kṛspa 1739

Assamese Literature, B K Barua,
Dr. R. G. Goswami in “AIGO XXVIII Summaries of Papara p. 159.
C N. Bhuyan, ‘Medieval Sculptures of Assam’ in “Riad ; E, 3. A. Iyer Folicitation Volume “. pp. 89-83,
Dr. Harokrishna Mehtab, History of Orissa. II, “The Cult of Jagannathe”, pp. 504-519.

502

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

One peculiar feature of Orissa Vaisnavism is that it fused together the cults of Rama, Krsna and Buddha and evolved the cult of Jagannatha in the temple at Puri.

Distinguished religious teachers like Ramanuja, Narasimha Muni, Narahari Tirtha, Caitanya and Sankaradeva have visited this famous temple. Earlier Sankara appears to have made an attempt to introduce the Salvite from of worship, but not with much success. Some other teachers sought to make the temple exclusively Valşnava. The Natha cult of Gorakṣanatha exercised Influence on the yoga aspect of the worship here (Bhairavi was worshipped in the sanctum along with Jagannatha in the early days ) Ultimately, we have a syncretist cult of Buddhism, Tantrik features, Saivism and Vaisnavism. This is borne out by many pecullar usages here. The Idol is made of wood and is worshipped by Sabaras. No class or caste distinctions are observed in the temple. There is no prohibition of eating food touched or taken by others, 1730

A study of the development of the temple suggests that In Its earlier phases it was dedicated to Siva and other delties, Jagannatha is comparatively late. The sculptures are notable for depicting erotic poses: this must have developed in feudal times from about the 10th century till the 13th 1731

Overseas

When Hinduism spread beyond the seas in the early centuries of the Christian era Valgnivism also found strong- holds there. Inscriptional evidence shows that the worship of Visņu according to the Agamas prevailed in foreign countries with Hindu colonies or under Hindu influence. Trailokyasara was worshipped in Kambuja during the reign of Jayavarman

Volume, pp. 280.

Also see

R.K Maitre in J. N. Banerjea D. M. Padhi’s article in “’ AIOC XXI Summaries of Papers "

1731, Buddha Prakash, Indian History and Civilisation, pp. 323-6.

CONCLUSION

303

(657-81 A D) with the help of those proficient in the Pancarāṭra– pāñcarā trärcanā cuncunā, A Kambuja inscription of Yasovarman (r 889-900) testifies to services in a Visnu temple being regulated by Valspava Agamas, The ācārya is required to be proficient in Pañcarātra and Vyakarana. The terms, Bhagavata. Sättvata” and ‘Vaisnava’, are treated as synonyms, A Khmer Inscription of Kambuja (1073) refers to one Kavisvara-pandita as observing the rules of the Pañcarātra 1732 Inscriptions in other areas of Kambuja menilon the image of Viggu lo a temple and also Varābāvatara,

In Kambuja Visnu in known by several names such as Hari, Acyuta, Narayana, Upendra and K-dava, Sri was also worshipped. 1733 Images of Visnu are found with Garuda and Laksmi.1734 At the capital, Angkor Thom, Süryavarman II (1112-52) and his preceptor, Divakara Pandita, were responsible for constructing the magnificant Angkor Vat a temple of Viequ on the Dravidian model and representing the finest Khmer architecture 1734

In the Indo-china peninsula of Champa later knowO AI Annam, inscriptions refer to Viggo under the names of Narayana, Hari. Govinda, Kyna and Varaha 1730 Hla descents as Rama and Krapa were paid the greatest bomage Another name of His was Tribhuvanakränta 1737 His images are represented with four arms and riding on Garuda, Lakemi la

1733 BR Chatterji, Indian Cultural influence in Cambodia, pp 39-187.

N. R. Ray, Brahminical gods in Burma, p. 18.
Ibid. p. 18. Such images are found in Java also.
R. Satyanatha İyer, History of India, I, p. 435.
N. R. Ray, Brahminical gods in Burma, p. 15,
R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, 1. Champa, p. 193.504

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

known as Padma and Sri. In 731, King Vikrantavarman Installed her image. 1788

In Burma Viṣau is known as Narayana

The Images of the ten descents of Vispa are found in temples at Nat-blaung Kyaung.1739

Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra) inscriptions refer to the temples of Dieng and Larljongrang. At the latter place are found panels depicting the Rāmāyana. There are references to bymns like the Visņu-pañjara (which assures protection of all parts of the bodies of those who recite it and from different directions.1740

“There is a Syrian tradition,” according to an eminent historian, “vouching for the existence of the Krishna cult in Armenia in the second century B.C “1741

This brief survey of the spread of Vaisnavism throughout India and in foreign countries gives some idea of its wide range and influence. Traditionally it has never been confined to any small region

The main home of the early Hindus is described In our ancient works as Jambudvipa It is said to have had nine divisions: Ilavṛta, Harivarsa, Kimpuruga, Bharata, Bhadrāśva, Ketumala, Kuru, Ramvika and Hirapmaya 1742 Visnu is stated to have been worshipped under different names In these divisions: as Sankarsana in lavria, as Hayagriva in Bhadrasva and as Narasimba in Harlvarga 1743

Everywhere and at all times, the central concept that the Ultimate Reality is Visņu with beneficent and suspicious

1738 Ibid. pp 194-5.

1739, N, R Ray op. cit. pp 22-3.

Upendra Thakur, Some Aspects of Ancient Indian fistory and Culture, II, pp. 110-1, 223, 233, 243
R. Satyanatha Iyer, History of India, I, p. 193,
P.P II. 2. 12-14,
C. R. Krishnsmacharlu: Cradle of Inelan History, p. 48.

CONCLUSION

SOS

qualities has never been lost sight of. The Agama mode of worship has been followed wherever temples of Visnu have been consecrated. though the rules of the text may not always be strictly observed and there may be a few variations in the procedure of worship. Except in many temples in South India where the Vaikhanasa system prevalls, the Pañcaratra has been adopted Many religious practices of the Hindus in India and In ancient colonies which are not traceable to the Vedas or the Smptis, are based on the Agamas. The cult was not merely popular with the masses: it also attracted the patronage of rulers, noblemen and wealthy merchants who built temples and provided for their maintenance. It should also be noted that the patrons were almost always tolerant, showing no hostility to other cults, nor even denying them some contributions.

VAIŞ NAVISM AND MUSIC

The contribution made to music by Valsṇavism needs to be noted. The theory of sonic creation conceives of absolute sound (nada) as Brahman, from whom all sound emanates. Before becoming audible speech, sound has to pass through some stages. The Tantrikas and musicians have been worshippers of nada. This is one way of approach to God, Vide:

aré aanfa àgoð

योगिनां हृदये न च ।

KFAT DA “Iafa

as fagıfa arcĘ ||

Those who take to music are declared to be the body of

Visnu :

stourerarerà âfugtanı-ofuerfa ar i wegfäucedazyfâconzfgrena: 11

V.P. I, 22. 86,

ASV 64

506

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

It is even asserted that music excels all other forms of worship

of God:

जपक्कोटिगुणं ध्यानं ध्यानकोटिगुणो लयः ।

sqsìfzgó má mranacać a fg ||

।

Indian music is based on Samaveda. Its distinctive features are found in all Indian languages and all over Indla, though there is a division between Karnatic music in the south and the Hindusthani system in the north.

Tamil

In the Azhvars’ poetic Tamil compositions, we have some of the early Vaisnava songs on Vişnu Some of them state that they are to be sung 1744 Those who sing them are assured of reaching the Lord 1745 Nathamunt (c.900) collected the poems of the Azbvärs and set them to music. But for a long time past, they are merely recited both in temples and houses, except In Srirangam and one or two other places where the Araiyars sing and dance to the accompaniment of musical instruments.

Among later compositions are the kirtanas of Uttukkiḍa Venkata Subba Alyar In praise of Krsna, which are sung in bhajanas as prayer-offerings. The Rama-nāṭaka-kirtanas of Aruṇācala Kaviraya ( 1750) stand in a class by themselves. The principal Incidents of the Rāmāyana (largely according to the Tamil version of Kamba) are depicted in songs set to rāga and tala. Each kirtana contains a proverb. Though the work claimed to be musical drama, its songs are sung in concerts and used in dance performances.

Nacciyar Tirumozhi, XII. 10: Periya Tirumozhi, II. 8-10;

IX. 9 2, 10; Tiruvaymozhi VI 1.11.

Periya Tırumozhi, III, 3, 10; III, 4, 10,

CONCLUSION

Telugu

507

The earliest Telugu composer of songs glorifying Vinu was Appamācārya of Tālapākka (1424-1504) in Cudappah district (of Andhra Pradesh) He was the first composer to divide songs Into pallavi, anupallavi and carane. Most of his compositions are in honour of Visnu enshrined as Venkatesvara of Tirumalai, His grandson, Annaya, also wrote in a similar strain musical pieces marked by drigara and conveying Vedantic meanings. The Tirumalai hills are claimed to be the Vedas in the form of granite, and non-Valspavas are strongly denounced. He also praises Rāmānuja and Vişvaksena.

Kancarla Gopanna (c. 1650), famous as Bhadracala Ramadio, was a Tahsildar; he was imprisoned for 12 years by the Moslem ruler for spending tax revenues on serving the Lord and Els devo- tees. During his prison term he composed many songs in Telugu primarily on Rama and Sita. Rama is said to have miraculously secured his release by paying off his dues to the king. Among these are a hundred known as Dādarathi-fataka,

Tyšgaraja (1759-1857),

the most famous composer in Karnatic music, was the son of a Telugu Brahmin, Ramabrabmam, who had settled down in Tiruvalyara near Tanjavir. He is said to have had a vision of Rama, after repeating His name In japa for ninetysix crores of times. A master of mueleal tradition and Innovation, he expressed his ardent devotion In numerous Telugu and a few Sanskrit songs. Though a devotee of Rama, he was not lacking in devotion to other avaldras of other gods. It is stated that he composed 24,000 kirtanas, though only a fraction of them have survived He also wrote two operas, Naukd-carita dealing with the devotion of gopis to Krsna, aud Prahlada-hhakti-vijaya on the Lord’s danceot as Narasimbe to bless Els devotee, Prahlada.

His contribution to Vaisnavism through devotional music is rich, indeed magnificent. Throughout the Tamil country, his

508

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

songs are popular both with singers and listeners. The day of his death is commemorated by a musical festival at his birth- place. On specific occasions, some of his songs are sung chorus.1746

Two contemporaries of Tyāgarāja were great composers- Muttuswamy Diksita and Syama Sastri. They were not devotees of Visnu. But Diksita has composed some beautiful songs about Vişņu,

Meraṭṭür Venkataramana Bhāgavata (c. 1800), a Tamilian, composed in Telugu the opera, Prahlada-carita. It is enacted at Merattür In Tañjavür district This work is in the dance-drama tradition. Its theme is the Lord’s descent as Narasimha to protect Prahlada.

Padas are songs in Telugu expressing devotion to God with an accent on bridal mysticism. Annamacarya, already referred to, and Koetrayya have enniched the repertoire of songs with many compositions of this kind. In dance concerts, Ksetrayya’s padas are often used.

Malayalam

King Svati Tirunal (1813-47) of Travancore, an ardent devotee of Vişņu, composed songs In Malayalam, Sanskrit and Telugu, pralaing Him under the name of Padmanabha, to whom the temple at his capital, Trivandrum, is dedicated. In them be calls himself the dasa (servant or slave) of Padmanabha.

Kannada

Narabari-tirtha, third in descent from Madhva, composed songs in Kannada praising Krsna. His followers sang these and came to be known as Haridasas “”. They are divided into groups known as Däsa-kūtas Śrīpādarāja, himself also the

1746, T. V. Subba Rao on Sri Tyagarija in Studies in Indian Music, pp. 112-8, 127-49, 200-211, 216-20.

CONCLUSION

508

head of a Mutt, composed Bhramaragila, Venugita and Gopigita for musical rendering Kanakadasa and the famous Purandaras dasa were the disciples of Vyasaraya (16th century). Kanaka. dāsa, a shepherd, became a devotee of the Lord (Venkateɗvara) as enshrined In Tirumalai. Purandaradāsa, a rich merchant, became a mendicant on account of devotion to God. To him are attributed more than two lakhs of songs. He occupies an important position in the development of South Indian music,

Sanskrit

Narayana-tirtha, an ascelle saint, composed in Sanskrit the Kṛṣṇa-lilä -tarangiņi, a collection of songs in praise of Krgga. The musical setting is perfect, and they are marked by devotional fervour. Svati Tirunal, Muttuswami Dikgila and Tyagarāja also composed songs in Sanskrit glorifying Viggo.

Devotional music in South India la the four linguistic regions has been developed as the means for worshipplag God, on the basis of the commendation in the purdņas of singing the names and glory of God, as this is pleasing to God. They offer Illustrations from the eples and the purăņai,

Music is declared an element in the worship of God by the Agamas, and temples use music as part of the ritual It is Interesting that there are stone pillars in some temples serving es Instruments of music. Among such temples are those in Tirumallronfolai, Azhvar Tirunagari, Simbacalam and other places. The notes of the musical scale and of the conch can be produced by striking at the pillars. At Tirumalal, Bhadrācalam and Trivandrum songs are rendered as part of worship. At Kifcipuram in the Varadarīja temple is sculptured a figure of Krṣṇa playing on the flute, A sage is shown as playing on the viņa at Tirumayyam.

Mahārā şpri

In Mahariştra, the worship of Viggo under the name of Vithala or Vitjoba was popularised by Namdev (c. 1270),

ASV-65

510

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Ekanath and Tukārām (1608). In their songs in Mabäräştri (and sometimes in Hindi) they teach the singing of the names of God as the way to salvation. They refer to the nine kinds of bhaktı. Tukārām (b. 1608) wrote many songs: as they are in the abhanga metre, they are known by that name. His devotion to God (as Vişnu) was fervent and exclusive.

Gujarati

In Gujarat, the Influence of Vallabha is seen in the devotional lyrics on Visņu. Narasimha Mehta (c. 1400) was at first a worshipper of Siva. Through his grace, Mehta went to Dvaraka and had a vision of the rasa-dance. After this, be became a Vaisnava and began to write on the sports of Kṛṣṇa. In his Suratasangraha he describes himself as a messenger of the gopis and Radba. His Srigaramālā is full of bridal mysticism. Similai are other works like Vasantanapado and Hindolanapado, His description of an ideal Vaisnava in his song, Vaisnava-janato, was a favourite with Mahatma Gandhi who looked upon it as the authentic description of the traits of a Hindu devotee of God. Dayarāma (c. 1760) wrote many Garbis, mystic compositions expressing devotion to Krsna 1747

The disturbed political conditions In Gujarat In the 12th and 13th centuries on account of Moslem rule were unfortunate for the Hindus. The Jain rulers about this time also did not help them. It was Narasimha Mehta’s songs that stirred up the religious spirit of the people and inspired a renaissance of devotional religion centering round Krsna that has not exhausted itself till now.

Hindi

In central and northern India the Ramananda cult with its stress on devotion and its accessibility to all without distinction

K M Munshi, Gujarati Literature, pp. 124-29, Cf. Sri Vallabha- charya by Bhai Manilal C, Parekh, IV,

CONCLUSION

511

Davotees and

Mirabal came

of caste or creed was popular and prominent, composers like Surdas, Kabirdas, Telasījās, under its influence. Deep devotional fervour marks their compositions.

Surdas, blind Valgṇavapoèt (16th century), is sald to have composed 125,000 padas on Visne (primarily as Krapa). The surviving ones are full of literary elegance, Kabir is said to have been a Brahmin by birth brought up by a Muslim weaver in Benares. He does not seem to have had faith in any particular tradition. He was against idol worship, but his works suggest the influence of Azhvars. He refers to Mahārāsįra saints like Nimadeva and Bithals.

Mirabal (. 1600), sald to have been a Rajput queen, chose to worship Krsna, calling Him Girldbara Her songs are popular both in the north and south, and are sung even by followers of Nanah and Kabir. Her songs and those of Kabir generally form part of the nama-sankirtana in bhajanas 1748

Haridasa-svāmin, regarded as the divine deseent of Lalita, one of the eight friends of Radha, lived at Brndavana. He was blessed with a direct vision of Krspa whom he called Syami- svama. For him music was the means of worship. He greatly influenced singers like Balju Blora and Tansen and contributed to the development of musical tradition in North India.1749

Bengali

Vidyapati (c. 15th century), the famous poet of Mithila, composed songs on Ridha and Krapa.1750 Candidas of Bengal (14th century) was influenced by Jayadeva’s Gita-govinda. His

H. H Wilson, Religious Sects of the Hindus, pp. 98-100.

1749

“AIOC. Summaries of Papers”, Dr. K. K. Brahmachari on “Haridisa-avimin “. p. 211.

D. C. Sen, History of Bengali Language and Literature, p. 142,

512

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNA VISM

Krsna-kirtana depicts the divine love of Radha and Krapa on the analogy of human love.

Govinda Dās (1537-1612), a follower of Caltanya, wrote songs in the mixed dialect of Brajabaull. They deeply Influenced bis contemporaries. Of other composers in a similar strain mention may be made of Yadunandan Dis (c. 1537) and Jagadananda (c. 1650),175) Their works are called padas. Kirtanas were composed in Manohar Sahi tune, set to music by Ganga Narayan Cakravarti, 1762 They were sung to set tunes and they resemble South Indian bhajana songs.

The Gita-govinda of Jayadeva (11th century), a musical and lyrical Sanskrit dramatic poem, was primarily responsible for the growth of the Radha-Kṛṣpa cult. In the most elegant and melodious Sanskrit, helped by rhyme, alliteration and assonance, it deplets the love of Radba and Kṛṣṇa In depic- ting their sports, the poetry becomes highly erotic, though it suggests that this is only symbolic of longing for and union with God. In everyone of its twelve cantos, the unit for singing to set tunes is a group of eight slokas. The poem is also known as estapadi. It is used in bhajans, particularly those which celebrate Radha’s marriage with Kṛṣṇa, and in dance concerts.

Assam.

‘Sankaradeva composed devotional songs called Bargeet in a mixture of Maithili and Assamese. His disciple, Madbava- deva, wrote Harajari-ghoşa All these are sung as Nama- sankiriana to the Nama-ghars established by Sankaradeva,1753

Orissa

Chanda and janana are the main forms of popular music in Orissa. They have influenced the bhajana form of worship

Ibid. pp. 474-6.
Ibid. p 496.
Sukumar Ray, Music of Eastern India, pp. 132-45,

CONCLUSION

513

The former is a literary form, mixed up with popular music, The latter, addressed to God as Jagannatha, conveys the pala and suffering experienced in separation from God 1754

SUMMING UP

Our survey of the Agama literature has shown that many customs and forms of worship of the Vaisnavas and even of Hindus generally cannot be traced to the Vedas: nor can they be pronounced anti-Vedic, Manu declares that the Smptis are also authoritative when they do not oppose or transgress Vedic declarations and injunctions. The Agamas play a similar role. Uncompromising champions of the Vedas have to be sympathised with for failing to understand the spirit of the Agamas.

Incidentally, we may refer to a problem raised by some scholars that the Valṣṇava Agamas, though not later than the Sākto ones, are dependent on them. The Āgamas belonging to the different cults derive ultimately from the Vedas. The Astareya Brahmāņa accords the highest position among the gods to Vişan who is also identified there with the sacrifice. Siva too has a significant position in the sacred rites.1755 These two seem to be treated in the Vedas as not inferior to each other. Potency (S’akti) must have been delfied and treated as an Important deity along with Vişņu and Sıva,

The principles governing the three types of Agamas exalting one or other of these three, are common to them all In view of the exclusiveness of each cult, it is reasonable jo bold that these principles were derived from a common source. The epics show that in many respects Vispu and Siva do not have disparate traits. Inscriptions, edicts and grants in favour of a

Ibid pp. 120-32.

1755

TAV Dikshitar, “The Vedic Sacrifices and Temple Worship in Bharatiya Vidya V, pp. 62-70.514

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIJM

particular cult cannot prove that other cults had no followers In those regions. Moreover, the cults professed also could change from time to time on account of historical exigencies such as the patronage of princes and the rise of eloquent and charismatic teachers It is prudent to hold that the cults rose from a common source and developed independently, though not without exercising Influence on one another.

The Agamas are sometimes attacked on the ground that the concept of the idol is not Vedic and that idol worship does not have any Vedic support. This view is obviously untenable. In Vedic rituals, there is no worship as such, because the gods are invisible. Adoration requires a concrete form for the delty, and this has assumed the shape of the idol. The Vedas also have some descriptions of the forms of the deities. Moreover, the study of the practical side of the Agamas will show that idol worship arose out of the necessity to enable people of all ranks to worship God. It is the failure to understand this that lies at the basis of such criticism.

The universal tendency to resort to concrete symbols is well brought out by Carlyle: “In the symbol proper, there is ever more or less distinctly and directly some embodiment and revelation of the Infinite. The Infinite is made to blend with the finite, to stand visible and, as it were, attainable there. By symbols accordingly is man gulded, made happy, made wretched, He everywhere finds himself encompassed by symbols. The universe is but one vast symbol of God."*1758

We have attempted only a study of one aspect of Hindu religion and culture. In India, culture, religion and language are extremely varied. Yet each of these has influenced the others. Separating them completely from one another is almost

Thomas Carlyle, Sartor Resortus, p. 260.

CONCLUSION

515

Impossible. They have preserved individuality, while permitting assimilation of external elemen’s

In all the varieties of Hindu religion and culture, and in the variety of languages spoken, there is a golden thread of unity. The Hindu ethos is unmistakable. The Vedas represent the most ancient source for everything Hindu, religious or secular. The many recensions of the Vedas, the lengthy epics and purāņas, the varied Kalpa-sutras, the numerous Dharma- Sastras, the upavedas and the diverse systems of thought will be perplexing to those lacking Interest and actuated by prejudice and self-complacency. Through all these however runs a golden thread connecting them so as to place each in its respective place, revealing to the scholar the unity in diversity. The effiux of millennia, the terrible onslaughts of foreign hordes bent on annihilating the native culture, and Intimate political and Industrial contacts with the West have not impaired this unity. Hrein lies the secret of the continulty of Hindu tradition.

The study of one aspect of this tradition may create the impression that it is the only one that is important and worth studying. This is not because the others are not brought in here, but because all are but Integral parts of one tremendous whole which seems vast and incomprehensible like the infinitude of God Himself. Hence this study is of a part only of that Infinity which seems to defy comprehension.