आगमे वैष्णवे विश्वासटिप्पन्यः

The Vedas represent the earliest extant literature in the world They are four, under the names of Rgveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda They record many aspects of the life of the people of ancient India whose religious beliefs and aspirations left an indelible mark on their social life.

Indeed, the religions and social aspects became inextricably mixed up with each other But it must not be forgotten that the Vedas deal primarily with the religious beliefs and practices of ancient India

Whether the Vedas are regarded as eternal as Hindu tradition believes, or as composed by a number of authors at different periods and then codified, it must be admitted that the concept of the Deity must have been an article of faith long before the ancient Indians felt any urge to offer worship There was also the realization that man has to depend on the Deity for protection from danger and distress and for a secure and happy life. To evoke response from a deity when a person offered his prayer to gain any particular objective, or to offer thanksgiving for the fulfilment of the prayer, an offering of what that person had with him was made Usually, the offering was made in the sacred fire which was believed to convey it to the deity concerned The prayers are recorded in the Rgueda and the ways and means of the offerings to be made are treated in the Yajurveda. The Samaveda helped in chanting those prayers so as to attract the Deity As for the Atharvaveda, it provided the people with the means to protect themselves against enemies and evil forces.

ASV-1

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The Indian community in the earliest period dues not seem to be very different from our society today in the attitude to life and in basic feelings and aspirations

The suff. rings endured by

the people from time to time were then regirded as the eff cts of past deeds Thus there is a reference to the sense of grit 1 It was considered that sufferings cou’d be ov re-me by th • Cince of the deity 2 Hatred, disuse and distress flicted them.3 G. 4 was bokel upon is a physician who:2

pra. nce

V rach

404

爽

after by the sufferers in order that they mich gt m God’s good-will was sought after 5 and app, ils were made for this purpost 8 Ling life, co-operatior amont people and with God, prosperity, vilor ›us song and good food 7 are the ch ris desires frequently expressed in the prayers off red to the dun.

ૐ

The anden Irdions were quit duties. Toy practised meditation e

禁

the part o the

was clim

Gury en whom the

miditator fixed his This created a sound

that the thinking faculues appeared before him

reflex in the meditator. The rcstasy which the meditator then felt gave rise 19 # MUST al seuing to this sound refl x

came to be known as

ľ #

deity in the linguage known to the mediator

sev ral

phus like prax 8

This

It Contal d

invocitlyns

d: ctra.

a picture The maula li d

the

Dewailings,12 questions 13

d.. tur 14

息

AV VIL S

deliberations,11

2 loid Vil 50 2

Mbid II 33 2,3
Thid II 33 4: VIL 7, 1-4

Ind II 33 6

8 78/?· II 33 4

7 lbid· I 99 2 SY 1 17; RV 1 11 2, 1 37 1, 14. IV.30 11. SV Purvarchu V 6 6.

8 RV I 11

SV I. 1.

10 7S, VI 8 I 2.

11, RV X 129 5. 12. ST. XXII. 18. 13. Ibid XXII 81. 14. Jud. XXIII, 63

INTRODUCTORY

others God then became identical with the mantra, Many deities appeared thus to the same or various meditators and thus many mantras came into existence. Those mantras which were of the nature of praise were also called rks 15 Some of these mantras were used with or without change when set to music and sung and when making offerings to the deities concerned. The meditator is thus a seer of the mantra (mantradrastr) and not its author Those who have realized this are known as the rstr

for the particular mantras the rsis for some rks

The word ‘mantra

Hence some sages are considered as

is considered to have been connected with the faculty of thinking which is the sense of the root ‘man’ or ‘matrı’ 16 When the rls occur In the Vedic texts for employment in sacred rites, they no longer have the denotation of the faculty of thinking. Besides, certain passages which convey senses other than thinking, are also called mantras So, It is held that whichever passage is specifically mentioned in the Ved c texts as mantra must be named as such 17

Regarding the concept of God and the characteristic features of deities in the Rgueda, the scholars of the West contend that the religion of the Rgueda represents that of a primitive society marked by the “spontaneous emotional reactions of wonder, awe and fear evoked in man by natural phenomena such as the wind, the sun and the moon. Impressed by these powerful and inexplicable forces of Nature, primitive man reacted with emotional attitudes and behaviour to which’

15 For the definition of Rk, Saman and Yajus, see Jaimini’s Pūrvamīmāmsä Sūtras, II 1 35-37.

16 The root matrı’ has the sense of secret talk ’ (gupta-paribhā- sana) It seems that the word ’ mantra’ must have been derived from this root The seer (mantradrastr) who received the mantra was the only person who had received at and none else He alone had the sound reflex and the sense of the root ‘matri’ is applicable here

17 Vido Sayana’s Upodghata to his Rgvedabhasya (p. 35)4

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

the name

“religion” is given 18 Prsonification of

of the supernatural and the anthropomorphic concepts of Nature are also held to have given rise to the idea of Gud in primi ive society 19 Some scholars are of opinion that the Vedic culture was influenced by magic acts, fertility rites and other prim t ve manifestations of religion The p.rformance of these Was intended to stimulate or propitiate the powers of Nature and so was consider.d as an obligatory duty. A study of pumive culture is thus quite essential for understanding Vedic culture 20

These findings of the Western scholars could be accepted, if the Rgveda conta ns any evidence to support them A society which is called primitive is distinguish.d from a civilized one and, on this ground, is held to be inferior to the latter order to avoid this kind of attitude towards that society, the word ‘preliterate is often used by modern writers.

Certainly the society and culture as depicted in the Rgveda are no pri muve There are certain featur s which b-long on’y to primitive < ciety and none of then are traceable in the Reveda There is nothing like the mana’ of the Polynesians, the ‘maniton’ of the North Am ricans, tyrannical practices characterized by cruelty and rough behavt ur, head-hunting for achieving a greater starus, tattoo, taboos and tot mism

These are negative pces of evidence to prove that the religion of the Vedas is not primitive

On the other hand, there are substantial pice s of evidence to show that society in the Vedic period wa, cvilizad Family life is well d.picted with people striving for and living a happy

Edward Norbeck Religion in Primitive Society p 24.

^ acdonell · A Vedic Reader for Students, Introduction, p xvII; Max Miller. What can India teach us ? p 180

Cf J Gondi ;

Some Observations on the Relation between gods and powers in the Veda apropos of the phrase, sahasaḥ sānu)” pp. i-iv, 1-107, S. Gravenhage.

INTRODUCTORY

and prosperous life 21 The ideal of a rastra was quite familiar to the people of that period 22 Homes, gatherings. garments and the use of horses and chariots are frequently referred 10, suggesting an advanced and developed society on the material plan. 23

Words 24 like cäru, sumangaliḥ, saubhagalva and others bring out the aesthetic sense of that society Fine poetry,25 with attractive similes, points to the literary excellence of the Rgveda

Culturally, the standard of the Rgueda marks a well advanced stage of society Acts of worship and prayer, accompanied by offerings, convey the friendly attitude of the people towards the dens The relation between a devotee and his god as described reveals reciprocal aff ction and familiarity between them 26 This can be compared only to the relation which is noticed in the cult of bhakts of later days Lastly, lofty ideals of culture are suggested in the prayers offered by the peopl. 27 All these show that the culture and religion of the Vedas were well advanced and so could not have belonged to a primitive society.

Sup’rnaturalism is an important element of religion, It is a belief that there is a reality over and above the forces of Nature This reality is acknowledged by both preliterate and civilized societies. So the worship of this reality as manifested in Nature cannot be treated as worship of Nature or anthro- pomorphism or personification of natural phenomena. Neither the cosmic experience nor the awe and fear evoked in man by natural phenomena could be taken as having given rise to the

21 RV X. 34, 88

22, Ibid IV 42.1; X 125

23 Ibid X 168

24 Ibid I 34 5, III 8 2

25 Ibid I 85

1 113

6 83, V 11 6,6 64, X 71 2

X 85 33.

I 10; III 8.9: 39.1, IV. 51, 8,

VIII. 48 9

Ibid III 69 3

VI 51 4, VII, 71 6

Ibid. VI 52. S,

X. 37, 7; SY. XL. 16 ; Bƒ. Up. 1. 2. 28.

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

origin of religion. Faith in the deity as governing the moral order must be taken as accounting for its rise.

Even if we concede that magic arts could have been responsible for the rise of culture and religion in a primitive society, it has no relevance for Vedic culture. The Rgveda does not have any direct reference to such acts Whatever references are there, suggestive of such practices in the Rgueda, and, more so, in the Tajurveda, may be deemed as survivals from a hoary past. The Atharvaveda does contain many references to them, It would be reasonable to take the major portion of the Atharva- veda as compiled long before the Rgueda, but on this account it would not be proper to trace the origin of religion to magic

Not only were the ancient people aware of the concept of the deity, but they had also knowledge of the distinct traits of several gods Indra is depicted as a warrior, Agni and Brhaspati as priests and Rudra and Asvins as physicians. Some deities are depicted as passing through the air in their chariots drawn by steed. 28 Their limbs and ornaments are frequently referred to as dazzling.29 They are offered seats made of sacred grass,30 and served with milk, butter, grain and flesh of sheep and other animals 31 The soma juice is frequently stated to be an offering to deities 32

Such descriptions show that a particular god was conceived in the manner in which he presented himself to the seers and that each deity had some definite features with which he was identified. Sometimes, while a particular deity is glorifed, another deity is also brought in and extolled together with the

R. V. I. 35. 3, 5, II 13. T. IV 61. 5, V. 83, 6. VIL 71 3.
Ibid. I 34, 9, 10, II, 93, 9.

Ibid 1.85, 6, V. 11, 2,

31, Ibid. II. 33. 5, II, 36. 12, III, 59, 1, IV. 50, 6, 10, VII, 63, 5,

Ibid. II 12. 14.

INTRODUCTORY

former 33 This is taken by the Orientalists as a feature of Vedic deities whose “figures are indefinite in outline and deficient in individuality “.34 However, it is difficult to agree with this VIEW Rudra is referred to as ‘Kapardın ‘,35 which word means one who has matted hair He is depicted as having the bow, Pinaka,36 in the hand The word, ‘pralımā ‘,37 occurs in the

sense of the form of the god who is to receive the oblation. It is not therefore proper to hold that the deities of the Vedas did not have definite forms at all and much more Inaccurate is it to treat the Vedic deities as lacking in individuality The deities must have appeared before the seers with their distinct features which were identifiable to them and which were described by them in expressions with which they were quite familiar.

Though the gods appeared before sages through mantras and were depicted by them, they went out of sight afterwards. When the sacrifice was required to be performed in honour of a deity, the singers of the rks had to invoke that deity 38 The rk which was already available, had to be r cued and chanted. The scat of grass wis already pr pared for the god to arrive there and occupy 1.39 This is enough proof to bold that the

with is jointly mentioned Varuna and Savitr, ef I 35, 1, I VI. 49 3, 4, VII 61, VIII. 29,

33 RV IV 57 10, 11 where Indra Bihaspati, VII 83 3, 5, 6 for Mitra. 1.88, II 33 2, V 83 6, 6.54,

Vedic Reader for Students
RV. I 114. 1, 5, VI. 55 2,

Introduction, p XIK

VII 83 8; IX 67 11

SY III 61, XVI SI, TS 1 8 6.2, OF SY XVI 7 where be is referred to as blue-necked.

37 RV IX 130 3 The word occurs here in the sense of the deity. A question is put as to who the deity is Sayapa explains the word thus, * Devata havispatıyogitvena miyate nirmiyate iti pratima The answer for this is contained in the next hymn where the deity is mentioned as Savity. This does not convey the sense of the idol and, as such, the word * pratimă ’ cannot be taken here to convey that sense

38 RV. II 33 5:

Ibid. L. 85. 7,

VII. 71 2, 3, 4,

V. 11. 2.

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Vedic seers were aware of the possession of physical forms by the gods. Yet the Vedas do not contain a specific description of the person of the deity. This is clear from the role that Agni played in sacrifices. Agni is considered as the bearer of oblations to the gods, which means that the gods did not appear in person to receive the offerings. This made the Mimämsä schools of thought argue that a god is only mantra and there is no god apart from 11,40 Supreme significance came to be attached to the scrupulous attention to be paid to the uttering of mantras without the least inaccuracy.41

While the concept of divinity was developing on these lines, there must have been growing another tendency to evolve a different concept of the deity, of course basing it on the teachings of the Vedas.42 The hotr, adhvaryu, udgätṛ and brahman, who were all connected with the performance of a Vedic ritual, wer. perhaps the only persons who were content with the identification of mantras with the gods Perhaps, those who assisted them also held the same view. Others who were Brahmins. Ksatriyas and Vaisyas, and did not have actual participation in such performances, might have remained content with this concept of God. The Vedantins, however, refuted it, admitting physical forms for the deities 43

Long before the development of the Ithasas and Purānae there must have been an intense yearning on the part of the people to visu se the one supreme God in person. God however would not present Himself to one and all for the mule

Cultural Heritage of India, Vel III, p 168

Vide Paniniyasıkṣā 52, where the dangers of mispronouncing words in respect of syllables or accentuation are affirmed, citing the example of the disaster to the sacrificer who misplaced the accents in pronouncing the word, “Indrasatru”.

42 Chand. Up. IV. 16. 2.

This is discussed in the Devatādhikaraņa of the Brahmastiras, 1, 3, 25-29. See also Yaska’s Nirukia, VII, 8, 1.

INTRODUCTORY

asking, and so the followers of the Vedic tradition must have been seriously considering a way to attain their cherished objective.

Again, though gods and men appear to be friendly accord ng to the Vedic tenets, there is no direct evidence in them to prove that man had an intense longing to visual ze the one Sipreme God That is, the doctrine of bhakti does not appear have developed then. Those who performed the acrifices had only the awareness of their dependence on the gds for protection and secu ity They and those also who did not actually participate in the ritualistic performances, should hav had the concept of a Supreme God and even might have dev. ped a strong desire to see Him in person It is this intense liking that ripened later into bhaktı.

B sides, there were Südras who formed the majority of the population There were also women who represented nearly half the people. Both these were not qualified for the s udy of the Vedas and for that reason had no competence to have the fitness to p rform the rituals They were not however, living in the dark. In a way, they should have known what God is B longing to the same community, they must have had abiding faith in what the sacrifiers belived. It must be no surprise if they, too, along with the men of the twice-burn castes, ch.rished a deep longing to visualiz: God.

It is to satisfy the year ungs of these that the Agamas were brought into b ing. The word ‘ägama’ suggests that they came later than the Vedas 44 They are held to be intrins cally valid for the following reasons First, they are based on what the Vedas

teich.

What is adumbrated in the Vedas receives an elaborate exposition in the Agamas. Secondly, the promulgators of the

This may also indicate that they were brought from a different plice since

one.

ASV 2

a’ means motion towards a particular place from a different

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Agamas are either the gods themselves or sages of great credibility who were steeped in the Vedic tradition. Further, the Agamas contain references to the Vedas and enjoin the adoption of Vedic mantras

The word agama’ is derived from the root, gam”, with the preposition ‘a’. The sense of this root, which means ’to go”, may also be moving (mentally) towards an object which is to be gained’. In this sense, the word conveys the same meaning as the word ‘veda’. Besides, as the preposition ‘a gives this root the sense of motion in the reverse direction, the word ‘agama’ can be taken to imply the handing down of knowledge from teacher to pupil, and thus to denote traditional (sampradaya) knowledge. Then the word ‘agama’ can be taken to mean what the Agamar stand for.

The Agamas are also known as Tantras. The word tantra is derived in two ways. According to one view it is from the root, ’tan”, to spread, with the unadi suffix, stran.45 Hence some scholars 48 suggest that tantra’ means the spreading out of the cosmic energy in the person who practises It. Others 47 take it in the sense of a system which elaborates the knowledge evidently acquired from the Vedas. To vindicate the validity of their system, the writers on Tantra seek to split the word as *tan’ and ’tra (spreading and saving), so as to mean that Tantra gives an exposition of the matters taken up in the system and also saves the aspirants who follow it from bondage.48 The

Vide. Sarvadhätubhyah ştran (498)

This sense 19 based on the root tan’ to spread, which must be with reference to something centred in a particular place The system of Tantra believes that the universal energy is latent in the individual He has to practise yoga and enable his energy to issue forth from his body.
Shakti and Shakta, p 17.

Vide

aatfa fageraufa azagaenfamıA | त्राणं च कुरुते यस्मात्तन्त्रमित्यभिधीयते ॥

(Kāmikāgama. Tantrantara Pațala)

INTRODUCTORY

word is also traced to the root tatri’ which means sustaining or lending support, and hence can be taken in the sense of offering an exposition 49 Yet others take it to mean understanding,50

The word, tantra, occurs in the sense of a sastra,51 as evidenced by the titles of works like Şaştıtantra Tantraväittika and others. It has acquired a specific sense in this lit.rature, It does not mean any sastra, but only the Tantrika system.

An attempt is also sought to be made to specify the purposes served by the Agama and Tantra The Agama provides the aspirant with knowledge and Tantra saves him from bondage,52

आशा वस्तु समन्नाश्च गम्यत इत्यागमो मतः । agà graà færi azafard fazgan: 11

(l’iñgalāmata quoted in Tantras: Studies in their Religion and Literature, p 2).

However, the two names have come to signify the same system whose validity is held to be on a par with the Vedas, Snṛts and Purānas It is held that the Agamas bave special importance and validity in the Kaliyuga,

कृते श्रुत्युक्त माया खेतायां स्मृतिसंभवः । द्वापरे तु पुराणोक्तः कलावा गमसम्मतः ॥

(Kulärṇavantantra)

49 Tatri is taken here as the basis.

50 Isanasıvagurudeva commentary on the Isanatıvagurudevapad- dhati: III p 28.

Vide –Käsikävytti on the Asṭādhyāyî (VII. 2 9) Kautilya’s Artha- Jästra (XV 3) uses the word in this sense. CI

तन्त्रमितरेतराभिसम्बन्धस्य र्थ समूह स्यो देशः शास्त्रम्

(Nyayabhāşya, I. 1. 28)

For a fairly long list of matters dealt with in the Tantre, see the Ŝabdakal padruma, p 185 and Vācaspatya, pp 818-618 and for the Agama, Šabdakalpadruma, pp. 584-6 and Väsaspatya, pp. 3223-3227.

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

The Agamas have an independent development of theory and practice and should be taken as a system of philosophy and religion based on the Vedas. The theoretical side represents a continuation of the results of philosophical enquiries which the Vedas deal with. The controversies and discussions which mark these enquiries are left out in the Agamas. Greater attention is paid here to the cultural discipline which is sought to be inculcated through practical religion.

The matters which the Agamas treat of could be brought under four heads, namely, jñāna, ***a, kriyā and caryā, which stand respectively for the knowlec reality, yogic practices for the realisation of the Ultimate Reality, preparation of materials and their collection for the worship of the ·

the religious practices.

The Sashhita and Brahmana portions of the Vedas could be taken to form a unit containing a rich development of the concept of God who is to be worshipped through the performance of sacrifices. The various hymns of the Ṛgoeda were evolved at different periods in praise of the deities and found ritualistice use in portions of the Yajurveda and Sämaveda which had relevance to the propitiation of particular deities through sacrifices in which particular hymns were to be recited. The explanatory portions of the particular rituals, which had relevance, are found in the Brahmanas forming an integral part of those Rgvedic hymns that were employed for the purpose

It is only later that Vyasa edited the mass of Vedic literature into the four Vedas, and the corresponding Samhita, Brahmaṇa, Aranyaka and Upanisad portions.

The hymns of the Rgueda were classified by Vyasa in a particular order, taking into account the importance of the roles of the deities in the hymns. The first hymn which is in praise of Agni, was not composed at first and so was not the earliest. Any offering which is made to any god is to be made only in the sacred fire, and so Agni is extolled in this hymn

INTRODUCTORY

which Vyasa placed at the beginning for that purpose. The concept of any deity cannot therefore be taken to represent an earlier or later stage simply on the ground whether or not he is extolled in the so called nuclear portion of the Rgveda In fact, which the nuclear portion is and which it is not, cannot be now discussed and decided, for the present classification was made by Vyasa long after the Vedas were compiled.

Two major aspects of the concept of the deity emerge when the hymns of the Rgueda and others are given a thorough study. One is that all deities are not different and distinct from one another, but represe y several forms of a single Divine Aing 53 It is because of this aspect that the features revealed depiction of some deities overlap All the deities are real. Th the monotheistic tendency prevailed in the Vedic literature as such. To represent the Vedic religion as polytheism or henotheism is only to ignore this main aspect of the concept of the Deity The Aranyakas and Upanisads contain speculations and discussions on this concept. The second aspect is that God is the soul of the mobile and immobile worlds, representing the embodied living beings and inert matter respectively 64 These two aspects became the foundations of theism as developed in the different schools of Hindu religion

There grew up a literature, during the period of the development of sacred literature represented in the Brāhmaṇas which took the shape of narratives, anecdotes and epics. This was concerned with a critical enquiry into the nature, activities and relative positions of the various gods The concept of a single divine Being was subjected to serious elucidation,

Cf. R. V. I. 164, V. 4. 1. X 181

Vide.

Q* Alzar agar eggà i xer taar: gugıfh wafta

Vide:

Nirukta, VII 4.

सूर्य आत्मा जगतस्तस्थुषश्च । (R. V. 1. 115, 1)14

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISH

resulting in the identification of this B.ing. Agni and Indra were, of course, the chief deities in the Rived c hymns. Yet, V anu and Rudra did not have insignificant positions, as imagined by foreign scholars. It may be admitted that they were not favoured as against Agni, Indra and Virup. The bymns a idressed to these two contain what could be taken to be suggestive of the in’i mate relationship of the pople with them. The narratives and episodes did not und rmine the prominence of Agni and Varugar Indra, but were in favour of the exclusive worship of Vişņu or Rudra,

The Agamas presuppose this aspect of the d.velopment of the concept of God Ohr deities are not treated as unreal.

In fact,

They are not, however, as eminent as V şi or Rudra they are of secondary significance, and are generally treated as forming parts of the retinue of Visa or Rudra. The Agamas arose in this way and their emphasis on the personal nature of Gid marked them out. They b came class fi:d, according to the deity exclusively glorified in each.

A god treated as supreme cannot be conceived of as a mere Absolure, nor as one who is to be propitiated for a defirite purpose like obtaining rains, security from enemies or the elements of Nature, or prosperity of a particular kind F.r these purpos:s, the worship of particular deitus is commended, but this does not by any means lend support to any pre-eminent position for these deities. As a result of the development of the worship of the principal deities as recorded in the epics, Parāņas and other ancient literature, the Agamas evilved the cult of a single deity to the exclusion of all o hers

He came

to be looked upon as pre-eminent in the sense that he not only overshadowed the greatness and might of other gods, bu also had enough power to fu fil the aspirations of his worshippers. This trend is already noticed in some of the Purapas, like the Vişnu, Bhagavata, Skanda and others,

Whether Vign or Rudra is admitted to be the pre-eminent God, it is necessary to recognize Him as endowed with

INTRODUCTORY

€

enormous potentialities and capacities to keep every thing under His control, to create the world and maintain it, affording protection and security to created beings. The Agamas therefore conceive of God as powerful (fakta) The power (sakti) which God possesses is not external to Him, for in that case His relationship to and control over it will have to be explained, which may lead to the undesirable admission of power (sakti) being independent of God For this reason, the Agamas recognize God as never dissociated from power This power is not inert like primordial matter (prakṛt); in which case, it should occupy a very subordinate position in relation to God. Hence the Agamas describe this power (sakti) as animate. The feminine gender of the word, sakts’, suggests that this should be a goddess ever associated with God as His consort. As such, this goddess is named differently as Laksmi, Durgā, Māyā and others. The Godhead therefore 18 a two-in-one reality. Except for the Śrīsūkta 55 and later portions of the Mahānārayaniya Upanisad,58 the Vedic literature does not conceive of the co-presence of a female principle along with Brahman or Isvara Those Upanisads 57 which subscribe to the concept the female principle as constituting the Ultimate Reality, are held to be of later origin This concept is also indicated or elaborated in the Puranas and Itihāsas. In this respect, the Āgamas maintain their own concept and tradition, not shared by ancient Vedic tradition

Admission of a Supreme Deity is closely connected with problems like God’s relations to the world in respect of its

This forms part of the Khila of the Rgveda The word, ‘Khila’, shows that it did not form part of the Rgveda in the recension that is now available Evidently, Vyasa did not include it It could have been in some other recension which has now disappeared, and so it has a loose existence But on this ground, it cannot be treated as a later production.

56 Mahanarayaniya Upanisad, 10

They are Sitopanisad, Annapurnopanışad, Devyupanışad, Saubhagyalakṣmyupanışad and Sarasvatirahasyopanışad,

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVIM

origin, maintenance and destruction The Vedi. tex’s contain conundrum,58 questions and answers on the source of the w rid and cosmology 59 Varicus theories, which have sprung later in the periods when systems of thought developed, are triceable to these sur¢ S. The Itihasas, particularly the Mahabharata,60 and the Puraṇas Bl have their own versions of cism logy I some of th se,82 Brahn a Vsn and Rutra are r girded as respectively in charge of the Creation, maintence and

destruction of the world,

The attitude of th Agamas to aris csmlogy diff r. from the core pts that ar- gath red f on the aforesaid sourc.s 01 principle, the Aganas gr e with the ev lu on theo y of the Sankhya system, but there is much diverger ce from the Sankhya theory.

The concept of a two in-one D ity does not permit the Agamas to allow a p’ap in their cosmology for other du i ́’s on a foting equal o that of the Dayxclusively gl. rifi d in any particular Aşıma Either on ad the same Diy attends to all the cosmic functions or carries them out through the az-ncy of other gods This is treated als in son of the Purānas 63

63 RV L 164; VIII 29.

AH X 81. 4.

XT. 45-32

S Br. XlL2 6 12; Coind. Up. I 9.8, 23

M Bh 11 43. XII 18^-347

81, VP 1.5, 6, 7, 8: Bb II. 5, III 10,23 83 The Supreme Bing is of Brahn. Vanu and Ridra mineni 10* 211 1aut man fore, the thread time. Brih na their respective functions.

Vide

XXIII 9, 7 Br III 9 5 4

led Hin He is said to 159ume the forms for currvini og the

of creath Vil- V 2 1 / A1 61 63 87 70 Vipu aid Rutra, are s ok-n of as baving

सर्ग स्थतिविनाशानां जगतो यो जगन्नयः । qoqût azertà farmà vracaà

Th re-

(V P 1 2 4)

Cf Thad. 1, 2 1; Bragavin a-gumes the rams of Brahma, Vişpu and Siva for the purpose. Ibid I 2 88 Cr Ibid 1 2 70.

प्र

Vide: att faga’ ð augnað gat

apqfónað egògica:că (Mbh, XII. 350. 19)

Cr. Bh. II. 4. 12.

INTRODUCTORY

Since God and Sakti are non-dual, there cannot be anything that could exist outside this Reality. If anything exists, it can only be an emanation of the Reality To account for the existe ence of the world, the Agamas give three cosmological accounts. Each one has a definite purpose to serve.

The first account mentions three4 types of creation, namely, pure (suddha) mixed (misra) and impure (asuddha). The pure type is represented by the emanations of Sakti which are intended to give relief to the selves in bondage. The mixed one corresponds to the traditional kind which is described in the Purānas and according to which Brahma, Vişnu and Rudra have their roles to play in the world to be created. The impure type is akin to the evolution of Prakṛlı, more or less based on the teachings of the Sankhya system. Sakti is present in every created product in some form or other.

The second account divides creation into six stages through which it passes. Each stage is called a sheath (kosa) 65 The first is Saktilosa in which Sakti manifests itself, but remains in its transcendental form Māyākosa is the second, which represen’s the beginning of the material creation. The Prasuti- koja is the third in which Sakti gives rise to deities with the help of the three gupas. Brahma, Visnu and Rudra get their consorts during the fourth stage called Prakṛtikosa. Brahmāņda- koda is the name given to the fifth stage, which represents the evolution of the Sankhya categories. The bodies of all animate beings represent the last stage called Jivakosa.

The Satkäryavāda which forms the basis of the creation theory requires to be justified while explaining the emanations of various forms from the Ultimate Reality which is pure unsullied with the three gunas of Prakrti This is possible only by admitting certain divisions in creation as pure, impure and mixed,

65 These are different from the five kosas of the Vedantins: anna, prāņa, manas, vijñāna and änande,

ASV-3

AQAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISH

The third cosmological account details sonic creation 60 which passes through six stages called varņa, kalā, tatīva, mantra, pada and bhuvans. The first stage is represented by absolute sound (Sabdabrahman) which has four stages of polarization under the names of Pară, Pasyanti, Vatkhari and Madhyamă67 Kala has five aspects,88 namely, Nivptti, Pratișthä, Vidyā, Santi and Santyalitä ‘Tattva’ refers to the classification of sounds and

of the created beings. The mantra stage can be termed as lin- gistic occultism This begins from the letters which are called mātṛkās89 (a word which means mother") forming the source of all words. The pada stage70 marks four levels of consciousness,

This is concerned with the creation of sound from Brahman and its development through stages.
Vide :

as arratefasया वैखरी । मध्यमा हृदयदेशस्था पदप्रत्यक्षा- g1977 szagruátar, útfai g aaıfq oxfamqıanfarixa i

व्यवहारातीता योगिनां तु परायां तु न ।

Lagkumanjūşavyäkhya-kala p 182, (Chowkamba edn.)

CI. Vakyapahiya 1. 144; Shakti and Shakta, pp. 241-9.

Three more are added to make this number eight,

fagiau sfære forur arfaenÙI = || शास्यतीताभिमाना च प्राणा गुणवती तथा । गुणसूक्ष्मा निर्गुणा व पताः संज्ञाः क्रमात् स्मृताः ।

(LT. XXXV. 15 b, 16)

।

This word is a collective term for the letters which form the basie of all sounds. Of Shakti and Shakta, pp. 260, 290
A fifth stage called Turyātīta 18 admitted as denoting its supra- vyäha state of existence which manifests fully the soul’s majesty and splendour. Vide LT (Translation) p 130, în; LT XXIV. 31; LI 11.

See also S’ivigrayogindrasivacarya’s Saivaparibhäșă, pp 63 64.

Some Upanisads describe the person in this state. Vide Nārada- parivrзjaka Upanisad Turiyatītāvadhūta Upanisad and Samnyăsa Upaniṣad. It is however doubtful whether the contents of these have any direct bearing on the passage in LT. cited above.

Ct. Iivarapratyabhijñāvimartınī, 1gamädhäkära, II. pp. 18-20.

INTRODUCTORY

namely, jāgrat, (waking stage), soapna (dream), suşupti (deep sleep) and turiya (transcendental state) The last one, bhuvana, consists of the material creation. Among these, varna and mantra have a direct bearing on sound and its creation. The other four are related to general cosmology. This account of creation seeks to indicate that the physical world, which is made up of the material nature and sonic nature, arise; out of the Absolute Reality, identified with Absolute Sound. Another name for this theory of creation is * adhvan’ and the six courses are called sad adhvanah.

While the above account of the third theory of creation is concerned with an admixture of sonic and material creation and therefore is objective, there is another kind of evolution repre- sented purely by sound.71 The first or primordial stage is repre- sented by the Ultimate Reality (param tattvam) and is in the form of sentience. When this Reality entertains a will to create, it manifests itself as Sakti It is also called Maya and the root- cause (karaṇabindu). This shows that Sakti is non-different from the Supreme Reality. The next stage in the evolution is the formation of Nada which is indistinct sound possessing light. From the Nada emanates the supreme Bindu (Para), which represents the primary stage of creation. Out of this evolve the lower Bindu and Bija. From the lower Bindu a lower kind of Nada is produced, representing the creation of the sound of the letters; and the Bija is the source for the tattoas of the material wolrd.

These two accounts of the third kind of creation have significant meaning. Other systems of thought hold sound to

Vide

सच्चिदानन्दमिवात् सकलात् परमेश्वरात् । mreitsgimeaat aret avgifg-gagg¶: I परशक्तिमयः साक्षात् त्रिवासी भिद्यते पुनः । fargafqt dtafufa aer den gåtfcan:- # मेदाः समीरिताः ॥

Saradatilake, L. 7. 8.

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

have sprung rrom ākāśa, akañkāra, vāyu and other sources. This does not explain the important role which mantras play in wor- ship nor show how God could be taken as ex’s’ing in mantras. A better exposition is therefore attempted by the Agamas, which seek to trace the origin and development of mantras from the Ultimate Reality.

The individual self (jiva) is represented by the sixth kosa callid fiva-kota It is therefore part of Absolute Reality Sakti manifests itself in several kinds of evolutes which are insentient and sentient, the latter being represented by the selves. The selves are admitted to be karma-ridden, and the evolution of Sakti is only to help them in freeing themselves from bondage,

Liberation consists in the self obtaining proper enlighten- ment about the essence of the Supreme Reality. In other words, the self has to realize that it is part of Sakti which is not d ff.r- ent from God The schools of Agamas hive different inter- pretations of the nature of liberation which is based on this concept of the self being a part of and emination from Sakii The self merges into Sakti and so has no existence apart from God.72 Others hold that, being sentien’, the self even then bas individuality, with transcendental existence 73

The self gets to this stage through enlightenment acquired by divine grace which is called Saktibita 74 a word indicative of the role played here by Sakti. Karma, jñana and yoga are the means to win the grace of the Divine.

The yoga section of the Agamas discusses the methods which a self has to adopt to know the real nature of the Ultimate Reality. They are based on the Toga-sūtras of Patanjali. The

This is quite appropriate, inasmuch as the self issues out of the sentient form of Šakti,
Same as under 70.
Alighting of grace is called Šaktipātā, a name given in the Pancorŝire, Saivism and S’aktaism. See The World as Power, p. 213,

INTRODUCTORY

A gamas recognize that, within the human body, there are alx cakras (or circles)75 with the names of Mulädhära, Svadhisthāna, Maṇipūra, Anahata, Viduddha, and Ãjñā, placed one above the other, the first one being placed below the navel, and the last at the top of the head All of them are said to be in the form of lotuses There are several ducts (nd dis) inside the body among which an arterial duct is called Susumna and is held to be the most important, Ida is another important duct to its right, while Pingald runs to its 1.ft. The Sușumnă duct connec’s the Muladhara with the Ajna. The jivasakti les coiled like a serpent in the Mulädhāra.

The self has to adopt yogic practices to arouse this sleeping Sakti which is called Kundalini and make it rise up through the duct of Susumnā, pass through the circles", and ultimately reach the Brahmarandhra, the middle cavity at the top of Suşımnă. At this stage, the self would merge with the Supreme Sakti and have a direct experience of bliss. In order to adopt this method, the self has to practise various postures (asanas) and carry out breath-control (prāṇāyāma). The Ida and Pingala ducts play a prominent role in präṇāyāma. The method of yoga as recommended in the Agamas envisages a self which acquires the knowledge of reality to find the Absolute in himself, since God is not absent from anywhere and is not distinct from Sakti, The aspirant is therefore required to have experience within himself and, as such, this concept has appeal only to a limited number who could adopt yogic practices

The next section is called Kriyāpāda, which is concerned with the making of images, construction of temples and instal- lation of the images there. The gods are represented in the Vedas as displaying or possessing distinct features so as to be definitely

75 Ibid. p 113 They may be plexuses or centres of the involuntary nervous aydem They are described as focal points of power in the body of man which are only partially open. (Studies in the Tantras’ and the ‘Veda’, p. 79.)

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VANNAYISH

Identified and distinguished. Certain features displayed by some gods were held in common by more than one deity. This led to the formation of the concept of all-deities * (viśvedevāḥ)78 and to the evolution of a monotheistic tendency making the gods as subordinate in position to a Supreme God whose various manifestations they were taken to represent.

It is hard for an aspirant to have concentration on the features of a god who is not present before him whenever he requires. The need therefore arose to evolve a concept which would admit of the form of the particular god who is to be meditated upon. God has been conceived of by the Vedic seers

all-pervading (sarvavyāpin) and also transcendental 77 Another principle which is involved in the conc.pt of God- head is that He is also immanent78. These aspects have made it possible for evolving a new concept according to which God, who is infinite and beyond all kinds of temporal, spiritual and objective limitations, and who, for that reason, could not be described and depicted accurately with the instruments of measurement and evaluation that are finite, becomes accessible to man by taking a physical body in the shape of an idol. Along with the idol, there also came into existence the mystic diagrams drawn to specific scales on metals or other materials with the letters of the mantra relating to the particular deity being set in specified spots.

This concept of admitting a finitized form for the Infinite Supreme Being is based on two assumptions. God can make

TO. AK. W.

Vide:

wadfgu með sanca artrem: fera: 1

।

Nārāyapa Upanisad. XIII. 1.

(RP. I, 00. 1)

nafarquigan |

Svet/vatara Upanisad, VL. 11.

INTRODUCTORY

Himself manifest at any time at His own will. The manifested form is as much God’s as the ut manifested one is. God pre- sents Himself in this form for the sake of His devotee, and so God’s presence in the idol cannot be questioned. Secondly, God’s immanence, when it is displayed in the idol, cannot also be explained away. Therefore, the finitized form of God as idol must be taken to have been known to Indians from very ancient times on the authority of the Agamas,

The various deities were worshipped by the Vedic seers by making offerings of ghee, butter and other materials in the sacred fire, whenever specific desires were needed to be fulfilled. The worshipper was well aware that his particular desire would be granted if a particular deity was worshipped The relation ship between the worshipper and the deity was based merely on this understanding. People who used to know this and realized It, must have felt in course of time that there existed between them and the particular deity an intimate relation which was drawing them both close to each other. This gave rise to the feeling of dependence on the god, which developed into one of affection. Affection gradually resulted in the rise of devotion in man for the god. Man could not then live aloof from that deity. He desired to offer his oblations to that deity in the fire. It is not unnatural then that he should have desired to see his god before him. A devotee should, indeed, expect to perceive his god in a form which his finite senses could easily comprehend The form with which the god presented himself to his devotee, must have been cherished as his essential form. Those who had visions like these of the same god would not have allowed that attractive figure to go away from their sight. They were not sure of having it again, if it vanished from their presence Naturally, they should have taken steps to shape, out of any material they had, whether mud, stone or metal, a figure that would represent that form in the idol carved out by them So it is the devotion of the worshipper that has brought about the concept of the idol and idol worship.24

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISH

The seer who used to feel that his transactions with a deity whom he worshipped by making offerings into the sacred fire were ended after that act of worship was completed, did not any longer ponder over the identity of that deity, as there was no need thereafter for continuing the worship When that deity was represented in an idol, the deity was always there before the worshipper, attracting his mind and senses Emo- tions surged into his mind, taking the forms of gratitude for the favours received and attraction to the beauty of the person of the deity. The m nd was enraptured with the ravishing beauty of the god. The worshipper could no longer allow himself to forget that form or ignore the presence of the deity there.

The idol is God Himself. Awareness that God is supreme, possessing countless qualities, powerful, amiable and easy of access to the worshipper, gives rise to affection and passionate longing for God. Naturally, the worshipper would erect a place for keeping the idol, decorate that place and see that nothing affects its sanctity This is the starting point for th: rise of the section called Kriyāpāda in the Agamas.

Steeped in the Vedic traditions, the seers could not ignore the significance of the Vedic mantras which, on being repeated by them, brought forth the deity before them The mantras were therefore used for all purposes connected with the worship of the idol,

The feeling of attachment for an object fills the human heart and arouses there a desire to keep that object well-secured in a safe place. When that feeling is enlivened by the spirit of devotion, attempts are made by the owner of that object to beautify it and enshrine it in a place that is also embellished with all artistic designs in consonance with the beauty of the object. Every possible attempt is made to adopt all devices for the main purpose of providing that object with a charming enviroment. It is in this sense that Hindu iconography, sculpture, painting and architecture are said to have had a divine origin. These fine arts were primarily intended for God.

INTRODUCTORY

The selection of the proper site for the erection of the temple, excavating it, preparation of the bricks, raising of the basement and other preliminaries are dealt with in detail in the Kriyapada Choice of stones, erection of pillars, building the halls and construction of the temples are then described. The temple is treated as Puruşa, the humanized Supreme Being The cosmos is conceived to be present abstractly and also in concep tion 79 So, the temple is constructed with specific numbers of halls, courtyards and other structures, with all the deities represented there in the form of images and specified places. This explains why the sanctum sanctorum is called ‘garbhagrha”. The size of the towers, the storeys in the towers and the temple structure should be uniform, but In proportion to the size of the chief idol to be enshrined in the temples. Rules are given for the selection of stone, wood or metal for making the idols. After the idols are carved, an initial ceremony called adhivāsa is to be performed. Then the eyes are carved for the idol followed by an elaborate process of installation. After this, the idols become sanctified and fit for worship. Methods of off. ring daily worship to the deity are then treated. Vedic mantras are to be recited while attending to all this work.

Similarly, every person is required to offer worship to God in his residence. The procedural details for this purpose are also contained in this section of the Agamas The idol, the sālagrāma, the linga and the mystic diagram are required to be worshipped in the house in accordance with the aptitude, capacity and economic conditions of the worshipper.

The fourth section which is called Caryapada prescribes the rules for carrying out the daily routine of the aspirant and for attending to the worship of God in temples and houses and conducting general, private and public festivals Most of the texts of the Agamas contain a more detailed exposition of this

79 For a treatment of this, see M. A. Dhaky ; · Prāsāda aa cosmos" in Brahmavıdya, XXX, pts. 3 & 4.

ASV

AQAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAINAVISM

section than others, ladicating the ulterior purpose of the Agamas. This section lays stress on the practical side of their teachings.

The worship of God is to be conducted through mantras, which are constituted of letters or rather, syllabic sounds. These represent the power of God 80 Each letter has a deity. An aspirant has to choose the letters which get moulded into the form of a mantra and use it for worshipping his deity Any set of letters or any word is not a mantra The letters have to be such as to form a word which could become a mantra. Each letter in that manha reveals only an aspect of God who is to be represented by it Only when the whole mintra gets formed, the full form of God would become available there. This is like a particular formation of letters which, becoming a word, would convey meaning. Mantra manifests God and thus stands for God whose presence is felt there. Mantras and D ty become one and the same. The letters of the mantra become the yntra of God So mantra’s pantra or an id. I of God The yantra or idol cannot therefore be a mere piece of stone or metal To produce this manifestation of the deity in the yantra or idol, the mantra must be intonated in the most accurate way prescribed in the Agamas in respect of both sound and rhythm. Any attempt to render it in another language would reduce it to the status of a mere word, possessing simply physical properties. Such translated words may have the status of prayers, but mantras alone have the power to compel the deity to appear before the aspirant.

The letters, which form mantras, are called mäirkas, as they form the basis of words. They are classified under different heads. A pedestal for them (mitskapitha) is required to be prepared with specific dimensions and a diagram is to be drawn to take the shape of a locus. There are specific rul.s to draw the forms of the letters in the petals in accordance with the mantra of the denly to be worshipped.

Vide: LT. XX : AhS. XVIII, 53.

༈

INTRON

臘

The characteristic feature of the mantra is consciousness and is said to be of four parts,81 namely, bija, pinda, säṁjñā and pada The bija may contain either one or two vowels coupled with a consonant. It constitutes the essential part of the particular deity’s mantra. The prapava, krim, drim, aim, klim. and such others illustrate the bija. The consonants, inserted between the bija and the remaining part, constitute the pinde. Yowels also are sometimes connected with it: im represents this Samiña is the name of the particular deity addressed in the mantra in association with the words, names and prapava, e.g., namo Vişnave’. A combination of verbal utterance with nominal concepts of a laudatory nature gives rise to the pade section, e.g, * sahasrajvālāya’. All these four parts together constitute a complete mantra and each of these is held to be as efficacious as a mantra Such words as sodhd, vauşat and phat are used at the end of certain mantras, conveying the offering.82

€

Mantras of two kinds are employed in the Agemic practices, namely, vaidika and tantrika. The vaidika mantras are takes

All the four are essential If one of them is not available. then the mantra becomes of the middle kind. If none of them is there, then the mantra is called inferior. Vide LT, XXII, 38, 39.

See also LT. translation p. 115.

Cf. Paus XXXVIII 262 and $prs. Ll 1-8,

$3. Vide:

कर्मानुरूपमन्ते ममहकारारिक यसैत् । aar Garfagrarà axedır: mátfår: 1 darăt cafaurátai encrsregficâQ | आप्यायने तु वे वौषट् सर्वत्र कमलोद्भव | amd unfa fait gåtuızanıifa + gagart a fafganrdiradad arz •

वषट् gnað afaqıà e taetsofaget ! ऋने सप्रणवाद्वित्र नमस्कारपदासु दे ॥ CI. SKS, Brahma, XI §-14; JS. XV, 145-108 a.

।

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAIJNAVISM

from the four Vedas, according as circumstances demand. There are also täntrika mantras, and some which represent an admixture of both. Tn tantrika mantras are required on two grounds One is that every deity, which forms part of the re. tinue of the principal deny, requires a spec fic mantra for wor. ship, and a Vedic mantra is not always available for the purpose. S-condly, they prov de those who are not qualified to s’udy the Vedas with mantras which th y could readily ue; eg. Om hrim halaya astraya hūm phot; Om hrim aim karty n namh ; sadoditānandavigrahaya krim klım soāhā The Vedic mantras are adapted for länrik purposes. For instance, there ar Gayahi mantra:83 for several deities on the model of the Săvil·l mantra. The Revedic mantra Svasti na Indro Vṛddhasravih* (1 89 6), is adipted as ‘hrim hūm svasti naḥ Käljäyani Āporṇa’. These. mantras have to be repeated (as japa) in order to attain success. (siddhi).

✡

Those who adopt the tantrika made of worship are required to undergo initiation84 (diksd) und r a preceptor who is well up in the subject. The qualifications are prescribed for the pupil and the preceptor. Initiation (dikṣā) is not simply giving lectures or guiding the apprentice in doing a pi ce of work, but transference of the supreme power wh ch resid.s in has body into the body of the pupil.

There are several items to be gone through while offering worship of God. Worship of God is f two k d 85 nimely, internal (antaryaga) and external (baya yaga). Tue puant is required to look inward and find God there The entire procedure of worship as practised internally is to be gone through and, after the inner worship is over, external worship Is to be undertaken.

Vide: Narayana Upanisad, 5, 6, 7, 20. 84 Principles of Tantra, Part 1, pp 431-7. 85. Shert and Shakta, p. 311,

INTRODU

The first step to be adopted before actually beginning the Inner or subjective mode of worship is the purification of the elements in the body of the aspirant (bhūtasuddhi)86 This consists in imagining the earthy element of the body being absorbed into the subtle element characterised by smell (gandha-tanmātrā); which is to be merged in water, which io Ite turn in the subtle element characterised by taste (rasa-lanmåtrā) and so on till the body gets into the mind, that into life and that into matter Matter is to be absorbed in the Supreme Being. In the reverse order, a new body is gradually imagined to be created, a body which is made up of pure saliva, so an to be free from the impurities which arise on account of the ragus and tamas of matter. This new body then gets fit for worshipping God.

The human body, which is made up of matter, is regarded as impure. The ancient texts tend to depict the body as reprehensible,87 The question that would generally be raised in the context is as to how the perfect idol or diagram of God, sancufied by the utterance of mantras, can be touched by the impure hand of man and offered worship There is no answer to this question in any ancient work except what is suggested in the Agamar. By this process of bhūta-suddhi, an aspirant is made to imagine that he gets rid of his impure body and obtains a pure frame with which he could offer worship 10 God This at once suggests that the body which has become perfect and flawless through this mental process is fully quali fied and competent to offer worship. Hence the Agamas have gone beyond the Vedas in suggesting that the human body is not so detestible as it is held to be. One should rather attach value and respect to the body which acquires the unique privilege in

86 Vacaspatya. pp 4886-7; Shakti and Shakta, pp 287-289; The World as Power pp 152-3 İsānašıvaqurudevapaddhati, Part III 97 93. Mantras are co itained in the Subāla Upanışad, II.

Vide, VP 1 1 7-82a, VI. 7. 17-18,

Bb. VII, 2, 43; VIL 15, 41-46; XI. 8, 33; XI. 20, 18.

ADAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAIŠKAVISH

this life for handling the idol or diagram and offering worship to

It directly.

After carrying out bhatafuddhi, the aspirant should imagine that he offers worship to God within himself, passing through all the stages of worship and using the materials which are also Imagined to have been procured there for the purpose This mental worship enables the aspirant to feel happy that God within him has been worshipped by him and helps him in preparing himself for the external mode of worship.

Apart from collecting the widely used materials of worship such as the vessels, bell and others, the Agamas insist on certain preliminaries to be gone through before the actual act of worship is begun.

Among them, the mengala88 is a pictorial representation of the descent of the Supreme Reality on earth at the spot where God is to be worshipped. This takes the form of drawing certain figures on the ground. The figures generally take the form of a lotus with a specific number of petals. Each figure has particular spo’s assigned for various deities with the chief deity taking its place in the centre. In general, a mandala can be us.d for any deity. With an artistic background, the maṇḍalo is treated as the place to be worshipped. This is generally used on occasions when pavitydropane, initiation and other rites are undertaken.

Tentre89 plays a prominent part in the Agamas The word, * yantra’ which is derived from the root ‘yam’ meaning ’to restrain", conveys the sense that the yantra is capable of sub- duing lust, anger and other i. purities which affect the self. Is

$8. The mandala is not a mere piece of decorative imagery for ritual It furnishes a powerful aterial basis for the operation of subile forces within and without. Vid Studies in the Tantras and the Vede, pp. 69-73.

Shakti and Shatta,

INTRODU

TORT

restrains the self from falling a victim to vice and fixes its atten- tion on the deity. Generally, it takes the shape of a diagram drawn on paper, engraved on metals or cut on crystals and stones. Tantras vary in design according to the deities they represent and whose mantras have their syllables written or carved there in specific places. The yantra is said to be the body of the deity which is mantra itself.

Vide:

qi angad då gearear taða fr tenantfar dat gratuanteaur #

(Cited in Sabdakalpadruma, Pt. IV. p. 13.)

While mandalas could be used for any delty, the yantra is concerned only with a particular deity All yantras have common edging called bhūpura, which is a quadrangular figure with four doors on each side. These doors are intended to isolate the yantra from the outside world. The worshipper meditates upon God and arouses Him within himself. He then transfers Him to the yantra which becomes His body. The yantra is then no longer gross matter It becomes fit to be worshipped. This transference of God into the yantra is stated to be Pranapratistha,90 as the deity is infused with life there.

The yantra becomes thus the concrete presence of the deity. The syllables of the mantra of the deity are still there, representing the deity. Meditation, repetition of the mantra and the act of worship are all done with reference to the yantra. Though concretized, the deity is not visualized in the yantra by all the aspirants. Hence this principle of the yantra is extended in its application to the idol of God which represents Him in physical form, acceptable and attractive to the eyes and minds of the aspirants. The idol, made of stone, wood, minerals, or metals, does not have the syllables of the mantre served on IL

Vide; The Tentres : Studies in their Religion and Literature, p. 40.

AGAWAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

Sometimes, however, the idol may be installed on a yantra specifically prepared for the purpose,

Nydse 91 is a practice enjoined by the Agamas Sounds have particular deities. They are also located in the human body. The sound, presided over by a particular deity, must be identified with the one present in the body. This is fine by touching that part of the body where it is located with the tip of a particular finger in the right hand and its palm This is called Nyā、a. While doing this, the mantra of the particular delty must be uttered. Thereby, the body of the aspirant is considered to get filled up with the life of the deity This Nyasa is called mantranyasa, which makes the aspirant acquire fitness to worship that deity. It is a mental process which removes the obstacles which lie in the path of offering worship to the deity When it is done on one hand with another, it is called Flastanyäsa or Karanyäsa,

This is to be followed by doing it on the body, when it is called Anganyă sa The latter is said to be of five kinds 92 the limbs on which nyata is to be done being hṛdaya, šikhā, d’ras, astra and kavaca. When this is to be done on the yantra and idol, they are held to possess these limbs. The aspirant who spiritul zes his body by Nyasa, infuses the potency of the mantra into the idol on which he performs Nyāsa

He must spiritualize the limbs of the idol and the interior of the idol also the Nyasa is thus both ext rnal (bahir) and int rnal (antas). Nyāta is also done with a view to create a new potency in the idol. It is of three kinds, sa ĥhāranyasa, sṛştınyaia and sthitinyasa,93 Nyasa is required to be done on almost all

$1. Ibid p 80; Shakti and Shakta, pp 289-293.

Vacaspatya, p 4173.

Several aspects of infusing potency with reference to the mantras ard ‘he parts of the no’y wh re it is to be done, as also having it in the reverse way, are de It with in great detail Vita C. Isanas vagurudevapaddhat, Part II. pp. 58-60.

SKS, Brahma IX. 12-09.

INTRODUCTORY

occasions and whenever a fresh act of worship is to be undertaken.94

In every part of the act of worship, mudra 99 is required to be displayed by the aspirant, Mulra is a symbolic handpose with the fi gers assu niig particular positio 19 Tas plays a very important role along with nyara in acts of worship a symbol, 11 tended to convey a fe ling about or r.fer to a situation or a condition in which the person adopting it is placed.

Bing

Writing which includes painting gestures which convey the intention of those who display them and articulate spc-ch have been, from a very ancient period of humin histo y, the meins which men have adopted for communicating with one another. Among these, speech in the form of articulate expression ’s most w.dely usd, while writing com s nex in importa ice ✪ s’ures, unaccompanied by words, do convey sense. Y、t, sp ch is seldon unicompanied by gestures in the form of move nents of head and hands with fingers and changes in ficial ex ession which include those of eyes and lips Qui.e often, physical movements give streng h to speech

tese

It is therefore natural that both in practical life and in artistic presenta lons such as dince, the poses with the phy i al limbs should play a dominant role. The same principle is appli cable to the employm nt of mudras in worship. Varada, abhiya- hasta, vyakhyāmudrā and och kinds of mudrds are found to be shown by icons and painted and sculptur d figures, adding much to their communicative eff ctiveness Similarly, the aspirant is erjoined to employ the mudras, while performing worship.

Invariably, this is to be done on the body of the pupil by the preceptor during dikşn When it is done from head to foot, it is sy›tınyasa ; from navel to heart, it is sthitinyasa, and from foot to head, it is sanhär-nyāsa

Sa uskäraratnemilä, p. 737 where the Vayaviyasaņbītā is cited Sh-kt: and Shakta, pp. 286-7.

ASYS34

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

ire Indi

The word, mudrā ‘98 is ferived from the root, “mud*, meaning to rejoice, and the root ‘ra’ meaning to give. The word then is taken to mean ‘giving delight’ evd ny to the deity before whom this is displayed To emp’ siz that the display of mudra is obligatory, attempts have heen mide to explain the connotation of this word Tw

37 purpos cated through this e nnotation One is t’at what < undest ble could be dispelled by this display Sins ut rem‹ ved, defects disappear and malicious spirits are cleared smooth.ning the path of warship for the spirants purpose is that the desires of the aspirants get fulfil d this display 98

away.

$ C

hrough

Mudrds are numerous, as several feclines and stuns t to be represented Some t xis of th Aamas which describes how th: several mudrās are to be f

બાય

displayed. They have to be displayed in accorda c mantras that are recited.

岸

mid and

h the

Vide

मुद्दो हर्षन्य विवरणात् परमानन्दस्वरूपत्वात् विश्वम्यान्तस्तुरीयमतायां मुद्रणान मुद्रामा ।

Pra, añc hydava, p. 88, Sirs LIII 67, Naboekelp druna III p 745 Mahefvar u agria’s co…mi nitary or M harth in afijers, p 131

Is XXIV 2. Pars, XIV. 1; Pus. IV. 23

perdhati,

I pp. 72-74.

Vide

Isünasivagurudeva-

तस्मान्मुद्रेति माख्याता सर्वकामार्थमाघनी ।

Sabdakulpadruma, III p. 745, Suprabhedagama, IX

The mudra is also explained as offering reioicing to the self through the body. Its ako said to aff: d rehef for the self from adverse planetary Influ rces and to destroy sins The former 1, in rated by the

and the latter by dra. Vide ratnemala

·Tantrasira cited on p. 7 9 of the 5 ws old-

SKS RIU: IS XXIV. JS VIII. Pare XIV: ps IV 23,

Barastiluka, XXIII.

Of Smyticandrikā, 1. pp. 146-148,

INTRODUCTORY

Worshipping the deity involves sixteen kinds of ceremonial prichos (upacāra) 100 which are Àvāhana, S hapana, Sanvidhāna, Sinnirodhana, Avagunthana, Dhenumudrá Arghya, Pálya, Äcama- niya Puspadāna. Dlūpa, D.pa, Naivedya, Paiya Japaamarpana and Aratrika. Sometimes, the first ten alone are take up for enumeration, All these are classified according to the five elements out of which they could have sprung.

On occasions, the idol or yantra is to be given a ceremonial bath, the preparations for which are to be made on an e aborate scalc There are varieties of the bath 101 Minute details are giv.n for selecting he right type of flow rs 10% and of plucking th:m The prepared food to be offered to the deity is called hvis 103 The nature of the grains and o her ingr diets of the peparation is dealt with according to

the quanti y required for the off.ring

intra’. ‘sam

abl-

Ti Agama texts generally have the words, hita,

and other at the end of their nam s Mrgendri hitā, Mlinj yatantra Laksnitantra, etc. This shows that th Agama t.x s came into being after the Vedic traditions b.came Iz d, and also that they are all based on the Vedi exif。 However, these details do not belong exclusively to any one creed or r I gion Apart from Hinduism, the Buddhist religion too had tāntrika aspects

A diffi ulty arises, in the absence of acceptable evidence, in settling the identity of some of these concepts. Ever since foreign scholars began handling Indological subj cts, particularly Hindu traditions, their tendency has been to deny outright

ICO

Shakti and Shakta, p 233,

101 VK p 416, SA LII Niriyana: Tantrasamuccaya, Part II pp 375 442 Suprabhedagama, XV,

102 $äradatilaka, p 157.

103 SKS. Sıva. V Cf. Aghoradiva: Appayyik¡ita: Šivarcanacandrika, pp. 81-89,

Devipratiṣṭhāvidhi, p. 200. Suprabhedagama, X, XVII.

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN YAISNAVISM

Indigenous origin to any concep’ that has been out,anding in its exce1l.ace or aftrictiven $, Eihr the G k tradition or Buddhistic development, hay b en cited as havg served 18

bon 4 ૩ the fundat ons for or as having insp r d the H du co cepts to grow aid develop. Thus could b. conced d, had th re b.en avilable any evid nce of a decisiv na ure in fivour of such views. How.ver, such evid nce is yet to b fouilout O. h. ot’ er hand, whi cv r is available to the contrary is summa i y dismiss d as of no

Tr.fire, the ju stron of Greek influence is yet to be settled on surer grounds.

As regards the Bid

sequino

est influence, what dev lop de n’u-

mise his been attributed to his preach-

banks

th.n

ries after the Buldha’s d ings which are yet not available in the form of sp CA If the Buddha had not pr ached gainst h、 Vedic tridi ton. no concept could be attributed to him as exclusively Buddhistic. I’ (i If he had preachei against Brahminis n (trn comed by the Western Orientalists with a view to crete mutual distrust and lack of risp ct among the Indian communities and thercry decry the indigenous charicer of Hindu rel gio.), he, the tantric practice w’ ich sprang mong the Bu’d sts of lar days, could on y be exotic to Buddhism They must have been taken by the Buddhists from others.

It is also suggested that the original inhabitants of India, who had no progressive an! civ iz d no tons of lif. shou’d hav been fo’l wing these practic s Ti found - of Tunt iCUM siw in th m much th was need、d o ir spire the creat on a new cult. The Vedic source for the the of the Agawas ’s thus sought to be denied

This theory requires critical considerati n It pr -supp s s (bat enlightened men came from outside to Ldia where there were already the natives who were inferior to them in all res- pects. This pre-supposition is based on ignirince and pre- judice. No society has ever consisted of m.inb.rs having he same standards of culture, education and other equipment.

INTRODUCTORY

This must apply also to the people who lived in ancient India. This society did not certainly migrate into India from without Practices of the people should have varied, and the different practices could have reacted on one another Citiin of them might have been taken up by a section which did not have themb fore. These practices have been there ever since the enlightened secrion of people had their own way of religious and secu’ar life fully orginız.d. The foreign or tribal origin of the Agamas does not therefore merit acceptance The sources for the Agamas must therefore be admitted to have bren vinted but Indian, nermitting the volaris of the various culs to draw out whatever they required. Besides mutual influence, exotic impact cannot be totally denied.

The Himalayan regions 10 where Kai’as is situated, are said to have b.en the home of the Sawa Agamas Sɔme think 105 that it is from Bengal the Agamas spread to A`sam, Nepal, Tibet and China. Assam 106 IS the nital home according to som others It would be prudent to avoi1 taking sides on his problem, u til evidence becom s available. That the ladie pricuc s have been largely prevalent in Certain ar as cannot hip in determining their original home The ex ent of foruten influ.nce cannot also be decid d, even if it were to be proved that there was such influ nce

on the development of the Agimas, for the Indian tradition what is borrow d from others so as to be in harm y with 1.s character. The result has been the loss of individual ty of the burrowed features, when there are any.

d pis

The date of the Agamas poses another prooem The evidence will have to be found in works, both Vedic ind Agamic, The system of the Agamas must have taken its rise in the rem›le past and undergone development gradually and not at any

104

103

The Tantras Stules in their Religion and Philosophy, p 6. Winternuz Indian Literature, I. p 592, f. 4.

Ibid.

AGAVAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

uniform pace Long after its full development, the system would be recorded in works. The concept of Aors upping the derty in a con.rete form could have been evolved

ven wb.n the

matra portions were accommodated to form sections of Vedic ritual in the Yajurveda, Samaveda and their Brahmagas

It is absurd to believe that those who had a yearning to visual zo Gid waited and walled for centuri. to a mess the end of the f the V.dic ritu Is and the production of V.d c it rature. Ta Agimir con pt mit have been developing alongsid the ritualistic literature, but certainly a long une after the mant as became powerful in ans in the hands of the siges to invoke the pr sence of the gods.

er.

Siges like Atri, Kaliapi, Mai, Mark in leya, Sunik”, San, kundra and oh rs were a latinitely can cted with the devlopment of the Vodic ritual and the philosoph cal disci- plu’s Their ninar: al.) associated with the concepts of th. Agamic tradition and with so ne works on the Agamas An ancı.nt date even for the evolution of thes: concep s 13 not acc ptible to the Orientalis s who have promouc d predil c- tion for placing thes at a very late date, I avi g the earlier neride to be marked by mental stagnation and lack of inspira (130 But the Kalpasūtras 107 refer o a few important sag s associated with so me of the Agamic concepts.

It is said that the Agami. must have risen after the V. dic period, but this does not make clear even the probable date. In this context, it is necessary to understand what the xpr s- ston, Vedic periol’, means. Taz Orienta’is’ d v.de S kr t literature into Vedic, epic and classical periods. The epic period is said to have begun after the close of the period of the

107 Bhavatrita’s commentary on Jumin’s frautas ura mentions Sood lya, (p 224%, Budhayana’s $ruutosätra m-rtion. Au, 18 28 and Borgu 2 16, In tambarautas ̃ura rifrs

Bh,qu. 25 $ .0 89.

A ip javi, 24, 8-10, K-pila, 20 145, Knyspa 135, and Bhara hv.j.

1. 18 and 7. 3-10.

INTRO UCTOS?

Vedas which include the Samhitās, Brähmanas, Äranyakas and Upanisads and also the Vedangas. The classical period commen- ced after the epics were composed Those who are guided by this opinion of the Orientalists, forget that Vedic texts contain narratives, episod.s and other epic-like formations IC8 Lik wise, the language and contents of the epics have much of the classical features. So, it is to be realized that these periods overlap one another

The Vedas continue to be recited down to the present day. The rituals are still performed, though not on such a large scal as in the distant past. The Vedic passages hiv been analys d, interpreted and expounded by eminent au ‘orities Ike Ya ka, Skandasvamin, Sayana, Bhattabhaskara and others, all of whom did not live in the so called Vedic period The spirit of the Vedas is still glowing, and this itself is a mark of the V.dic atmosphere which prevails even today. Ka idäsa is suppos.d by modern scholars to have lived at some time be- tween the 1st century BC and Sth century A D., and to him goes the credit for the composition of the following sloka 109 in a V、dic metre He did not certainly live in the Vedic period.

ant àft afta: szafywen:

efugea: urcacizatdigal: 1

arurat gítå goqurà

ŝararezai aga: Traung i

Abhijñānasākuntala, IV. T

108 For mention of akhyāna, see §Br. 1 3, 4, 3 2 As valāyana rauta Sura, X 8, for ‘purina’, see $Br. 1. 6.6.8; Chand, Up. III 4 1,3,

II 1

VIL 1 2,4

100

፣

This flota is composed in an admixtare of two kinds of Triştubh] namely Vätorm; and Šalınī.

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN YAISNAVISM

The arc form is stated to have been introduc d by the sages for worship at the beginning of the Tretāyuga 110

Vade :

शेते जीवन रूपेण पुरेषु पुरुषोह्यौ ॥ सेवेषु भगवान् राज॑स्तारतस्येव वर्तते तस्मात् पात्रं हि पुरुषो यावानात्मा येथे

ष्ट्रानेनिथ नृणामवज्ञानात्मनां sarfarastraffक्रवायै कविभिः कृता ततोsai हरिकेचा संप | उपासत उपस्तापि नार्थदा पुरुषद्विषाम्

।

॥

(Bh VII 14.33b-40,)

The Rāmyagr refers to the temple of Vari by the word, * ay tuna 111 ani hahids of an is thrs gh the words ‘ded- gora 112 ind sthana 113 Tes could b taken to refer to

p ruculir places where shrines were built for the worship of deities. Iris not the holy fir-pit (honakand) of the ritualists wher the offerings were mad for the deities, Hawever, thers is no mention f the idol or any symbol in these cases. way, a specific structure (agar) was eracted to worship the drity (dera). The word ‘sthāna, in another passage, T

e.114 should

also point to the same structures.

The Visnuhurine 11s contains unmistakible evidence to the vyüha doctrine of the Pancaratra

The Mahabharata refers to

110

Arc 1 minned as one of the sayan pianora where worship

mala off-rd Vide - Ayurdhina

of images are enumerated: Ibid, XI 27 12.

MRII

112 Ibid 1171.40. VIL, 31 13.

bri III 12 17-21,

292, Bh X1 279 Eight kinds

Po- Ad tailed treatment, see

tray and Temples an

114 Thid BBRAS, XXIII. p. 242.

INTRODUCTORY

idols in temples 116 and to the Pañcarātra doc’rines 117 Ths Harivamsal18 refers to the temple of Indrani where the goddess was worshipped by Rukmini The Bhagavata refers to the vyū ha doctrine of the Pañcaratra, 119 the

worship, temples 121 and tantrik initiation 122 Many Puranas contain glorification of the holy places where temples are described 123

arca form, 120

All this evidence could not be summarily dismissed as baseless The glorification of the holy places could have been included in the Puranas at different periods, but long before such accounts were composed, the temples should have been in existence, though not in their present form The Bhagavata refers to come holy places like the river Ganga, Kuruksetra, Nam fi and others In the same context, the places where the idols of V snu are enshrined are glorified and shown as specially suitable for worship 124

A passage cited abov from the Ramayana mentions also the names of deities other than Visnu, indicating that they also

115 VP. V 18 58

116

Vide

taar granı da arqfta a gefr =

चैव कम्पन्ति च च ।

देवना प्रतिमा

anfta sfat areù. fegufta graiza 8 «

117 Mbh XII 342-359

Mbh VI 2 26

118

Harivamfa, II 69 33, 34

119

Bh X 16 45, X 40 21

120

Ibid X 53 44-50, X 84 11

121

Ibid X 53 39-49, X, 79 12-15

122 Ibid XI 4 47-55, XI 11 37, XI. 27

123 The Vamana, Skända Märkandeya. Varāha, Brahma and Padma Purānas glorify Tirumalai, the Saura glorifies temples of Siva, the Brahmānda treats of Kañcī and Ahobila, the Skända glorifies Badarıkāśrama and so on A reference may be made here to TA (X 43-47) which deals with the worship of Sivalinga

Bh. X 79

ASV-6

AGAMAS AND SOUTH INDIAN VAISNAVISM

received worship in particular places. The passage in the Mahabharata makes a general reference to the gods, which shows that deities other than Visņu had their idols in temples for worship. The Puranas contain references to the temples of these gods All this indicates that idol worship, as enjoined in the Agamas, must have been very ancient The structures to house these deities could have sprung up later, of which alone the Puranas have references and descriptions.

It must not be surprising, if references in the Ramayana to the various spots in hermitages for many deities should turn out to be Agamle without any tinge of the use of yantras and tantrika mantras. The opüha doctrine of the Pancaratra refers to the names of Krsna and the members of His family. This may be a later addition made at the end of the Doaparayuga. Or, those names, which should have been in vogue long before that period, could have been given to the members in the family of Krypa, just like the name * Vasudeva’ Anyway, the Mahā- bharata which must have taken a specific shape by 3000 BC 125 should justify this date as the lowermost limit for the prevalence of the Agamic doctrines

126, V. Varadachari :

महाभारतकालनिर्णयः, संषिद

IV. 1-14.