A careful study of the history of Śaivism reveals that there were many sub-sects among the Śaivas that came into existence due to diverse approaches to the realization of the Supreme, though all accepted Śiva as the Supreme God. Time and space has contributed to these variations as well. Two broad divisions were accepted among these systems one following the calm and quiet path called Saumya School and the second the wild path called the Raudra School. Both were suited to individual taste and environment. Tamilnadu is mainly a flat country with not much wild forest or intractable regions. People live on cultivated lands that did not offer that much of terror or fear to the people as some other parts of India, which were infested with thick jungles, forests and hills in which people were living in constant fear and expectations of divine support to free them from enemies and natural disasters. The peaceful regional environment was conducive for Tamilnadu for seeking after higher knowledge, Jñāna throught the path of Jñāna-mārga Śaivism.
Jñāna-sambandar
The devotional movement of the great Śaiva saints who lived between sixth and ninth cent CE further enhanced this. Over twenty thousand delightful Songs were composed and these were sung by the realized souls who propagated knowledge based on devotion as the most important path to attain salvation. The First among the Śaiva nāyanmār was Jñāna-smabandar, the Poet-child who started singing from his third year due to the grace of God. He received divine milk from Goddess Pārvatī that made him the greatest of Śaiva poets. Ever since he started singing when he was three, he came to be called Jñāna-sambandar i.e “Poet of Knoweldge”. He has sung over four thousand songs which are sung to this day. He lived around 650 CE. He belonged to Vedic Smārta Brahmaṇa family of Śīrkāḻi in Tanjore district. Vaidika Brāhmaṇas followed the Jñānanta system of the Vedas that is the Upaniṣadic teachings emphasizing Jñāna. One could follow any system of religion or adore all gods as mentioned in Smṛtis, the dharma śāstras but hold that ultimate liberation comes through knowledge. Jñāna-sambandar was steeped in Vedantic thought from his birth and followed the same and blended it with Āgamic tradition.
Āgamas are the ritual treatises that were popular even from the beginning of the CE. Therefore, it is said that he came into this world to uphold the Vedic path and blend it with Āgamic system. The Supreme principle for the Vedic Brahmins was Knowledge which they visualized as Savitā, the Sun. The only prayer they recite (which is a Vedic hymn) for the past four thousand years is addressed to Savitā, the Sun God, requesting him to bestow critical knowledge. They recite this every day during the three sandhi times (morning, mid day and evening) so Jñāna-sambandar sings in one of his songs that the essence of this hymn is nothing but the five sacred syllables of Śiva, Nama Śivāya.
The story of a child drinking divine milk is associated with three boys in the Śaiva Canon. The first is Kṣetrapāla identified some times with Bhairava. According to the Liṅga-purāṇa when Kāḷi fought a severe battle with Tārakāsura and killed him, her anger did not wane. Instead, she started dancing a ferocious wild dance. The whole world started trembling when Śiva took the form of a child, sat in the midst of a field and started weeping which kindled the compassion of the goddess who gave her milk to the child. Śiva is said to have drunk all the anger of Kāḷi along with her milk and ever since, he became the protector of the cultivated field as Kṣetra-pāla. Interestingly Sīrkāḻi the birthplace of Jñāna-sambandar is associated with Bhairava who receives regular worship to this day daily.
The second episode is also narrated in the Liṅga-purāṇa in the case of Saint Upamanyu. Lord Śiva is said to have brought the whole milk ocean for the child Upamanyu to drink. As a result Upamanyu became immortal and the Principal exponent of Pāśupata cult.
Jñāna-sambandar was the third in the line to receive divine milk and he is praised as one who came to spread Śaivam in the world.
Pāśupatas and Kāpālas in Tamilnad
Similarly his elder contemporary Saint Appar who lived towards the end of 6th to mid Seventh cent, gave foremost importance to knowledge-based devotion. He belonged to a traditional agriculturist family that adored Śiva. However, he for some time embraced Jainism and soon mastered all branches of Jaina thought. He was considered the leading luminary of Jaina knowledge. When he returned to his parent faith, he was full of analytical knowledge. Yet he has sung a song that shows his preference for knowledge in an interesting way. He addresses Śiva then.
“Lord, some people worship Thee with knowledge
but I am not so knowledgeable.
Yet seeing that these men of learning worship thee, as knowledge incarnate, I too worship Thee with knowledge”.
It is clear that the path of liberation for the Śaiva Saints was in Jñāna-mārga. There are several hundred poems in the collections of these early saints that extol the greatness of Jñāna. The Tamil country was echoing their verses and thought throughout the length and breadth of the region.
However, it is not that the wild devotees were not in existence in Tamilnadu. Saint Appar himself sings in one of his verses that beautiful dancing girls, singers, priests, other servants of Śaiva temples (called Rudra-gaṇas) along with Śaivas, Brāhmanas, Mahāvratins, Pāśupatas, and Kāpālikas accompanied the procession of the lord of Thiruvārur, during the annual festival, This is a clear indication that around 600 CE there were followers of Śaivas, Pāśupatas, Mahāvratins and Kāpālikas mingling freely with others in Tamilnadu.
Some of the Āgamas like Suprabheda-āgama divide Śaiva system into mainly four divisions as Śaiva, Pāśupata, Sōma and Lakula. There are variations in the list in different āgamas but these four fold divisions are the early divisions noticed. Of these “Sōma” also known as Sōma-siddhānta is considered identical with Mahā-vratins, while the “Lākulas” are the Bhairavas, according to Veḷḷi-ambala-vāṇar, the commentator who is the principal contributor to this study. That shows that as early as sixth cent this four-fold division existed in Tamilnadu.
Temples of Mahākāla in Tamilnad
A few important facts also deserve attention at this stage. The Śaiva saints of the seventh cent speak of Mākālam (Mahā-kālam) obviously referring to the temples of Bhairava form of Śiva. Like the Ujjaini Mahākāla, these Mākālas were the temples of Bhairavas. It is also possible that these Mahākāla temples followed the Dhakṣna Bhairava system considered more saumya oriented than the Vāma Bhairavam.
In addition, some temples in Tamilnadu were called “Kārōṇams”. They were in Kuḍantai (modern Kumbakonam), Nākai Kārōṇam, (modern Nāgappaṭṭinam) and one at Kanchipuram. Kārōṇam in Tamil stands for Kāyāvarōhaṇam. It is well known that this term is used to the temple where Lakulīśa Pāśupata descended with his own body (kāya-avarōhaṇa) to this world as a Brahmācārin. The temples that followed Pāśupata system and became the centres of Lākulam are the Kārōṇam in Tamilnadu. These temples were in existence before the seventh century and had attained celebrity by the turn of 600 CE. Yet we do not come across the image of Lakulīśa in any of these temples or in thousands of other temples that have come down except in some very rare cases. Hardly two or three Lakulīśa sculptures are noticed in Tamilnadu. That perhaps is an indication that Lakulīśa Pāśupata system was not so influential in Tamilnadu that preferred the benign path. Though the Pāśupatas also worship Śiva as the Primordial deity they did not find perceptible favour with the people since the food habits like eating meat and drinking etc were not acceptable to Siddhānta Śaivas.
Further the great Pallava ruler Mahendra-varman (590-630) wrote a great Sanskrit farce named Mattavilāsa prahasana ridiculing the then existing religious systems like the Kāpālikam, Māheśvaram, Bauddham, and others. He gives in clear terms the whole Kāpālika way of life and their philosophy which shows that they did exist at that time in some pockets like Kañcīpuram. Except one small shrine in the Ekāmranātha temple complex assignable to the beginning of the 8th cent wherein an image of Śiva and Pārvatī seated are shown holding Kāpālas and sword, which is a rare representation not much has come down to us. On the other hand, the Kailāsanātha temple of Kañcīpuram built by Pallava Rājasimha carries an an inscription which says that the king was a follower of Śaiva-siddhānta-mārga showing he was a follower of Vedānta Āgamic mārga.
Mention may also be made of the existence of eight important temples that existed prior to seventh cent. They are called the eight Vīraṭṭānams (Vīra-sthānas) dedicated to Śiva’s manifestations in his ferocious form with which he annihilated eight persons. These relate to the great classical purāṇic stories are listed below.
- Thirukkoyilūr Andhākasura-vadha
- Thirukkaḍaiyūr Kāla-samhāra
- Thiruvadigai Tripura-samhāra
- Kurukkai Kāmāntaka
- Vīrakuḍi Jalandhara-vadha
- Vaḻuvūr Gaja-samhāra
- Pariyalūr Dakṣa-yajña-samhāra
- Kanḍiyūr Brahmā-siras-ceda
As these are temples where Śiva manifested in his ferocious form it is natural to hold that they followed the Raudra philosophy and worship. But at the present state of our knowledge we are not able to say the Āgamas they followed.
Two or three other illustrations deserve notice as well. Inscriptions of the King Nandivarman III in the ninth cent refer to “Mahākāḷattu Piḍāri” at Niyamam near Tañjāvūr. This temple probably was dedicated to Kāḷi in her Bhairavi aspect.
Three dynasties of rulers are seen paying obeisance to her. The Muttaraiyar Chieftains who held Tañjāvūr before it was taken over by the Imperial Cholas were great devotees of the Mahākāḷi as seen from their inscriptions.
The second was the Pallava King Nandi-varman who visited the temple and paid obeisance to her gifted some kaḻañjus of gold for her worship.
Interestingly his Pāṇḍya contemporary Ko-Māran-caḍaiyan also called Varaguṇa II also visited the same temple and made a gift. As this temple is called Mahākāḷa it should have been a Bhairava temple and the Piḍāri of this Mahākāḷa should be considered an associate temple with Kāla-Bhairavi as the main deity who should have been surrounded by Yoginis.
Niyamam is a village near Tañjāvūr. This writer made a search in the region for locating this sculpture and the presence of any Yogini sculpture but could not find any.
Another great illustration is the installation of Nisumbhasūdani by Vijayālaya-chola the founder of the Imperial Chola line. According to a Chola record he captured Tañjāvūr and installed an image of Nisumbhasūdani and through her blessings ruled the earth. Luckily, this sculpture is still under worship in Tañjavūr as Vaṭa-bhadra-Kāḷi, that is one of the finest sculptures of this theme. It is possible this also accommodated Yoginis. Some Yogini sculptures are still in Tañjāvūr town. It is possible that the cult of sixty four Yoginis was prevelant in the great city of Tañjavūr in the 9th cent.
Kālapriya deva
I happen to examine a fine sculpture of Śiva with three faces when the Tamilnadu police brought to me photographs of that sculpture along with over 50 antiquities that were seized by them from an antique dealer. Under instruction from the Inspector General of Police they wanted my expert report on the antiquitites. I could identify the three-faced Śiva immediately as the same one that has been illustrated by T.A.Gopinatha Rao in his “Elements of Hindu Iconography”. Rao illustrated this image as from Kāverippākkam in Vol II pt.II. The Police handed over the sculpture subsequently to the Madras Museum where it is now kept in a lawn. Rao published this image as Mahēśamūrti. Because of its historic interest and association, I reproduce the good description of this image here.
“Four photographs are reproduced in illustration of the Mahēśa aspect of Śiva: the first pl.cxvi is a beautiful figure of stone lying in a ruined Śiva temple at Melaccheri near Kāverippākkam in N.Arcot district. It has suffered damage at the hands of Mussalmans during the troublesome period of the contest for succession to the Navabship of Karnatic. It has, as required, four faces three of which three are visible in the photograph. On the crown of the left face could be distinctly seen a big hUmān skull and just below it is the hood of a cobra whereas the middle head has a beautifully tied up jaṭā makuṭa connected with jewelled disc flower garlands and inevitable crescent moon. At the base of the makuṭa may be noticed a row of five or six spherical objects which appears to be the skulls comprising a garland. The third eye is very clearly marked on the forehead of the central face.There are as usual hāras, udara bandhas, and yajñōpavīta etc. Close to the neck is also a hāra of snake. In the unbroken right hand is visible the damaru. One other hand seems to hold a long sword whose upper part is visible on the crown near hUmān skull; this latter itself appears to be the head of a khaṭvāṅga held by the mage in one of its right hand, for it might be noticed there is a base attached to the capital of the handle. Perhaps one hand was held in abhaya pose; it is impossible to say what the remaining two other hands might have held; in the unbroken left hands are to be seen the pāśa, the khetaka the kapāla and something which resembles a fruit. One of the left hands showed also carries a long handled object, perhaps a trisūla or paraśu. There are two legs as described in our authority.
The image is seated in a comparatively rare posture. The right and the left faces are pacific, while the middle face is terrific. Pair of knitted eyebrows surmount its circular eyes; its wide mouth having side tusks; all these indicate according to the rules of the āgamas, the terrific ugra aspect that in this instance is that of the Aghōra’s face of the Mahēśa’s face.
This fine piece of sculpture belongs to the later Pallava period, perhaps to the reign of Nandivarman, son of Dantivarman (about AD eighth cent).”
Barring a few discrepancies, the account given by Gopinatha Rao is accurate. Even the identification of the central face as terrific Aghōra is correct. However, a few points deserve attention in the light of personal examination of the sculpture.
Rao says, “the image has four faces though only three facesare visible”. At the back is present an aureole and the sculpture has no fourth face. Therefore, it must be considered a Trimukha image and not a four-faced image.
No small skull is there on the left face as suggested by Rao. It is only the hood of a damaged snake held in the hand of the main image. The left arms show a pāśa, shield, head and kapāla, the fifth hand handles a vīṇa. The right arms holds a kaṭvāṅga, damaru, dagger, and two objects that are not clear as the hands are damaged. Thus, the figure has ten arms. Rao has drawn our attention to a snake worn as a necklace and the image seated in a peculiar pose, almost like yōgāsana.
In addition, Rao is right in saying that the central face represents Aghōra’s face and the other two are pacific. As the Aghōra face is in the centre, the right face represents a Sadyōjāta face and the left one, Tatpuruṣa face. As Tri-mukhas (also called Tri-vaktras) are now known this image should be identified with three faces only. As the central face is that of Aghōra, the sculpture is Aghōra Bhairava, belonging to the Bhairava school of Śaivism and worshipped with Dakṣiṇa tantra.
It would be interesting to study the village Melaccheri near Kāverippākkam that is the original find spot of this sculpture. The history of Kaverippākkam goes back to the eighth cent as we have an inscription of the Pallava ruler, Nandivarman II there. Subsequently during the time of Nandi-varman III, in the ninth cent, a portion of the village was reconstituted as a new colony and gifted to a number of Brāhmins under the name Avani-nārāyaṇa-caturvedi-maṅgalam.
In the middle of the tenth cent the area was wrested by the Rāṣṭrakūṭa emperor Kriṣṇa III from the Imperial Cholas. Kriṣṇa’s feudatory Bhūtuka killed the Chola crown prince Rājāditya, in a battle at Takkolam near this place. Kriṣṇa held sway over this region for some years. A copper plate charter of this ruler issued from Karhad, furnishes a very important information. The record says that the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king encamped at Melpāḍi (also not far away from this village) constructing temples to Kālapriyā, Ganda-mārtāṇḍam, and Kriṣṇēśvaram.
An inscription of the chola dynasty dated in the reign of Rājakēsari-varman, Sundara Chola, found on the walls of the Sundaravarada-perUmāl temple in Kāverippakkam, refers to a locality in that village as Kālapriyam which seems to have been a market place. It was more specifically called “Kīrtimārtāṇḍa kālapriyam”. Kīrtimārtāṇḍa-kālapriya is the name of a locality recorded in an inscription of the village. It is also seen from that record that a temple in that locality housed a deity named Kīrtimārtāṇḍa-Kālapriya deva and it mentions that a gift made to the deity by a certain merchant in Sirutimiri-nāḍu, a subdivision of Paḍuvūr kottam.
Sri Venkayya the then Government Epigraphist surmised this temple owed its existence to Kriṣṇa III. (SII XIII, no 130)
Evidently The Rāṣṭrakūṭa Kriṣṇa III built three temples; one was this Kālapriya temple after one of his title Kīrti-mārtāṇḍa;
another to Sūrya named “Gaṇḍa mārtaṇda” and
the third a Śiva temple after his own name “Kriṣnēśvaram”.
The name Kālapriya is significant. The manifestation of Śiva as Kāla is an attribute of the south facing Aghōra face, which is also identical with Bhairava, called variously as Kāla Bhairava, or Aghōra Bhairava. There could be no doubt that the epigraphical reference is to this sculpture now under discussion. The fight between the Chola Parāntaka and Rāṣṭrakūṭa Kriṣṇa ought to have been a very severe one in which the powerful Chola was dislodged. That should have made Kriṣṇa to build this temple to Kāla Bhairava. Also the temple of Mārtāṇḍa built by him is a form of Bhiarava temple.
Yogni Sculptures
It is well known that Jouvew Dubreuil, the French scholar some time before 1930 collected a number of Yōgini sculptures from here twhich later found their way to western countries. These Yōginis are now in different museums of the world particulary in US, UK, France and so on. Obviouly all of them formed a group with this Aghōra Bhairava image as Kālapriya dēva. There were other sculptures from the same locality and of the same period that were collected by the Madras Government Museum and they are now exhibited in Hindu sculpture gallery. Probably the Yoginis belonged to this temple of Kālapriya erected by Rāṣṭrakūṭa Kriṣṇa III. Most scholars assign all the Yogini figures found here (and are now in various Museums of the world) to Pallava-Chola time ninth cent. However, they belong to the early part of tenth cent is now confirmed by this study - As is clear from the sculptural installation the Bhairava cult that flowered in northern part of Tamilnadu.
Koḍumbaḷūr Kālāmukha Temple
We have seen that from as early as sixth century various sects of Śaivas were present in Tamilnadu. A few inscriptions suggest that these sects continued to be active in a small way in Tamil nadu upto the middle of twelfth cent. A village near Pudukkōṭṭai town, called Kodumbāḷūr, has three lovely temples known to art historians as Mūvar Koyil built by one chieftain Bhūti alias Vikramakēsari. He built a temple group after his own name and after the names of two of his queens. A certain ācārya named Mallikārjuana, of the Kālāmukha sect (Kālāmukhādāna and Tapōdhana) who was greatly venerated by this chieftain, inspired him to build this temple complex. The euology of this Ācarya inscribed on the wall of the temple praises him as a great Vedic scholar. The temple and its sculptures are known for their beauty and sobriety. But nothing here suggests that the Raudra system. It shows that there were saumya followers in Kālāmukha School as well.
UJJAIN
Central India (Madhya Pradesh), especially Ujjaini is a very important area in the study of various ramification of Śiva Schools. Known as Avanti in ancient times, it has served as an important centre of Śaivism to this day, in spite of the ravages of time and constant and ruthless destruction in the hands of Muslims. Today it has regained its position as a leading pilgrim centre – Śiva-kṣetra. The great Asoka Maurya, started his career as a crown prince. Here, then known as Avanti. It seems that this place was a Śiva-kṣetra even before Asoka. After his conversion to Buddhism, Asoka established a Buddha vihara at Krishnagiri hill near this town. Huge slabs with Brahmi inscriptions have been unearthed on the hill, recording gift of Buddha Bhikshus. Several antiquarian remains that reveal the saivite association of the town establish the continuation of the town since then.
One of the most striking find is that of a Nandi, the bull mount of Śiva, assignable to Maurya-Sunga period 3rd- 2nd cent BCE, now in a temple in the Sandipani Mahārishi temple complex. This Nandi, standing, shows early characteristics, very close to Asokan art, but at the same time distinctly different from the Buddhist works of Asoka. The presence of this Nandi is an indication of the Śaiva character and judging from the early tradition of associating Ujjaini with Mahākāla, the temple of Mahākāla should have been the centre even then. Ever since the cult of Mahākāla has had overwhelming presence in the city of Avanti-Ujjayini. The temple of Mahākaleśvar is one of the 12-jyothir liṅgas of India, where Śiva emanated as a shaft of glowing fire – that speaks of the concept of Liṅga rooted in shaft of fire and not otherwise. Mahākaleśvar liṅga is considered a Svayambhu. The present Mahākāla temple is a huge complex, with the main liṅga facing south and that points to many important branches of Śaivism that are associated with it.
In the worship of Śiva liṅga the five Brahmams – Pañca Brahmams are invoked in order as Tatpuruṣa facing east, Aghōra facing south, Sadyōjāta facing west, Vāmadeva facing north, and Īśana the sky. Aghōra, is also called Bhairava. It is evident that Mahākāla is identical with Bhairava and his worship is based on Bhairava Śaiva school. In addition, there are many faiths, concepts, and rituals associated with the Bhairava cult. People hold that Mahākāla of Ujjaini is Śiva as Dakṣiṇāmūrti. In the Pāśupata sūtras of Lakulīśa, there is one sūtra, which adores Dakṣiṇāmūrti, mahādevasya Dakṣiṇāmūrteḥ. It seems that Mahākāla liṅga could have been adored in ancient times from all the four sides and above. All the five faces were adored but now in the first floor of the Vimāna above the Mahākāla liṅga, is enshrined Omkāreśvara. The name Omkāreśvara is significant the Pañca Brahmam jointly represent Sadāśiva form. Sadāśiva according to Āgamas, is the first emanation of Śiva, as “nāda” the primordial sound “Omkāra”. The name Omkāreśvara of the liṅga enshrined above Mahākāla indicates that all the five faces were invoked as prescribed in the Pāśupata sūtra, with the Pañca Brahmā mantras. “tatpuruṣāya vidmake; “ghōra aghōrebhyo”; “sadyōjātam prapadyāmi”; and “īśāna sarva vidyānam”. It is known the Pāśupata sutras are divided into five chapters, each chapter with one of the Pañca Brahmā mantras. Also according to the Āgamas, Aghōra is the hṛdaya sthāna heart of the supreme “Aghōra hṛdaya”. So Mahākāla is the heart of the supreme while Omkāra is the head.
The name Aghōra is often misunderstood as ferocious or terrific but it is exactly the opposite of ghōra terrific. The term Aghōra “na-ghōra iti aghōraḥ” one who is not terrific or ferocious but benign. But the term is employed to show that this god is furious against the enemies of his devotees. The devotee who is extremely and mortally afraid of his enemy takes refuge in this deity who gives him comfort and security and so men in fear of particularly forest infested or mountainous regions hold this deity as their succor. Mahākāla afforded protection to this region.
Mahākāla is also identified with Rudra, as the destroyer of Kāla (time) and Kāla (death). Rudra is Agni. I have shown Agni has two aspects - the terrific and benign, the Ghōra and Śiva of the Vedas. The foms of Ardhanāri and Harihara are visualized from this inseperable nature of Śiva. In the worship of Mahākāla of Ujjain the priest at times decorates the liṅga as Ardhanārīśa at times that emphasizes this concept. Sometimes the decoration takes the combined colour of half-black and half-yellow, Kriṣṇa-Piṅgala. Sometimes it appears as Ghōra the terrific. In the city of Ujjaini there are many wayside temples which are worshipped by the local people as Bhairavanāth. There are two sculptures of stucco, tastefully painted and worshipped and the people call one as white and the other as black Bhairavanāth. These seem to be the reflection of Kriṣṇa and Piṅgala.
Yet another interesting tradition at the Mahākāla temple is the early morning Pūja that takes place around 4.30 a.m. in the morning. After all the abhiṣekas like milk, curd, etc., are performed the deity is decorated. Then is given the bhasma snāna - bathing the deity with sacred ash. A cloth is used to cover the decoration , and then the sacred ash is sprinkled all over the liṅga. This bhasma snāna is held very sacred. Though the bhasma snāna is given in every Śiva temple as a routine, the special sanctity attached it to at Ujjain Mahākala temple suggests that it is a Pāśupata tradition that is emphasized. “triṣnavanam snāyita” i.e., bathe three times a day with ashes, is one of the Pāśupata sūtra. It is a pāśupata vrata. Another extraordinary tradition was prevalent here till very recent times.
According to sources, ash from a cemetery used to be brought and used for the early morning bath of Mahākāla. Bhasma from smasāna (cemetery) was believed to be sacred for Kāla Bhairava but the modern secular government interfered and stopped it. A recluse with beard who was probably a Bhairava veṣadhāri used to bring the smasāna bhasma.
Yet another interesting occurrence at the time of bathing Mahākāla with ash in the Mahākāla temple is that women attending the worship in the early morning Pūja are asked to close their eyes till the bhasma snāna is over. They cover their eyes till the rite is over. Śiva at this stage assumes the form of a naked mendicant, Bhikshāḍaṇa and it is believed that women should not see him thus. After the bhasma snāna one of the priests carrrying a silver vase in his hand moves in the midst of devotees collecting offerings in cash or kind. The significance of this is generally missed. At this stage the story of Śiva taking the form of Bhikṣāḍana in the Dārukāvana forest is re-enacted here.
I have shown elsewhere that Śiva assumed the form of Bhikṣāḍana and showed the efficacy of Pāśupata vrata. The mature Pāśupata-vratins move naked in the midst of men without minding praise or ridicule. The liṅga purāṇa which narrates this episode, shows that Śiva was behaving as prescribed in the Pāśupata sūtras, moving naked, singing, dancing, enticing women with his beauty but remaining absolutely indifferent to anything at this stage. This episode is enacted in the morning worship that calls the women to close their eyes. This episode seems to confirm that the worship of Mahākāla was based on Pāśupata system.
In addition, it is recorded that during the Mughal invasion, the temple of Mahākāla was destroyed; the liṅga was uprooted and thrown into a tank which was filled and leveled so that none could know the location. When the Marathas drove out the Mughals and established their rule, the generation of temple priests who had retained the memory of the desecration pointed out the location, and they dug out where the priests pointed out. They were surprised to see the temple tank and the original liṅga of Mahākāla lying buried. They restored the liṅga and the worship connected with it.
One may say with certain amount of authenticity, that what is practiced to this day in the Mahākāla temple was what was prevalent before its destruction. It must also be said the temple of Mahākāla has inspired all the temples and worship at Ujjain.
Kāla Bhairava
The Kāla Bhairava temple too requires attention. Situated on the banks of the Kṣiprā river, the temple is said to have been built by Bhadrasena. The Avanti-kāṇḍa of the Skandha purāṇa refers to a Kāla Bhairava temple here. It is said to be one of the eight Bhairavas and Avanti is said to have these eight Bhairavas. The priest is a Caturvēdin, a Vedic Brahmin. He told this writer the pañca makāras were offered in the temple in early days, but recently these have been removed from the temple premises, but if needed offered far away from the temple. However liquor is offered to the deity even today. The main deity is a big stone face of Bhairava, which is adorned with cloth and garland. No body or limbs are found for the deity. The mouth of the deity is wide open in which liquor-wine is poured in as offering. In front of this deity is a face of the same Bhairava made of silver, decorated and garlanded and is on a pedestal. Regular worship is performed to this processional deity.
The āgamic texts, give the names of the eight Bhairavas. The Svacchanda Bhairava text divides the worship of Bhairava into two categories as Vāma-Bhairava and Dakṣiṇa Bhairava. It also gives the circle of secondary deities around Bhairava bhaṭṭāra as
- Kapālīśa
- Śikhi Vāhana
- Krodharājā
- Vikarāla
- Manmatha
- Mēghanādhēśvara
- SaUmārājā and
- Vidyārājā
Kāla Bhairava does not figure among the eight Parivara Bhairavas. The Vikarāla Bhairava might probably be identical with Kāla Bhairava. One important point about this Kāla Bhairava is that it is shown with its mouth wide open. As this Kāla Bhairava temple used to offer the pañca makāra, till recent times it is likely that it followed the Vāma Bhairava system.
Ghad-kālikā temple
Ujjaini is associated with the famous Sanskrit poet – Kālidāsa. According to tradition, Kālidasa was blessed by Kāḷi, which enabled him to flower into the greatest poet. Kāḷi is said to have written a mantra on his tongue that gave him the poetic faculty. The temple of Ghad-kāḷi is of the goddess who blessed Kālidāsa in this manner. In the sanctum, only a head represents the goddess with her mouth open, and her tongue thrown out. In front, she has her mount a tiger. She has two attendant goddesses one on either side. Her temple is well built with the usual northern sikhara. On the back wall of the enclosure are some mediaeval sculptures inbedded into the wall, showing that the original temple was located at the same site.
Bhartrihari cave
Near the Ghad-Kālikā temple, situated on the bank of the river Kṣiprā is the Bartrihari cavecomplex of monument. There obviously remained on ancient temple at this site as evidenced by several architectural pieces found scattered and embedded into later walls. In addition, a mound has developed completely covering some ancient buildings. It therefore looks like caves (guhās).
At present it is occupied by the followers of Gorakṣanātha; the monks of this school reside there and perform worship etc. It has grown into a complex of unplanned building clusters. The famous Sanskrit poet Bhartrihari is believed to have been a follower of Gorakṣanātha, and is said to have undertaken penance in one of the underground cellars here and hence the complex goes by the name Bhartrihari guhā.
One has to ascend a few steps and enter into an open yard. On one side of the yard is a modern shrine of Gorakṣanātha, which houses a fine marble image of saint Gorakṣanātha that is regularly worshipped. In front of him are a number of small objects of worship including a small Caturmukha liṅga. In modern times, this is the principal deity of the group. In front of him on the other side of the courtyard is a small shrine housing Kāla Bhairava in stone. In front of it is a pit in which a liṅga with Vēdi is found. At the end of the spout is embedded on the sidewall an ancient sculpture of Pārvatī. By the side of this group are two interesting sculptures one represents an architectural piece of the upper part of a temple śikhara of north Indian variety. The piece is rested on the wall. Over that architectural piece is seen a huge face with rounded eyeballs and open mouth which is now called the Vētāla (goblin) of the Vikramāditya legend. However, it seems this face was the original Bhairava that was enshrined in the ancient temple. This Bhairava image consisting of face as in the case of Kāla Bhairava should have been the original principal deity of worship.
A little away are two underground cellars. These were originally residential rooms, the ceiling of which has now become the floor level. The two cells can be reached by cimbing down steps. In one of the rooms so entered one may see an image of Bhartrihari of recent origin that has given the name to the temple complex. In front of it is Yajña-kuṇḍa – sacrificial altar, in which dried cow dung cakes are burnt continuously and according to tradition this is being continued from the time of Bhartihari. By the side is a trisūla – trident planted. One of the monks of the Ghorahshanāth school stays here. Thus this temple complex turns out to be the abode of the Nātha panthis.
Matsyēndranātha shrine
A little away from Gorakṣanāth temple, is Matsyēndranāth temple. This is worshipped by both Hindus and Muslims the latter claiming it as a darga.
Hara-siddhi temple
This is a full-fledged temple with a new vimāna. According to tradition, it is one of the Śaktipīṭha. The deity is Pārvatī in her benign form. Only the head of Pārvatī is found in the sanctum. Two goddesses Lakshmi and Saraswati atand flanking the main goddess. According to tradition after the destruction of Dakṣa’s sacrifice (Dakṣa-samhāra) when Śiva took the dismembered parts of Gaurī and roamed unable to bear her separation, one of her parts fell here. Even girls belonging to the priests family perform pūjā worship to the goddess here which is interesting.
Piṅgalēśvar Temple
About ten km from Ujjaini is the village Piṅgalēśvar, which stands at the start of the Pañca-krosi-yātra of Ujjaini. The village derives its name from a liṅga now called Piṅgalēśvar. This is a remarkable linga of Sadāśiva mūrti, which is dated to the Suṅga period 2nd cent BCE. It consists of a tall cylindrical liṅga with four faces carved at its root. All the four faces are intact and there is no doubt that stylistically it could be assigned to the Suṅga period. The four faces exhibit perceptible differences. One face that is pivotal to the identification is shown with beard and prominent jaṭās. The moustache is has pronounced. No third eye is seen on the forehead and the right side of the head has a protruding part, partly damaged and mostly worn out. That might represent a skull. The beard, moustache and jaṭās clearly point out that the face is that of Aghoramūrti. Though the linga is not in its original position, but placed in a later structure the orientation of the liṅga is correct and the present bearded face, is facing the south, the direction of Aghora.
The west facing face looks like a young man with a smile and the facial treatment is distinct from the other three faces; there is a big rounded sikhā like knot; a prominent earring is seen on the ears, which is treated differently from the ears of Vamadeva. The head dress seems to resemble the Barhut sculptures. The ears are shown longer. The Jaṭās are also treated well.
The face on the north has a feminine countenance with no moustache nor has it a third eye. The eyes seems to be half closed in meditative mood; the difference in expression can be seen when compared to the two other faces. It represents the Vāmadeva face. The fourth face is unfortunately placed too close to the Wall leaving no room for a closer examination. Studied with the help of a mirror reflection, the fourth face is also intact but there seems to be no third eye or moustache. It is Tatpuruṣa face facing east. Unusually the four faces are at the root of the cylindrical shaft immediately above the liṅga piṭha, which also seems to be original with a long Spout and circular Vedi. What is further striking is that the top cylindrical shaft is tall well executed with no fifth face. A slight damage on the top rounded part of the linga head, has been cemented, that is noticed on the eastern part. The cylindrical shaft obviously represents Īśāna. The importance of the liṅga is in the Īśāna aspect and may therefore be identified as a perfect example of a Sadāśiva-mūrti. There is no line or suggestion of a phallus in the upper shaft. This Sadāśiva-mūrti is an important image from many points of view. As mentioned earlier the Īśāna part i.e. the cylindrical part is the main part (pradhāna) and all the other faces including that Agora exhibit calminess. The image was obviously Worshipped by the benign followers of Śaivism (Saumya) and not the Raudra, who emphasized the knowledge (Jñāna - Siddhānta). As the image is dated stylistically to 2nd cent BCE it is evident the Saumya branch of Śaivam had taken deep root even during the Sunga period. The second point that deserves attention is the non-phallic imagery of the liṅga. Neither phallic form is noticed nor the lines that suggest the same are found. It is known that the phallic form of linga is found at Gudimallam, and that image is also ascribed to 2nd cent. BCE. It must now be accepted that two schools of Śaivas, one worshipping non phallic Śivaliṅga, and the other worshipping phallic form were in existence in the Sunga period. It is also seen that the Liṅga purāṇa speaks of different schools of Śaivas including the followers of nudity. It mentions the followers of nudity should not be ridiculed. It suggests that not all were followers of nudity, and some even ridiculed such followers, hence Liṅgapurāṇa prohibits disrespect.
The third point that emerges from the image is the emphasis on Jñāna. Lakulīśa is generally ascribed to first cent BCE on the basis of an inscription mentioning his disciples. The Liṅgapurāṇa and other puranas show that he was not the only teacher who expounded the Pāśupata system but there were many before him. We have also seen that even in the time of Lakulīśa or immediately following him, different sects arose like Vaimalas, Karuṣya and others. The present study admits that even before the current era (BCE) different sub schools among the Śaiva were prevalent and different forms of Liṅga worship was also prevalent. The origin of the Pāśupata system is rooted in the Vedic system, and that it is as a result of Rudra destroying Tripuras during the course of which he assumed the leadership of devas as Paśupati. I have also shown that the concept of Rudra as Paśupati arose from the concept of Agni Rudra identity mentioned several times in the Vedas.
Further, the earliest legend mentions Rudra emanating from Liṅga, appearing in the Liṅgodbhava form when Brahma and Vishnu were quarrelling among themselves Over Lordship. The Liṅgodbhava form arises from the identification of liṅga With a liṅga and not as phallus. This sculpture of Piṅgaleśvara from Ujjaini and its analysis would show that the origin of Liṅga is not rooted in phallic cult but in adoration of fire.
Siddhāvaṭa
On the banks of the Kṣipra river at Ujjaini is another important site named Siddhavaṭa. At the root of a banyan tree here is an image of Agõra/Bhairava worshipped by the people of Ujjaini. According to tradition when Aurangazeb conquered Ujjaini, he was struck by the influence of the site on the people and wanted to destroy their faith and considered this tree as the important symbol he should destroy. He cut the tree up to its root and further poured molten iron on the root so that the tree would never again sprout. However, the tree grew up again to the surprise of all and that is the tree now under worship. There are a few ancient sculptures at the site pointing to its antiquity. Above all the people of Ujjaini offer last rites to their departed parents and relatives here and so the site is held very sacred.
Maṅgalnāth temple
Another interesting temple at Ujjaini is the temple dedicated to Maṅgala, the planet Mars (presiding deity of Tuesday). It has a regular śikhara and other features where the main deity is the Planet. The sanctum enshrines a Liṅga representing the planet Mars. The name of the deity is called Maṅgal-nāth, the appellation “nāth” showing its connection with Vāma School of Bhairavam, identical with Nātha Panthis. We have noted that all deities in the worship of Bhairava are a form of Bhairava. The representation of the Planet as a Liṅga would serve as an illustration here.
Sāndipani Āshram
Very great sanctity is attached to the complex of a building called Sāndipani ashram, where Lord Śrī Kṛṣṇa, and his brother Balarama are said to have studied under Maharishi Sāndipani, in the company of Sudhāma. Modern images of Maharishi Sāndipani, Kṛṣṇa, Balarama and Sudhāma installed receive worship. There is an ancient temple in the complex, which is the oldest in the group. A liṅga occupies the centre of the sanctum. There are three sculptures of Viṣṇu inside on the back wall of the sanctum. The central image is that of Vāmana, which is considerable antiquity. The other two sculptures are mediaeval ones, probably of 12th cent. On the sidewall is another sculpture of a dwarfish God, probably Kubera, coeval with Vāmana. Facing this on the other wall, is an image of Viṣṇu, of the same age.
An image of Śiva on one side and Umā Māheśvara on the other, both assignable to 10th cent, are in the mandapa outside flanking the entrance. It is here the vehicle of Śiva, Nandi of the Mauryan age stands facing the liṅga inside.
It may be mentioned that lord Kṛṣṇa learned Pāśupata yoga of worshipping Śiva-liṅga from Upamanyu Maharishi. Many purāṇas and Mahābhārata portray Kṛṣṇa as a great Pāśupata. It is therefore not surprising the place of his studentship, namely Ujjaini was also the place of Kṛṣṇa’s boyhood. The Śiva-liṅga and Nandi in the temple at the Sāndipani āshram, recalls Kṛṣṇa as a Pāśupata. Another interesting point is the form of Vāmana of Viṣṇu. Vāmana is Brahmacari, who is a student. The presence of Vāmana inside the sanctum with the Śiva liṅga in the centre thus assumes significance.
Kāpāla dance
There is an architectural piece, probably belonging to the śukhanāsa part of a temple śikhara in the Bhartihari cave complex by the side of Kāla Bhairava shrine and what is now called Vikramāditya vētāla. It depicts eight-armed Śiva dancing in the centre. It is a Catura-tāṇḍava Śiva holding a kapāla, in his front right arm and a Khaṭvāṅga in the main left. The fingers main left arm are touching kapāla, held in the right arm suggesting the importance of kapāla. The second pair of arms at the back holds what seems to be a paraśu and is also fastened to handles. Beneath the front right arm is another arm holding trisūla and correspondingly the left holds a khaṭvāṅga. The fourth pair of arms at the rear are raised up and hold a snake. The face of Śiva lightly tilted to the right is charming and benign. The head wears a garland of skull; to the right of Śiva is a hUmān figure dancing by his side and to the left stands the Nandi, with its head turned and looking upto its master dancing. The central panel of Śiva is framed by two pilasters and beyond are seen two cāmara-dhārinis dancing on either side. The whole group is enclosed by three rows of circular prabhā maṇḍala, probably representing Candra, Sūrya and Agni maṇḍalas. The dance pose of Śiva is depicted by a master artist who had absolute control and perception of dance karaṇas and also had the ability to portray it in stone. It is certainly a masterly depiction of the Kāpāla dance of Śiva, adored, worshipped and imitated by Kāpālika vratins. It would also suggest the presence of Kāpālika followers at Ujjain in mediaeval times 10th – 11th cent.
The sculpture of Kāpālika dance at Ujjain, should also be seen in the light of another superb sculpture of the same dance, at Bhopal State Museum the sculpture comes from Madhya Pradesh. Unfortunately, the right leg and the principal right arm are broken. It is a remarkable piece, representing probably catura-tāṇḍava. The left leg is probably planted on the back of a dwarf. The left arm extended is partially damaged but pointed down. As the hands are badly damaged, it is difficult to be precise but it seems the God is eight armed, holding trisūla, khaṭvāṅga, pāsa and other emblems. The turn of the body and build of the head, portray perfect rhythm and delightful movement. The gentle turn of the head to the left is graceful and shows a master artists hand at work. The head is adorned with a prominent garland of Kāpālas, suggesting the dance is the kāpāla dance. Two pilasters frame the image suggesting it was on the wall part of the temple. Above the pilasters are shown two garland bearers on either side. The god has a prabhāvalī around his head. The presence of this sculpture and the one at Ujjain shows that kāpālika sect had considerable following in central India.
Aghōra / Bhairava
An important image of Aghōra in the central museum, Nagpur, illustrated as fig. 81, the centenary volume (Satabdi Kaumudi) published by the centenary celebration committee central museum, Nagpur, 1964. There is only a brief notice of it as “Mukhaliṅga from Nemar” 12th cent A.D. included among the noteworthy sculptures of the Museum”. (p.184). It represents a bold face, with a high jaṭāmakuṭa, emerging from a liṅga the jaṭāmakuṭa is well treated and with two chains crossing each other in the front; on its upper part is shown the crescent moon, and beneath it is a śikhāmaṇi. The bottom of the Jaṭāmakuṭa is adorned with a band of awful skulls, interspersed with precious jewel, a fine suggestion of the embodiment of Raudra the terrific, and benign and Saumya the benign, both appearing in the same ornament. Both the eyes are wide open while the third eye on the forehead is treated equally boldly. The mouth is slightly opened with the teeth visible, adding a fierce look. On both the ears are seen could serpents as ear ornaments. What is impressive is the cylindrical shaft of the liṅga gently rising at the back, almost appearing as the crown of the figure. The image is shown only upto the neck and hence the authorities have described in just as Mukha liṅga.
Dr,Stella Kramrisch published the same image in her book “The Art of India” tradition of Indian sculpture painting and Architecture, published in London Fig. 142 almost ten years prior to this publication. In her illustration the raised eyebrows, the fully opened eyes, the opened mouth and the protruding teeth are very well brought out. Stella Kramrisch gives the following description in the book.
“Mukhaliṅgam from Nemad, now Nagpur museum; black basalt, highly published, twelfth century or earlier, height 22 1/2 inches. The liṅga has one face, it is an Ekamukha liṅga, the face is that of Bhairava, a diadem of skull circles the liṅga of which the crown of matted hair forms a frontal shield as the face emanates from the liṅga,”
It is undoubtedly the Aghōra face that is one of the Pañca Brahmān, (Tatpuruṣa, Aghōra, Sadyōjāta, Vāmadēva and Iśāna) the Aghōra facing the South. Aghōra is also called Bahurūpa, Rudra or Bhairava, and represents the fierce form. According to texts he is terrific and destroys all impurities and impediments thereby bestowing grace on the devotee to whom he is benign The Aghōra is defined as one who is benign and not ferocious na-ghora iti aghōra. The correct identification of this figure its mukhaliṅga form is Aghōra-Bahurūpa.
The presence of Aghōra is invoked through Aghōra mantra that is said to be very effective. Mention has been made earlier that the text Sarva Siddhānta Vivēka speaks of four kinds of Dakṣiṇa Śaivam, that consists of Gāruḍam, Dakṣiṇam, Vāmam and Bhūta-tantram. The southern face namely the Aghōra face should be worshipped according to Dakṣiṇa Tantra, for successful cure of fever, poison etc, through medicine and incantations and also success in every prayer. The same results are also mentioned for the worship of Aghōra face, by the Svacchanda Bairava tantra, though it does not refer to the Dakṣiṇa tantra by name.
tan mantra aushada samsiddham cikitsā jātam uttamam dakṣiṇam ghora rūpam tu param brahmā jagatpatiḥ sādhakaiḥ pūjanīyaḥ syād svābhīṣhtārtha prasiddhaye SSV.
It may also be mentioned that the Aghōra face is also called the Kālāmukha and the worshippers of the Aghōra face are Kālāmukhas. It may therefore be called Aghōra liṅga that was worshipped by the Kālāmukha school of Śaivas and probably using Dakṣiṇa-tantra. I may not be wrong in considering this Aghōra as belonging to the Dakṣiṇa Bhairava sect.
Sadyōjāta
A remarkable sculpture in the Gwalior museum represents a cylindrical shaft, with leaves like fans with slates on all the four sides. There were originally four faces one on each direction, all of them have been chopped off, indicating a clear case of vandalism. Beneath one of the lost faces, is a beautiful reclining bull, whose head has also been lost. However that it represents a bull is clear from its legs and the reclining posture. The sculpture has not yet been properly identified. It comes from Vidisa a site which is known for its antiquity. Before we attempt identification, it is necessary to mention that it is an excellent work of art, bold in perception and execution. Every line and form are well defined and deeply incised to give it a fine plasticity.
The sculpture represents a very well executed palm tree with its leaves well spread as fans but what is more significant, it had four faces, each facing a cardinal direction. Unfortunately, vandals have chopped off all the four faces. Exactly beneath one face, is depicted a beautiful reclining Nandi whose head has also been destroyed. I must mention that it is an excellent study of the animal, almost reaching the same perfection as that of Rampurva bull of the Asokan age.
Jitendranath Banerjee has described this sculpture in his book on Development of Hindu iconography. (reprinted Munshiram Manohar Publishers New Delhi 1973, p.424).
“A figure of Balarāma, somewhat similar to the above was discovered at TUmāin. (Gwalior, Madhya pradesh and is now in the Gwalior Museum. A very striking exhibit in the same museum is the Fan-Palm capital (tāla-dhvaja) which is the special cognizance of this god. It is of about the first century AD. A bunch of palm leaves are very realistically depicted, but what is of particular interest in this sculpture is the headless figure of a donkey which evidently is the ass-demon Dhenuka killed by Balarāma by hurling it against a fan-palm tree (pl. XVII - F.3) p. 424)”.
The sculpture isassigned to first cent AD, and is identified as the Tāladhvaja of Balarāma. Fascinating as the identification, it does not refer to the four head-like portions found exactly in four directions with the upper part of the tree surviving as the central shaft. Also the presence of the animal exactly beneath one of the faces.
I would identify this image, as a Caturmukha liṅga, with the face of the animal below serving as the main front face and this face is that of Sadyōjāta Śiva. Sadyōjāta, it must be remembered is Nandi-vaktra. Sadyōjāta is otherwise called alternately Nandi and the face is Nandivaktra. (Viṣṇu dharmottara purāṇa Ed. Sandesara, Gackwad - Oriental son is Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1994 - P.166 Ch.48, V.5)
paścimam yanmukham tasya, nandi vaktram taducyate (5) …. nandi vaktram tatha vāyuḥ - (8-1)
This indicates that the Sadyojata/Nandi face is the personification of wind – Vāyu who is indicated by the palm fan. In all probability, the sculpture in the Gwalior museum represents Sadyōjāta form.
That it does represent Sadyōjāta may be demonstrated from a few other examples. A fine image of Bhairava now in the Berlin museum is a good example of this representation. It represents a standing Bhairava with four arms holding sūla, damaru, kapāla and hand on thigh. That it represents Bhairava is evident. But the most important factor is that the image is flanked by two palms which is unusual. That gives the clue to the identification of the sculpture with Sadyōjāta. As the representation is that of Bhairava, it is evidently an image belonging to the school called the Dakṣiṇa Bhairavan with each face worshipped as per a tantra. Sadyōjāta is worshipped according to Bhūta tantra to drive away the evil effects of bhūta, prēta, and pisāca. (Treasures of Indian Art Germany’s Tribute to India’s cultural heritage National museum, New Delhi, 1998, No. 46, p.48). That this image is said to come from Madhya Pradesh (central India) shows that the Dakṣiṇa Bhairava School was very influential in that past.
The Sadyōjāta/Palm tree/Caturmukha in the Gwalior, Museum would be one of the earliest representation of this theme.
Another palm tree - Sadyōjāta
There is another example of this type now on exhibition in Bhopal State Museum. It also portrays a central tree-like shaft around which four palm leaf like fans are shown. The central shaft clearly looks like a liṅga. It has no other carving. Both in form and style it is almost exactly the same as the Gwalior one. Accorning to the Museum authorities the Gwalior one came from Vidisa. The Museum authorities at Bhopal told me that the one at Bhopal came from Gwalior. What ever the case may be the worship of Sadyōjāta as a deity of importance in the Vidisa region is proved by both these sculptures which need to be placed in the second cent. BCE . This should be studied in the light of some other interesting sculptures coming from the same region.
Rudra Śiva
An extraordinary but awesome figure of Bhairava from Talegaon, Dist. Bilāspur is under worship in the local temple. A replica of this sculpture is on diplay at the Bhopal museum. It is one of the rare figures of Indian Art even a most modern arhst, would be astonished to see the visualization of this central Indian arts of the sixth cent.
It portryas a gigantic standing image, clearly that of Śiva. The robust figure wears jaṭāmākuṭa with a coiling serpent at the base of jaṭā. The raised eyebrows and rounded eyeballs have in between what looks like a lizard forming its nose, the tail stretching over the jaṭāmākuṭa. Between the thick lips protrude serrated canine teeth. The earlobe is made up of peacock while the shoulders are made up of crocodile mouths. Two well spread hoods of snakes rise from the shoulders; the chest is made of two hUmān heads and the round big belly is made of a head resembling a pot; the two plumpy hands hang down and hold long snakes, one on each side. The penis is shown erect almost touching the lower lip of belly. Both the thighs show a belt of skulls going around and falling on them. On the knee are lion faces.
This extraordinary figure, a masterpiece that probably represents Aghōra Bhairava, should have inspired sense of security and comfort in the forest dwellers.
Bhairavi Rudrāṇi
This sculpture should be studied in association with another sculpture in similar style, acquired by the National Museum New Delhi. The sculpture portrays a standing Aghōra Bhairavī with four arms the right arms holding sūla and snake, while the left holds kamaṇḍalu and a daṇḍa. Both the rear arms hold severed hUmān heads by their hair. The head wears a huge garland of skulls, while in the centre of the matted head is seen a crescent moon. A third eye is seen on the forehead of the goddess who is shown with plumes like Rudra Śiva. On either side of the leg lions are portrayed. According to the Museum label, the sculpture is said to come from Madhya Pradesh. It is not unlikely this sculpture also comes from the same region of Madhya pradesh as the Aghōra Bhairava/Rudra Śiva.
Obviously the inspiration for such awesome portrayal should have come from dacoit-infested wild forest of Madhya-pradesh.
Three headed - Śiva
A three-headed Śiva image in grey schist, ascribed to 2nd cent, and to Gandhara school now in the collection of Berlin Museum was exhibited in “Treasures of Indian Art, Germany’s tribute to India’s cultural heritage”. It is also illustrated in the Catalogue of the exhibition, (pub. by National Museum, New Delhi, 1998). It appears as figure 19. As it is a very important sculpture, I give below the salient points of the image as given in the catalogue entry by Raffel Dado Gadebusch.
“This rather rare figure of a Hindu deity represents Śiva, one of the Hindu trinity. Like all stone sculptures from Gāndhara, this small figure, worked in high relief is made of grey schist typical of the sculptures of the region. Stylistically it reveals Hellenistic Roman influence. This sculpture of high aesthetic quality, despite its small size, and irrespective of damage is very expressive. The wide open eyes and the moustache, are features which can also be found in the early Buddha and Bodhisattva images.
The identity of the sculptured figure as Śiva is conformed by the characteristic attributes. Originally, the figure had four arms, now only two remains; he holds the trident (trisūla) in the right hand and a small receptcle (kamaṇḍalu) the elixer of life or holy water in his left. The long hair is petted high on top of the head in the ascetic style with the help of a hair band and is stylistically in the shape of flames. In the centre of the forehead, is a horizontal third eye. Then is no doubt that this figure of Śiva seeks to emphasize his image as an ascetic. The figure wears no ornament except the saced thread (upavīta) which passes from the left shoulder across the naked torso and a piece of cloth draped over the left upper arm. The figure is clothed only in a striped tiger skin loin cloth out of which protrudes an erect phallus.
The very complex iconography of Śiva which is difficult to explain is further complicated by two animal heads, emerging laterally from behind his hUmān head. The head on the right is that of a lion while the other seems to be of an antelope” (p.29).
Two interpretations are suggested in this catalogue. One suggests that the two animal heads portray Śiva as lord of animals, Paśupati. The second suggests that the two animal heads portray Śiva as Lord of animals - Paśupati. The second suggests the sculpture could denote a composite figure meant to symbolize the Hindu trinity. Śiva is at the centre, Viṣṇu as Narasimha represented by the lion’s head, and Paśupati or Brahmā by the head of the antelope. This interpretation was suggested by Heartel. The third interpretation is also suggested that it could be both the theriomorphic heads embody the two opposing aspects of Śiva’s nature - the antelope indicative of the mild and the kindly (saumya) while the lion representing the powerful and the aggressive (ugra).
But as has been identified by me with the help of Iśāna-gurudeva-Paddhati, this represents Bhairava, whose right head is that of a lion as prescribed the left, head in this figure is that of a antelope, while the other earlier one it was that of wild boar. In both the cases this head represents the Vāma dēva/Umā who appears as a tender deer. The head gear resembling the flames, accentuate the Agni / Rudra aspect of Bhairava. As this sculpture is assignable to 2nd cent, AD, the Bhairava the sculpture also shows the antiquity of Bhairava cult.
Anantavarman Maukhri installed an image of Bhūtapati and Dēvi in a cave.
(Sanskrit)
Anantavarma, who like the blemishless rays of the moon, possessed of blemishless qualities caused this wonderful image of lord Bhūtanātha, who bestows on the patron, known and unknown properties, installed in a cave. Also he installed (there) the Bhūtapati and the Devī, the protectors of this world. The inscription found in the cave, at the Nāgarjuni hill, Gaya district, Bihar is in Brāhmi characters assignable to sixth cent CE. The reference to seems to suggest that it was Bhairava. It may be found out that Sarva siddhānta Viveka, dealing with Bhairava cult begins with the statement the in “dṛṣṭa adhṛṣṭārtha siddha śāstra” This inscription of Anantavarman Maukhari, uses the same phrase “dṛṣṭa adhṛṣṭa vibhūti kartṛ varadam”. This combined with the name Bhūtapati, seems to suggest that Bhairava was the imageestablished by the king the Dēvi established in the cave might be that of Durgā.
It is further confirmed by another inscription in the same hill, recording gift of land by the same, ruler Anantavarman. This inscription begins with a prayer to Dēvi, Mahishāsuramardini established by him. Both the inscriptions refer to the same Dēvi image and not to two different images.
The beginning of the inscription reads: “let the jingling foot of Dēvī, that surpassed, the beauty of blossomed lotus and placed on the head of Mahiṣāsura with contempt, and fulfilling the prayers of ours with the cluster of nails of the toes, that fasten our devotion with friction”.
Here the inscription uses the word “dēvī” who has her lotus feet planted on the head of Mahiṣāsura thus clearly indicating that the image is Durgā, Mahiṣamardani.
Later while mentioning the gift, the inscription uses the world, Kātyāyanī and Bhavāni. The relevant part of the record reads,
tasyānantam ananta dairya yaśasan anantādi varmākhyayā khyātēna āhita bhakti bhāvita dhiyā phtrena pitatmana āSūrya kṣiti candra tarakam iyam phuyaspadam vanecata vinyastādbhuta vandya bhūdhara guham āsritya katyāyani gramam anantabhoga vibhavam ramyam bhavānyau dadau
Clearly shows that the goddess mentioned is Durgā, and not the Pārvatī form as has been thought early by scholars. Similar consecration may be seen at Udayagiri, near Vidisa-Sāñchi, where by the side of the great Varāha, a cave has been excavated for Śiva liṅga and nearby an image of Durgā is carved. The preference for guhā, cave, and installation of Durgā near the liṅga, seems to suggest that the Śiva (liṅga) installed in these instances are forms of Bhairava as noticed in places like Nareśvar, Padhavali, Survaya and other places. The above 3 paragraphs not found in the book.
A Rare form of Trivaktra
A remarkable three headed image of Śiva from Kashmir (fig 19) was included in an exhibition ‘Manifestation of Śiva’ organised at Philadelphia Museum of Art in 1981. The image was identified as Harihara in the Catalogue. The sculpture has a hUmān head in the front, a lion’s face on the right and a Varāha face on the left.
In this connection it is interesting to note the description of a Sadāśivamūrti or the Chaturmukha liṅga as given in the Īśāna-gurudēva-paddhati (P.389). The Tatpuruṣa face should have three eyes and a matted head dress with a crescent moon. The head on the right should have a lion’s face representing Aghōra. The face should have a terrifying look with manes. The tongue should be thrown out licking. The headdress should have snakes and garland of shulls. The Vāmadēva face should resemble that of a beautiful woman and the Sadyōjāta face like that of a full moon.
The Mukhaliṅgas could have 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 faces. A temple with a single entrance could have Eka-mukhaliṅga or Tri-vaktra enshrined. From this presecription we learn that three faced images (now called Tri-mukhas) were accepted canonically for worship and represented as Tri-vaktra. The point of interest is the description of Aghōra face appearing as a lion. This is a rare but recorded tradition. The right face in the Kashmir sculpture is that of Aghōra. The face on the left is evidently that of Vāmadēva/Viṣṇu. Since the right is shown as a lion and the front as a hUmān face, the one form of Viṣṇu that could be taken to balance the left is obviously the Varāha. Its presence shows that textual tradition describing the face as Varāha could have existed but has not been identified so far. It seems to us that it would be more appropriate to call the image as Sadāśiva than as Harihara.
Tatpuruṣa/Eka-muka liṅga
Pratapaditya Pal illustrates a delightful Eka-mukha liṅga in Pan Asian collection (bronzes of Kashmir, Mushiram Manoharlal, New Delhi - 1975). He assigns the sculpture to 8th-9th cent. The image consists of a pīṭha from which emanates a liṅga, and a two armed Śiva shown up to the waist appears in the front, The right hand holds a rosary of beads which at he same time is suggestive of both cin-mudra (expounding the highest knowledge) and abhaya-mudra. The left holds bīja-pūraka citron fruit. The upavīta on his body seems to be a snake going over the left shoulder and falling over the waist. The kēyūra (armlet) is near the shoulder. A garland of head adorns his neck. Pal draws our attention two snakes cascading his locks. The prominent ear ornaments are studded with precious gems. Pal also suggests that the eyes are highly suggestive. A crescent moon is shown in the front above the face band. Facing the front it adds a beauty to the crown and above the moon is seen a circular wheel which might represent the sun and within the sun seems to be a skull and a lotus bud topping the headgear. The sun, moon, and the lotus bud are so harmoniously blended, that their distinctness escapes the attention of the anttention. There are also two broad flowers one on either side of the headgear giving the impression of a crown. This is no doubt a unique representation as has been pointed out by P. Pal.
In general, mukha-liṅgas appear smaller than the liṅga shaft and emanate from the shaft but in this image the figure of Śiva is taller than liṅga indicating the importance of the rūpa (form) of the image greater than the liṅga. It is known that the liṅga form, is called rūpa-arūpa as it is devoid of any limbs or figure while the image of Śiva in any hUmān form is called rūpa. Though such mukha-liṅgas combine both these aspects, the emphasis is laid on the liṅga form that seems to indicate the nature of worship for which the image was made. This must be taken as an additional factor in identifying the image. For example in the Lingodbhava form, in which Śiva emanates from the middle of the liṅga, the liṅga is not phallus but is an immeasureable shaft of fire that appeared before Brahmā and Viṣṇu when they were quarrelling among themselves about their superiority. To call the liṅga in the liṅgodbhava form as a phallus would be unscientific. There is no suggestion of phallus in this image.
As the face of the image is not ferocious, he can not be identified with Aghōramūrti nor is he Vāmadēva as no suggestion of feminine nature is depicted. In all probability, the image represents Tatpurusha form of Śiva as he holds matuliṅga fruit and akshamālā.
The Viṣṇu dharmottara purāṇa gives the following names as synonyms of the five manifestations of Śiva.
- Tatpuruṣa - Mahedeva
- Aghōra - Bhairava
- Sadyōjāta - Nandi
- Vāmadeva - Umāvaktra
- Iśāna - Sadāśiva
The Kāmikāgama prescribes rosary of beads in the right hand and bīja-pūra in the left hand for Tatpuruṣa , the Sadyōjāta should have abhaya and varada gestures in his hands. (chapter 37 v.175-180).
tasya pūrvamukham subhru sukapōlam smitādharam jāmbūnada pratīkāsam kalpayet tu bhuja dvayam 175 dakṣa haste akṣasūtram tu vāme vai bīja pūrakam 176-1 …… paściman rajata prabham (179-2) bāla veśa samāyuktam puṇḍarīka nibhēkṣaṇam varābhaya karōpētam dhyānasaktam ivas sthitam - (180)
We may identify this sculpture more specifically as Tatpuruṣa Mahādeva.
We have seen that the main importance is given to the image rather than the liṅga in the bronze under discusion and that it represents Tatpuruṣa Mahādeva. That speaks of worshipping Tatpuruṣa form according to Garuḍa tantra which would bestow siddhis obtained through the mantras, medicines (auṣadhas) and other treatments. As this is a Kashmiri bronze ascribed to 8th - 9th cent, the text Svacchanda Tantra would be the most appropriate, to give the clue to an understanding this image, as it was used widely in Kashmir.
The Svacchanda Tantra gives the dhyāna śloka of Tatpuruṣa, which it calls also as Narēśa. Tatpuruṣa represents vāyu and its worship bestows fruits of several thousand Aśvamedha sacrifices. The worshippers of Narēśa are brought under the school known as Dakṣiṇa Śaivam by Sarva-Siddhānta Viveka. On the basis of this text we may identify this bronze as Tatpuruṣa - Mahādeva also called Narēśa, worshipped by Gāruḍa Śaiva school in Kashmir. This Gāruḍa Śaiva school is a branch of Bhairava school. This Bhairava school dominated Kashmir before the Pratyabhijnā school emerged in the 8th cent. Kṣēmarājā, a leading disciple of Abhinava gupta wrote a commentary on Svacchanda Bhairava school, points to the importance of this school. By identifying the bronze as Tatpuruṣa Mahādēva of the Gāruḍa Śaiva branch of the Bhairavam the purpose of making the image is well understood. (Also see the write up in the sequence on Nāreśvar a place of historic interest in Madhya pradesh.)
The dhyāna sloka of Tatpuruṣa as given by Svacchanda Bhairava is as follows. (Ch.10, v.125-127)
kumkumābham ca nārēśam trinētram tu jaṭā dharam pūrvānanam abhidhyāyēt vāyubhakṣasya tadpalam tat puṇya phalam āpnoti aśvamēdha ayutasya ca jagacca vasam āpnoti kramato siddhimētica ṣaḍbhir māsaiṇ asandēḥ
Commenting on this term Nārēśa, Kṣēmarājā says it refers to Tatpuruṣa Bhairava.
narānan īśvarasya anugrahādi kartuḥ tatpuruṣa bhaṭṭārakasya idam nārēśam (vol. II. P.111)
Śiva Pārvatī
The superb bronze image of Śiva Pārvatī under worship in Gaurī Śankar temple of Campa, illustrated by many scholars, also deserves attention in this context. Assignable to 10th cent it has attracted the attention of the world by its enchanting form. The description of the image as given by P. Pal (fig. 85) is as follows.
“In this spectacular group of bronzes Śiva and Pārvatī are shown standing close together in graceful postures. Śiva has four heads, two of which are ferocious the head facing Pārvatī is that of a female and no doubt represents the Umā-vaktra as mentioned in the text. With three of his hands, Śiva holds the rosary,the trident, and the bīja-pūraka, which symbolizes the seed of the universe, and emphasizes his creative aspect. The elbow of his bent upper left hand rests on the right shoulder of Pārvatī in a gesture of affection. His sacred thread is a snake, and like Viṣṇu, he also wears a floral garland” - (p.218)
Pal notes that the left face of Śiva that faces Pārvatī is that of a female obviously that of Vāmadeva. He mentions that two other faces are ferocious but does not mention which are those other two faces. The front face is calm and benign. So the face on the right is obviously ferocious representing that of Aghōra Bhairava. Certainly the back face can not be a ferocious one. The right is ferocious and the left is that of a female while the front is benign. There could be doubt that the front face is that of Tatpuruṣa Nārēśa. There is no fifth face on top. The ferocious face that of Aghōra is on the right and Vāmadēva with feminine face is on the left. The image should be identified as more accurately as Tatpuruṣa Mahādēva as the front face is that of Tatpuruṣa .
Such identification becomes necessary to distinguish one manifestation from the other as in the case of images with either Aghōra face or the Sadyōjāta face in front, each made for different purpose. This publication of Sarva-Siddhānta Vivēka, and Jñāna siddhi enable us to grasp these differences more closely. Writing on the hill bronzes from the Chamba area in “Indian bronze master pieces” published by the Festival of India, New Delhi, 1988, P.110, Vishva Chander Ohri states that “this group is most popular of all the deities in worship in various temples in Chamba town, particularly with the women”. Women are mostly devout and pray for cure from diseases of their children, their husbands and other family members. The worship of this deity is not unlikely to have followed the Gāruḍa tantra, according to which the effects of treatment of diseases are bestowed by this manifestation of Śiva. Śiva is called the curer of all diseases, “the physician of physicians” in the Vēdas - bhiṣaktanam tvā bhishajām sṛnomi. Śiva is called Vaidyanātha.
Face of Śiva’s Mask.
A number of beautiful faces of Śiva or of Devī as masks have been published by many scholars. Such plaques are also found now in many museum collections. (Ohri F.13 P.114 said to be in a private collections at Bombay; Pal F.86. said to come from Kulu valley, 12th cent Zurich (Śiva) and cat no 108 museum, fur Indische kunst Berlin, Catalog 1986, Augustellte). The Berlin one does represent two breasts emphasizing that it represents the Dēvī aspect.
Pal remarks that such figures are “often referred to as masks which is totally incorrect. They are used exactly as regular images are”. The one from Champa illustrated by Ohri, has jaṭā clearly falling on the shoulders, and rosary of beads in both the hands held vyākhyāna pose and is that of a male god. The third eye is clearly visible on the forehead.
Judging from the fact that this region was greatly influenced by the Bhairava tantra, it is likely that these images were originally worshipped by the followers of Bhairava school. It is seen that there were four sub schools among the Bhairavas namely Gāruḍa, Dakṣiṇa, Vāma and Bhūta tantras. There were worshipped for achievement of siddhis. The Vāma tantra was used for worshipping Vāmadēva face for attracting people. The feminine faces might represent Vāmadēva which could be mistaken both as Dēvī or Śiva. Representing Vāmadēva form in Trimukha liṅgas is known from central India, where in addition to a mirror in hand and feminine coiffure, two breasts are shown prominently. The Berlin figure, which shows the breasts, obviously represents Vāmadēva.
Panca-mukha-liṅga
Included in the catalogue of Kashmir bronzes by Pal, is a Pañca-mukha-liṅga 87a and b. Pal points our that this type of Śiva liṅga was quite popular in this part of the Himalayas, and gives the following discription “pañca-mukha-liṅga is a phallic emblem of Śiva with five faces or busts as we see in this bronze. Such liṅga with faces are rare and the type seems to have been prevalent in north western Himalayas. Normally only four of Śiva’s five faces are represented, the fifth being considered invisible. Four of the faces of this bronze have a placid expression while the fifth has a fierce appearance. The hands in each instance holds a rosary and a pot in a manner typical of Kashmiri bronzes the hair on each of the four side heads is similarly delineated with a chignon and plated strands falling down the shoulders. Circular rings adorn the ears of each figure except those of the ferocious face. The ear ornaments there are formed with serpents. Serpents also decorate the bust on top, and in addition, he is given the crescent moon as a crowning element. The five forms of Śiva are traditionally known as Sadyōjāta, Vāmadeva, Aghōra, Tatpuruṣa and Īśāna. They are also said represent the five elements (pañca-bhutas) such as earth, water, fire, wind and either. Appropriately, the awesome face represents fire and hence, emphasizes the identification of Śiva with Agni, the god of fire. (p. 222 of bronzes of Kashmiri bronzes).
The bronze is said to be in Samuel Etenberg collection at New York. It seems from the illustrate and description, the fig (a) of the Pañca-mukha-liṅga, ferocious face is facing the front. It also seems to have clearly a moustache. The bust on top, also facing the front has a benign simile, and the crescent moon on his head. The face at the back is quite calm and has what looks like a Nāma - (ūrdhva-puṇḍra) vertical facial mark usually seen on Viṣṇu images. We are led to conclude that this represents the Vāmadeva face identical with Viṣṇu. The front face of illustration which is ferocious thus surely that of Aghōra. The Aghōra face should face south and Vāmadeva the north. This iconographic feature is of utmost importance to the identify and the cult that made. In the light of the present study of relevant text, I am certain that this image represents what is known as Sadāśiva-Bhairava a unique image. The five-faced liṅga is generally called Sadāśiva, in which the top image will be Īśāna. However, Svachanda Bhairava states that in the Pañca-mukha-liṅga’s of the Bhairava school, the top bust would representing SadāŚiva Bhairava.
In the Pañca-mukha-liṅga under discussion, we find the Aghōra facing front, indicating that represents the main deity. It is well known that Aghōra is also called Aghōra Bhairava and there is no doubt, that Bhairava followers worshiped this liṅga. It is further confirmed by the top image also facing the same direction as the Aghōra face below. The top figure also has serpents as earrings. From this it is the Sadāśiva of the Bhairava school, called Sadāśiva Bhairava. Theologically, Bhairava Bhaṭṭāra is superior to all manifestation of Śiva including Sadāśiva. Bhairava is said to occupy a space above Sadāśiva and (Bhairava) hence called Sadāśiva Bhaṭṭāra. Thus the bronze represents Svaccanda Bhairava of the Bhairava school.
Catur-mukha-liṅga
A stone image of catur-mukha-liṅga with four faces is illustrated by P. Pal (cat no. 9) in his book “A collecting Odyssey” published by the Art Institute of Chicago, 1997. The figure consists of a shaft of stone that is square at the bottom, octagonal in the middle, and cylindrical with four faces on top. The lower square part representing Brahmā, goes inside a socket on the ground, while the middle octagonal part should have been encased by the liṅga pedestal representing the aspect of goddess Manomaṇi (Pārvatī). The pedestal with the water spout could have been either square or circular. The top portion with four faces is interesting. The four faces represented are Tatpuruṣa, Aghōra, Sadyōjāta, and Vāmadeva. The top cylindrical part without the face represents Īśāna, who represents the ether (ākāśa) is the embodiment of knowledge. The illustration seems to show the bust of Sadyōjāta in the front as the fierce face of Aghōra is found to the left while the benign and feminine face is to the right of the central face. With reference to the Tatpuruṣa face, the fierce Aghōra face would be to its right (dakṣiṇa) and the Vāmadēva face on to the left. If one looks at the figure from the other side of this illustrated image, the faces would be duly on the right and left. It is possible that the illustration has been shown with the Sadyōjāta face in front unintentionally. If this was its original position (there are illustrations of Trimukha liṅgas with Sadyōjāta face in the front) then the liṅga should have been in a sanctum facing the west. In the case illustrated here, any one face could face the entrance, that would suggest which form of manifestation among the four was considered the main deity. Depending upon that the nature of worship would be according to either Gāruḍa tantra, Dakṣiṇa tantra, Vāma tantra or Bhūta tantra. If the Sadyōjāta face was facing the main entrance, the image would have been worshipped according to Bhūta tantra to ward of affliction from Bhuta, Preta or Pisacas (mental afflictions believed to have been caused by demons, manes, or imps). There are temples where the sanctum has openings on all the four cardinal directions. The catur-mukha-liṅgas are also recommended for such sanctums in which case all the four faces will be facing one entrance as in the case of the famous Elephanta cave with Trimurti. Whatever the case may be such Caturmukha liṅgas represent Sadāśiva who is invoked and worshipped in the plaque with Śiva’s head.
Bhairava - Mukha Liṅga
P. Pal illustrates a plaque from Himachal pradesh in “the Collecting Odyssey” (cat no 11). It represents the head of Śiva with the crescent moon on its head. The plaque is assigned to 8th, 9th cent. The image is undoubtedly Śiva, as has been suggested by Pal and as seen from the crescent moon and the third eye. It is possible to identify this image more closely as Pal has not suggested any specification. The clue to its identification comes from its mouth that Pal describes as thick lip. I feel the mouth is deliberately treated that way to suggest that the god is giving a howling sound with his mouth. In this aspect, he is Rudra. Rudra is so called because he gives a howling noise and Rudra is identified with Bhairava in Svacchanda. Thus, the present study shows that Rudra is Aghōra Bhairava, with whom this image may be identified. The Kashmir and Himachala Pradesh, were following greatly the Bhairava school of Śaivism, with mainly Svacchand tantra as the main text. We may identify this plaque with that of Aghōra Bhairava - A Kāla Bhairava face made of silver is placed on pedestal in front of the Kāla Bhairava store image in the sanctum, and receives regular worship at Ujjaini Kāla Bhairava temple even today (see page 98) [Rudra and in all probability that used Dakṣiṇa tantra for worshipping this God for gaining victory over enemies. Bhairava faces were under worship in the hilly regions is illustrated by another good illustration from Nepal - by Pal. Cat no. 25.]
Brahmā-Viṣṇu-Mahēśa
An important bronze from Kashmir, representing the Trinity of Hindu pantheon - Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva assignable to 9th cent is illustrated by Pal in his “Bronzes of Kashmir”, (cat.No.2). Pal calls this Brahminical Triad (p.52). All the three Gods are found on a common pedestal, over which they are shown on lotus seats separately, with Śiva in the center, Brahmā to his right and Viṣṇu to his left. All the three are shown with their consorts seated on their laps, All the tree gods are endowed with four hands wielding their respective emblems. That Śiva is shown in the centre shows that the group has Śiva as the central character.
Pal has provided with an accurate description. The four armed Brahmā is seated in yoga pose over three visible swans. It is not known whether the fourth is present at the back. In all probability, it is Hamsa represent from Veda and Brahmā is the God of Vēdas. The four swans represent four Vēdas, on which the god manifests. Though the Vēdas are four in number they are also mentioned as three Vēdas, trayī, namely Ṛk, Yajur, and Sāmaveda, excluding the Atharvaveda. As the number of swans on the pedestal of Brahmā is not exactly known, it is not possible to be precise, however whether there are three or four they represent the Vēdas on which the God of the vedas. No seated his hands portray (akṣamāla) rosary of beads and a daṇḍa and vyākhyāna mudra and kamaṇḍalu. He is endowed with three heads (probably the fourth is at the back. His consort Mahāsarasvatī is seated on his lap looking up to him.
Śiva in the centre is seated on the back of a bull. The four legs of the bull are said to represent the four Vēdas, and the bull itself represents Vedic dharma. Śiva’s right by is bent and rested on the bull, while the left hangs down. Mahādēvī his consort is seated on the left lap of her lord. With the upper pair of hands, Śiva hold’s trident and snake while the front lower hands holds rosary of beads and also shows the vyākhyāna mudra (gesture of exposition) and the left holds the bijapura Śiva’s third eye is prominently shown on the forehead. Over his jaṭābhāra Śiva is shown wearing a crown.
To the left of Śiva is seated on Gāruḍa who is shown with wings and hands held in anjali. Viṣṇu holds in his four hands lotus, mace, conch and cakra. He wears a crown and on his lap is seated is Mahālakṣmi. The group is assigned to 9th, 10th cent. Pal observes rightly that this is an exceptionally interesting form and calls it Brahminical Triad.
With Kashmir as its provenance, and assigned to 9th cent it would be advantageous see whether the Svacchanda Bhairava tantra that was popular in Kashmir has any iconographic postulation that would help in its identification.
In the first chapter of this text, dealing with the invocation of Bhairava and Bhairavi, the invocation of Brahmā-Viṣṇu-Mahēśa in the middle of orbits of Sōma (moon), Sūrya (sun) and Agni (fire). The common seat on which the three are seated is called Praṇava-Omkāra.
trayodasam bindu yutam anantāsanam uttamam, anēna yojayēt sarvam sōma sūryāgni madhyam brahmā viṣṇu mahēsānam savāntam parikalpayēt Ch.1, 38,39a.
The commentary Kṣēmarājā says that the seat anantāsana should be one for all the three.
āsanamantrena sarvam ādhāravarti yojayet ādhāra śaktitaya anusamdadhyāt evam sōma sūrya agni madhyagam brahmā viṣṇu mahēśānam kritvā. Vol.I, p.15
The seat is one supporting all the three and the three will appear in midst of the orbits of moon, sun and Agni. The aureole behind Brahmā represents Candra maṇḍala, the one behind Viṣṇu represents Śūrya maṇḍala, and behind Śiva is Agni maṇḍala. The bronze group represents a common seat and the three maṇḍala one behind each. Over these deities Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Mahēśā, Parama Bhairava Bhattaraka is to be invoked. As this is a Bhairava school of worship the supreme Lordship is that parama - Bhairava bhaṭṭāraka. Kṣēmarājā calls the three deities as all combined causal group (samagra kāraṇa-grāma) and the supreme Bhairava above as anāśrita bhaṭṭāraka. Svacchanda Bhairava is thus invoked.
Explaining this further the Svacchanda Bhairava tantra says, Brahmā Viṣṇu and Hara are the deities of the Sōma-Sūrya-Agni maṇḍalas. brahmā viṣṇu haras caiva maṇḍaleṣu adhipā smṛtaḥ
Then the Svacchanta tantra gives a detailed description Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. Brahmā with four heads red in colour, four handed wearing deer’s skin and upper garment and be seated on a lotus, he must hold kamaṇḍalu, daṇḍa, akṣamāla and padma.
Viṣṇu should have the colour of atasi flower wield conch and cakra wear yellow silken garment, and Vanamālā, must wear crown, bright ear ornaments and must be seated on Gāruḍa.
“Śiva as Nīlakaṇṭa, white in colour, holding trident ten armed, should have jaṭas and the third eye. His upavīta should be the snake. He must cover himself with Lion’s skin. He must be seated on a Bull. He is Rudra”. After this the text gives the description of Bhairava.
The worship of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Mahēśvara before worshipping Svacchanda Bhairava is incumbent on the follower of this Bhairava school.
The description comes closer to the bronze under discussion as may be seen from the verses. The bronze is obviously an icon of the Bhairava school, representing Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Mahēśāna, worshipped before the final worship of Svacchanda Bhairava.
In the worship of Svacchanda Bhairava, there are various spheres (bhuvanas) and various categories (tattvas) each of these bhuvanas have different manifestations of the supreme. For example Dēvī, Nandi, Mahākāla, Gaṇēśa, Vṛṣabhas, Bhriṅgi, Canḍeśvara and Kārtikeya are described as. In the Saumya school of Śaivam also this group appears as āvaraṇa deities of the 3rd circle.
devī nandi mahākālau ganeśa vṛṣabhastatha bhriṅge canḍīśvaras caiva kārtikeyo aṣṭamas smṛtaḥ 10th Paṭalam, 1102.
Harihara
Similarly the Svacchanda text enumerates the eight Vidyēśvaras. In their order, Harihara should be worshipped in rāga tattva (one among the five tattvas like, kāla, kalā, rāga, niyati etc.)
ata ūrdhvam hariharau rāga tattvē nibōdha mē 10th paṭala - 1112
Kṣēmarājā the commentator says that Harihara occupy a very important position in the rāga category.
ataḥ pumrañjaki rāga tattvē hariharau mukhyau bhuvanēśau S.B. Vol.IV, P.204
In the worship of cosmic categories under Bhairava worship, a specific place is thus assigned to Harihara form. There is an important image of Harihara coming from Kashmir, in the collection of Berlin museum. (Accn no MIK 3835, cat no.74, cat no. 41) of “Treasures of Indian Art : Germany’s tribute to India’s cultural Heritage”.
It is a rare representation of Harihara combining the ferocious aspects of Aghōra Bhairava and Varāha, among the four faces. On to the right of standing Śiva is portrayed the personified form of Trident on whose head the main deity rests one of his right hand. The left hand probably is on a similar attendent of omkāra. In between the legs of the main image is portrayed the goddess earth; on the right shoulder of the image falls a snake.
Of the three heads the front is calm while both the side heads show ferocious from Aghōra Bhairava on the right and Varāha with a furious face on the left. M. Yaldiz describing(no. 41) the image says that the back face (the fourth one) is also divided into two to emphasize the Harihara form.
I have shown that it is a form of Bhairava manifestation mentioned in the Īśāna-śiva-gurudeva Paddhati. As mentioned Harihara occupies an important place in the ascending order as a Bhuvandhipa iamong the cosmic entities enumerated in the worship of Śvacchanda Bhairava. As this image comes from Kashmir where the Svacchanda Bhairava tantra had pronounced influence, we may not be wrong in identifying this Harihara as a manifestation of Bhairava.
Śiva -Sadyōjāta from Gyaraspur, Vidisa
An image of Śiva Sadyōjāta extraordinary by its magnitude, besuty and Iconography that has not attracted the attention of art historians so far is discussed here. It may be necessary to make a cautious note about the name before we proceed further. We use the Name Śiva-Sadyōjāta here, to emphasize its unique character, though this combine name is not found in any text to denote the present portrayal. There are five forms of Śiva called the Pañca-Brahman that have five faces, namely Tat-puruṣha, Aghōra, Sadyōjāta, Vāmadēva and Īśāna. These are represented horizontally brginning from Tat-puruṣa face looking to the east. All the five are generally called Sadāśiva-mūrti in ritual texts. However, according to Viṣṇu dharmōttara purāṇa the Īśāna head is also called Sadāśiva. In the worship of Śiva liṅga there are five deities in the vertical axis that are invoked in order as Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Rudra, Mahēśa, and Sadāśiva. Here we find the sphere above Rudra is called Mahēśa and the fifth one called Sadāśiva. We will revert to this in the sequence. However, the famous portrayal of the Elephanta cave called variously as Trimūrti, Mahēśa-mūrti or Sadāśiva comes closer to the sculpture under study.
Śiva – Sadyōjāta from Gyaraspur
The exceptionally beautiful sculpture under discussion, a three faced deity, and fairly well preserved is now in the Government State Museum, Bhopal,Madhya pradesh. The label in the museum reads “Sadāśiva, from Gyaraspur, Vidisa, c.10th cent. AD”.The sculpture with three heads has three pairs of arms of which three are broken. The figure appears above the waist and has charming faces. The central face is serene and in meditative pose, crowned by a lovely well treated jaṭāmakuṭa. Almost at the top of the jaṭāmakuṭa in the front is the crecent of the moon (Candra-kalā) tucked in the jaṭā. A dimond shaped crest jewel fastens the central part of the jaṭā makuṭa while a well-portrayed dhātura flower above it resembles almost a cup. The face band – mukha-paṭṭa, consists of a row of probably rudrākṣa beads (Perhaps they might be even row of skulls but due to wear the portrayal is not clear). The neck is well ornamented; a close fitting rudrākṣamālā is found on the neck while similar rudrākshamalas or four garlands of beads are seen on the chest the bottom one being more ornate. Three strands of jaṭās are falling on each shoulder almost like ornaments. . Both the arms wear armlets keyuras. Around the waist is the five-hooded cobra encircling as a waistband. Its hood is well spread in front in the middle.
Aghōra Bhairava
The face on to its left is evidently that of Agora-mūrti also identified with Bhairava in texts. The head of the figure is adorned with jaṭāmakuṭa that is fastened with a snake. The bottom part of the jaṭāmakuṭa above the face band has a garland of skulls kapāla-mālā. Curly hairs are dressed as face band. The face strikes terror with ball like protruding eyes, while the nose is sharp and curved. The centre ot the face shows the third eye while beneath it is seen flames of fire between the two eyes. The gasping mouth throws its tongue out that licks the middle of the scull cup (kapāla), held in the left hand. The right ear of the image shows a ring made of skull bone that seems to be an unusual ornament though it fits in with the Bhairava form. The left hand that holds the scull cup is wearing a snake as bangle.Th eye sockets; face, the neck and the hand holding the skull cup emphasize the skeleton like form of Bhairava. This is an unusual feature of portraying the Agōra forms. Beneath the left hand is seen a snake on the ground with coiled body and spread out hoods.
Umā/Vāmadēva
The charming face to the right of the central figure is that of a beautiful woman obviously that of Vāmadēva. The feminine beauty is perceptibly brought out by the artist that contrasts so well with the Bhairava form on the left and the serene countenance in the middle. The head of Umā is adorned with well-worked kēśa-bandha with a prominent śikhāmaṇi, head jewel circular in form and studded with precious gems. The hairs on the forehead are carefully combed and divided into the proverbial five parts and adorned with a row of curly hairs forming a garland of face band (paṭṭikā). With a plumpy face and sharp chin, bow like eye-brows and the long eyes the feminine charm is immediately appealing. The neck is adorned with three garlands of small beads tightly around almost covering the whole neck. The three rows seem to be fastened into one chain in the front by fasteners. A ring of chain is seen as earornament. Umā is holding a mirror with a handle in her right hand. Her right arm is bedecked prominently with eight rows of bangles. Above all what is unique in this sculpture is that the Umā is shown prominently with both her rounded breasts not noticed in any such sculptures so far.
Scholars like Gopinataha Rao, J.N.Banerjee, Śivaramamurti, Stella Kramrisch, and B.N.Shrma, who have worked on Sadāśiva form have not noticed this extraordinary figure. I could not get further details like when this image was acquired and whether this has been noticed or not etc. At any rate its beauty, magnitude and iconographic importance have not received the attention that it deseres. Undoubtedly, it is one the greatest piece of Indian art. The sculpture is found carved in red buff stone as found in Khajuraho and near by regions of Madhya pradesh. That it comes from a village Gyaraspur near Vidisa, the ancient centre of Indin artistic tradition, deserves to be noted.
Mahēsa-mūrti
Mention has been made earlier that the Elephanta Mahēśa-mūrti/Sadāśivamūrti is the most outstanding figure of this form with three faces. T.A Gopinataha Rao argued that this can not be called Trimūrti but called it Mahēśa-mūrti by giving a number of reasons. He pointed out that Trimurti represents Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva in images like Ekapāda-mūrti. Nevertheless, here it conforms to the Pañca-Brahman form of Śiva namely Tat-puruṣa, Aghōra, Vāmdēva and Sadyōjātā. He also pointed out that the number of hands is generally based on number of faces and that the Sadāśiva form with five faces will have ten arms. As Elephanta cave image has only six arms he concluded it should be considered having three faces only. That prompted him to identify the Elephanta image with Mahēśa-mūrti. The most important important position occupied by this sculpture in the cave temple with reference to other manifestations of Śiva such as those of Ardhanāriśvara, Kalyāṇa-sundara, Rāvaṇānugraha, Gangādhara, and other mūrtis, found surrounding him, bear incontrovertible evidence to the conclusion that the sculpture represents only the Mahēśa or the most importanat aspect of Śiva. Regarding the face on the left of the Elephanta image, Rao said this face certainly represents Aghōra-mūrti. The central face is calm and dignified This is the face representing Sadyōjāta. The face on the right side is also a calm and pacific one, There are only six arms represented in the sculpture, which is as many pairs as there are faces visible. Rao failed to recognize the right face of Elephanta as a feminine face.
J.N. Banerjee pointed out in his “Development of Hindu Iconography (p.476) that none of the scholars appears to have understood the real nature of the face on the right which is undoubtedly feminine in charater” and called it Umā.
Stella Kramrisch suggested that the Elephanta image is a sort of Pañncamukha liṅga and identified the image with Sadāśivamurti. Pointing out the four faces of Śiva in Sadāśiva, Kramrisch showed that “the four faces of Śiva are those of Tat-puruṣa/Mahādeva, Aghōra/Bhairava, Vāmadeva/Umā, and Sadyojāta/Nandin.” Basing her conclusion on Viṣṇu-dharmōttara purāṇa, Kramrisch identified the left face of Elephanta now with Umā. (Stella Kramrisch, The Presense of Śiva, Princeton University Press.1981, p.446) Although it has only three faces the Sadāśiva image in Elephanta is a kind of Pañcamukha liṅga, emerging from the dark debth of the rock. The fourth face at the back of the frontal Tat-puruṣa/Mahādeva can not be seen.” Ibid. Identifying the front face of Elephanta Kramrisch says The Tat-puruṣa/Mahādēva’s face contains the fullness of absolute knowledge that is peace. P.447. Kramrisch uses the term Mahādēva frequently to denote Tat-puruṣa form. “On the right of Mahādēva’s face wriggiing serpent locks and raised serpent hoods, interspersed with manifold flowers, and tender leaves lead to a staring skull, the crown jewel of coiffure, pile high above Aghōra Bhairava’s face. On the left of Mahādēva’s crown by contrast , rows of small cork-screw cyrls, surmounted by swags and swirling curves frame and crown Vāmadeva/Umā’s countenance p.447. Vāmadēva the mantra and beauteous deity on Mahādēva’s left is indeed the great Goddess Umā.(448)
Thus we find there are sculptures that portray only three heads the central one and the side ones representing Aghōra/ Bhairava and Vāmdēva/Umā who is feminine. As the Gyaraspur image now in Bhopal clearly portrays the female face and her bust with two breasts and the other face with skeletal figure but with terrible look with the skull cup as Aghōra/Bhairava, the Elephanta sculpture should be considered as Trimukha not as Sadāśiva. As the Gyaraspur figure has only three faces and three pairs of arm, only we have chosen not to call it Sadāśiva but Śiva-Sadyojāta
Padavali Trimukhas
There are two images of Tri-mukhas coming from Padavali in Mdhya pradesh. One has been removed to Bhopal in recent times. J.N.Banerjee published one image from Padavali from Gwalior in 1956. “A sculpture from Padavali now in Gwalior Museum also represents a three faced bust. The placid central face and the terrible right face being masculine in character, the face on left is feminine (the order of the arrangement in this relief is thus a little different from that of the Elephanta sculpture).” Some atleast of these three faced sculpturesof the early mediaval times really represent a composite form of Śiva where his two separate saumya and Aghōra arecombined with his Sakti Umā.” P.477 Jitendra Nath Banerjee The development of Hindu Iconography, Reprinted by Munishram manoharlal, New Delhi, 2002 Pl xxxix.3. It may be seen in this figure that the face on the left is that of Aghōra and the face on the right is that of Umā as in the case of Gyaraspur. The Aghōra face is clearly seen with his terrific countenance and his tongue thrown out and licking the skull cup while the right face that of Umā has the femnine face and holding a mirror in hand.
The other one was illustrated as Sadāśiva image by B.N.Sharma in his book “Iconography of Sadāśiva”. Ascribed to Pratihara, 10th cent comes closer to the Gyaraspur image both in representation and in region. (Pl.VIII) The sculpture is now housed in Gwallior Museum (It is also a three faced sculpture with calm face in the front, a feminine face to its right holding a mirror and the Aghōra figure on its left holding a skull cup in its left hand. Interestingly though both the Padavali images have three faces they have only four arms holding akṣa-māla and kalasa in the front arms and a mirror on the rear right arm on the side of Umā and a skull cup on the Aghōra side. In front of they are shown with amṛta-kalasa that suggests that the front image is that of Śiva Sadyōjāta. Attendants carrying garlands flank both the sculptures. Flanking the image are seen two couples flying above in the air carrying garlands. Both the sculptures cannot compete with the Gyaraspur figure in the aesthetic appeal.
Sadyojata Trimukha from Pathari
A group of temples are noticed in Pathari village in Dist. Vidisa Of these one particular temple of this group is of very great importance to our study. The temple called Kūṭakeśvara is west facing temple, consisting of a Garbha graham, preceded by a an antarala and mukhamaṇḍapa. The main niches bhadras niches, carry in order the images of dancing Gaṇeśa in the south, Sūrya in the east and kārtikeya in the north.
The image of eight armed Gaṇeśa is shown dancing, but is somewhat damaged. The head of Sūrya facing has been chopped off by vandals so is the body below the waist. The image of kārtikeya is standing by the side of his peocock flanked by attendants. The śikhara over the garbhagraha is the pañca-ratha type but the top portion has been damaged. The front face of the śikhara houses a four-armed deity seated in lalitāsana on a couch. Two dvāra palaka like images are found one on either side of the entrance to the Mukha-maṇdapa. The one on the right of the entrance is a fierce looking Bhairava with four arms, holding khaṭvāṅga and a bell, in the left arms and kapāla, and damaru in the right arms. The other image on the left of the image holds a snake on one of its arms. A female attendant is seen accompanying the image.
The entrance to the sanctum ihas a five-framed śākha ornamentation. At the bottom level are on either side, the river goddesses Gaṅgā and Yamuna accompanied by their attendants and parasol holders catra dhārinis. Over them are seen a pair of rishis throwing oblations into fire. The five framed śākha ornamentation of the entrance have a leaf motif first (patra-śākha), followed by a frame of dwarves (pramatha śākha) and the third a frame of couples (mithuna śākha) and finally creeper and leaf designs (lathā). Above the entrance is in the centre of lintel (lalāṭa bimba) an eight armed dancing image of Śiva Naṭeśa. His right and left front arms are in gaja-hasta and abhaya hasta poses respectively, while the rest of the hands are damaged. The Naṭesa is flanked by Vidyādhara couples carrying garlands.Beneath the dancing god are seen the nine planets (nava-graha) in a row on the lintel. Above Naṭeśa is in the centre Śiva as andhakāśura samhara - Bhairava with the Gajāśura carried in the hands. Flanking him are dancing Gaṇeśa and five Mātrikās out of the seven. The Bhairava in the centre is in an animated pose piercing forcefully the Asura with his trident To his left is noticed Camuṇḍa dancing. Correspondingly on the right of bhairava is Dancing Gaṇeśa. The other three Mātrikās are Maheśvari, Kaumāri, Vaiṣṇavi and Vārāhi. The Bhairava seems to hold a khaṭvāṅga in one of the arms. The other two mātrikās were probably accommodated on either side. A point of interest is that all tese deities are carrying a khaṭvāṅga in their arms emphasizing the Bhairava nature of the temple.
But the most important information is furnished by the garbha graham sanctum. In the centra of the sanctum is a liṅga with its vedi. Behind the liṅga enshrined on the back wall is found a thri-mukha iamge of Śiva, six armed resembling the Gyaraspur and Padavali images. The image is shown above the waist, with a central face calm and serene with short jatamakuta. To his right is the feminine Vama deva face and to the left is the ferocious face of Aghora Bhairava. The god holds a flower, a mirror, and akṣamāla in the three right arms on the Vāmadeva side. A snake, kapāla, and probably a kamaṇḍalu are on the three left arms on the Aghora side. The left arms are adorned with rudrākṣas while the right golden bangles. At the back of the head are three concentric halos representing the three maṇḍalas viz Candra, Sūrya and Agni maṇḍalas which is interesting.
The front face is topped by a short jatamakuta, fastened by a cross band of chain.The Aghora face on the laft has the ferocious look, rounded ball like eyes, (raudra drishti) and its mouth open. A garland of skull adorns his head.The tongue is not thrown out as in the other Trimukhas of Gyaraspur, and Padavali but the skull cup is held close to its mouth.
R.D.Trivedi in his Survey of Paramara temples of Madhya Pradesh, gives the following description of this Trimukha from Pathari." Against the back wall is a six-armed relieved image of Śiva mahadeva. According to Viṣṇu-dharmottara-purāṇa the iconographic form is supposed to have five faces, four facing four cardinal directions and the fifth the sky.Of these three visible forms of the the god are shown shown here with jaṭābhāra, ear ornaments, hāra, armlets and bracelets. In the background is a prabhā maṇḍal carved with lotus petals. The three faces represent Tatpuruṣa, Vāmadeva and Aghora forms of Mahādeva in the centre, the right and left sides respectively. The central face representing is absorbed in meditationholding a rosary of beads and a mutilated matuliṅga fruit in the left one. The Vāmadeva form on the right side facing northand bearing feminine appearance represent his benign aspect emanating from Pārvatī and holds a mirror in her hand. The face on the left side facing south represents Aghora aspect with terrific appearance (raudra rupa) and holds a snake and kapāla in his hands (p.135; pl.137) Evidently Trivedi hold the front face of this image as Tatpuruṣa. However, as has been shown by me earlier with the Gyaraspura and Padavali images the front facing here west is Sadyojāta and not Tatpuruṣa.This is further confirmed by the the image, sanctum and the temple facing west.
Further, this is the only sculpture nocticed so far that is still in its original position in situ and gives us an irrefutable understanding of its identification. Based on the temple we come to the following conclusions. Such sculptures are with three faces from Gyaraspur and Padavali and pathari and also the Trimukha at Elephanta cave are ne neither Catur-mukha nor Pañca-mukha manifestations but were intended to be only Trimukhas to emphasize Tatpuruṣaor Sadyojāta aspect. The orientation of the temple west facing or east facing do have specific meaning and should not be treatedas a general trend.Particularly when clusters of temples are found in one and the same place and their orienatation differs the form of the deity should be held as different. As for example, some temples of naresvar face west ad some temples east and yet others face north, all built in the same place. Even when three temples are in one row, two face east and the third face north. Evidently, the priests have oriented three temples depending on the prayers patrons and neture of worship in each. It is similar to different yajña kuṇḍas sacrificial altars in the same place built to invoke different deities. These temples are differently orientated to suit prayers. Reversely one can identify the temples and their main deity based on the orientation as well. This is Possible by the study of Texts like Sarva-siddhanta-Viveka, and Jñāna-siddhi. That gives the inner meaning of such ritual basis. Thirdly the temples of Madhya Pradesh show predominantly Bhairava sculptures there has beean a great group of Bhairava followers active in mediaval times. They may be identified as the followers of Bhairava branch Śaivism. The texts Sarva-siddhanta-Viveka and Jñāna-siddhi demonstrate that there has been a lot of mutual borrowing between the Bhairavas, Lakula Pasupatas and Vāma Śaivites that are reflected in the Madhya Pradesh monuments.
The image of dancing Śiva on the lintel above the entrance to the sanctum should be considered the dance of Sadyojata. The “Bhairava nṛtta” on the lintel of Pathar temple would suggest that the Śaiva system followed there ws indeed Bhaiarava School with its branch of text Bhūta tantra Adoring the Sadyojata Bhairava. As most of the agamas give importance to the Bhiarava Saivam among the four fold divisions as Śaiva, Vāma, Bhairavam and Kāpālikam the central Indian Temples seems to have been greatly influenced by this School. It is seen that the Vidisa area which was centre of Sadyojāta from very early times as evidenced by the two illustrious Palm tree type of representation followed by the great portrayal ofSakti images and a number of the Trimukhs found in the region seemed to have influenced theregion with this cult. Finally, the great Bhoja Parāmara who built his magnificent temple at Bhojapuri, but which unfortuanately remained unfinished is shown facing west and it is not unlikely that the inspiration for such a orientation arise from the adoration of Sadyoajāta in the region.
The Gyaraspur, Pathari and both Padavali Tri-mukha-mūrtis are from Madhya Pradesh. The Umā face is on to the right of the central face in all the four figures. Umā holds mirror in her arm in the three figures. Similarly, the hair of Umā is made into kēśa-mukuṭa in the figures. The third eye is not shown on Umā’s face. However, the Gyaraspur image shows the feminine features of Umā more elegantly by showing both the breasts and the hand wearing a broad band of bangles. The Gyaraspur figure has a female attendant standing by her side. In all the three the figures the Aghōra/Bhairva face is shown to left of the central figure with terrifying look and liking the skull cup. However the Aghōra form is shown as a skeleton in the Gyaraspur figure while it is not so in others. In addition, the Gyaraspur figure shows the snakes prominently while the others do not.
The agamic texts mention the Umā face must be depicted to the left of the central face in all Sadāśiva images, which is natural, and in confiormity with the name Vāma/Vāmadēva (left). Nevertheless, in these figures from Madhya Pradesh the Vāmadēva/Umā face is to the right of central face. Similar is the case with Aghōra/Bhairava face that should appear to the right as Dakṣiṇa face, appears on the left in the Madhya pradesh images. The only possible explanation for such a variation is that the Madhya-pradesh images were originally enshrined in a west facing sanctum in which case the central face would represent Sadyojāta. With Sadyojāta in the centre, the Umā face will take its position to the right of Sadyojāta while Aghōra face will appear on its left. Vāmadēva /Umā should face normally north while Aghōra/Bhaiarava will face south. Umā to the right and Agora to the left is possible only when the central image faces west and hence west face is Sadyojāta and not Tat-puruṣa.
The study also points a minor error in Stella kramisch identification of Elephant cave image. According to Babara Stoller Mayer, Kramrisch has further revised her identification in 1981. According to Barbara Mayor, Kramsrisch’s revision was made in a lecture she delivered at the Pensylvania university in 1981. Barbara Mayor in a foot note to the article published in a collection of Kramrisch articles (published by IGNCA and Motilal Banarsi da in 1994,) says:- “This essay first appeared in Ancient India no 2, (July 1946) with an introductory note of Sir Mortimer wheeler by permission. More recent evidences makes the cave sculptures datable to mid 6th cent AD. Kramrisch in her paper “the Great cave temple of Śiva” in the symposium at the University of Pennsylvsnia in May 1981 refers to the centre face as Sadyojāta rather than Tat-puruṣa/Mahādeva face. And this revision has been made here. This seems to be an error committed by Barabara Mayor for Kramrisch’s article which was published on the same occasion under the same title “The Great Cave temple of Śiva on the island of Elephanta included in her book released on the same occasion under the title “The presence of Śiva” (p.443-468). Kramrisch has identified the central face of Mahēśa-mūrti as Tat-puruṣa/Mahādeva. (446-7). It is not known whether Kramrisch has been published any article subsequently. If so the reference is not available in Barabara’s article. The end note on this identification in Barabara’s edited version refers to Īśāna-gurudeva-paddhati 3-12-35 (p 145) as the source for revising Kramrisch view. But the above reference does not identify an image with akṣa-mālā and bīja-pūra (mātuliṅga fruit) with Sadyojāta but holds him Tat-puruṣa/Mahādeva. The reference is wrong. In addition, the description given for Sadyojāta in Īśāna gurudeva paddhati mentions only two hands holding varada and abhaya hands. (3-12-39) According Viṣṇu-dharmottara-purāṇa 48-14 Sadyojāta who is called Nandi should hold trisula and shield.
“The body of Śiva, the sign (liṅga) of he who pervades the universe, faces all directions is given a face in every direction; the faces are summed up and represented at the cardinal points and in the fifth direction. Each face conveys a particular aspect of Śiva, and its psyiognomy indicates its nature. Certain signs also of identification are laid down in the textrs; Sadyojāta holds the matuliṅga or bīja pūraka, a citron, in one hand and a rosary(akṣamālā) in the other. The bija pūra is full of atoms of the seeds of this universe; rosary is a symbol of reintegration of this world. In his crown of matted locks Tat-puruṣa wears the cresent of the moon; it is its sixteenth digit(amākalā) symbol of perfectedness and the power of lord (aiśvarya) Aghōra is fierce, trerrific, like time (kāla) itself; serpent skull belong to him. Vamadeva is handsome and the women’s delight.
“The great sculpture of Mahādēva is an image of the fully manifest supreme Śiva. In the middle is nthe face of Sadyojāta, the faces of Aghōra and Vāmadēva are correlated. (p.142 Explaoring India’s sacred past.: Selected writings of Stella Kramrisch, Ed By Barbara stoler Mayer. First Published in 1983 by the University of Philadelphia. Reprinted by IGNCA and Motilal Banarsi das 1994, p.142) The identification of the Elephanta image is again emphasized in the same publication p.146 “the central piller, the Mūla-sthamba rises with the face of Sadyōjāta”.
It would appear that Kramrisch has revised her views three times; first she identified it with Sadāśiva; second she identified it with Tat-puruṣa and thirdly as Sadyojāta.
The term Mahādēva is used generally to the liṅga form of Śiva but in the context of Mukha-liṅgas or in the representations as at Elephanta it is used only for the Tat-puruṣa face. Tat-puruṣa is the manifestation that faces east. Aghōra faces South, Vāmadēva north, and Sadyojāta west. When Tat-puruṣa is facing east the Aghōra face should be to his right and Vāmadēva Umā to the left. When Sadyojāta face is in the centre, the Aghōra face will appear to his left and Umā to his right. In the case of Elephanta cave Aghōra is to the right of central figure and the Umā is to his left. The centre face of Elephanta can only be Tat-puruṣa and not Sadyojāta. Kramrisch earlier identfifcation was correct and the latest with Sadyojāta can not be sustained. I think this error has crept in and possibly made by Barbara and by Kramrisch. When Sadyojāta face appears in the centre as in the case of Madhya-pradesh images under discussion, the images will face west. The Elephanta Image should be called only as Tat-puruṣa Mahādēva and not otherwise. Kramrisch herself in her work “The presence of Śiva” takes this position.(P.146) The four faces of Śiva are Tat-puruṣa/Mahādeva, Aghōra/Bhairava, Vāmadēva/Umā and Sadyojāta/Nandi. The foot notes on the same page says “Mahādēva refers to the head in the middle of the three heads in Elephanta of the five faced Sadāśiva”. As mentioned by me earlier the Elephanta figure cannot be identified Sadāśiva or five faced liṅga. For it was intended to be only a three-faced image (Tri-mukha).
Three faced image in Himachal Pradesh
I may also point out that three faces appearing for Śiva is a common trait in Himachal-pradesh where the three faced Śiva is not only in central shrines but also found in kapōtas ornaments and such representatations are called in bhadra-mukhas. The Shimla museum has two bhadra-mukhas out of which atleast two of them have three mukhas. But in both the cases the central face of Śiva is Tat-puruṣa as the Vāmadēva face is to the left of the central figure and Aghōra face is to the right I have not been able to study the temples of Himachal-pradesh and am not able to say whether exits west facing bhadra-mukhas.
Emphasis on Mukhas, Importance of Centeral face
There is a main difference in laying emphasis on central face on theological and religious considerations. The Sanskrit text Sarva-siddhānta-Vivēka gives some interesting details in this regard. It speaks about four schools under _raudra_systems. They are called Gāruḍam, Dakṣiṇam, Vāmam and Bhūta-tantram. Each face should be worshipped for specific results and such worships are prescribed in four diferent texts that gave rise to the four sub-sets. Worshipping Tat-puruṣa is prescribed in Gāruḍa tantra by which one attains siddhis. Yantra, mantra, auṣada and treatment system are the schools that worshipped Tat-puruṣa form. The worship of Agōra Bhairava form is prescribed in Dakṣiṇa texts meant for conquest over enemies and achievements of ones desires. The third is the worship of Vāmadēva form prescribed in Vāma texts which is ment for siddhies through rasa and buddhi schools. The worship of Sadyojāta as the main face is prescribed in Bhūta tantra for warding off afflictions by bhūtas, Prētas, and Pisācas. These four four fold divisions among Śaivas based on the four texts that in turn seem to accept the guidelines of pleasant agamas like Kāmika and so are not considered wild and yet considered inner outsiders by the Siddhānta Śaivas. It is clear from this text shows the existence of separate categories of Śaivas who worshipped any one of the five manifestations of Śiva. Worship of Elephnata Tat-puruṣha Mahādēva is by a different sect and the worship of Sadyojāta Nandi as in the case Madhya Pradesh images is different. The former is based on Gāruḍa-tantra while the Madhya-pradesh ones are based Bhūta tantra.
The Iśāna-gurudēva-paddhati gives some details about the worship of mukha-liṅgas. If there is only one entrance to the sanctum Eka-mukha-liṅga or Tri-mukha-liṅga could be consecrated. In this case the Eka-mukha, or the central face of the Tri-mukha-liṅga will face the entrance. If the sanctum has four openings, one in each cardinal direction, four faced liṅga could be established, each face looking towards its appropriate direction, (like Tatpuruṣa facing east, Aghōra facing south, Sadyōjāta facing west and Vāmadēva north). Twin faced liṅga or five-faced liṅga could be established by a king on a hill in the country for victory and the elimination of enemies. The twin faced liṅga should not be consecrated in ordinary Śiva temples as it is an ābhicārikā form. (uttar bhāga, 41 chapter 11-13)
So it is evident that the Trimukha liṅgas were established in sanctums with single opening. The Vidisa, Padavali Trimukha liṅgas, ought to have been in a shrine with a single entrance and the position of Aghōra face, and Vāmadeva face (in reverse order) suggest the entrance should have been on the west. (Incidentally we may not be wrong in the case of five faced liṅgas pañca mukha liṅgas, where ever found were royal consecration).
Maheśa or Tat-purusha ?
Charles Dillard Collins in his well studied work, “The Iconography and Ritual of Śiva at Elephanta”, has discussed in detail, the occurrence of three faced Śiva in greater part of western India. He also cites a number of other scholars who have Worked on the subject. The reader’s attention is drawn to to this study for details. It is clear from this study that the representation of three faced Śiva is common in western India. The author suggested that “it is evident the discussion that the majority of prototypes for the Maheśamūrti images of Śiva at Elephanta hail from the north, that is the Gāndhāra-Kashmir, Rajasthan - Gujarat region and the type icon became popular in the Deccan essentially after Elephanta was excavated. The image from Orissa was the only one cited radically outside this axis from the north of Elephanta, with which it is roughly contemporary. It probably represents the infusion of another sub sect of Pāśupatas from north India, to this region from the east. Therefore the image of Elephanta seems to have been an importation relating to the spread of the Pasupata Sect in this case as a political patronage of the Kalachuris, quite probably under the reign of Sankaragana in the last quarter of the sixth cent”. (p.120).
Collins has felt that Trimukha images have something to do with Pāśupata sect. I would suggest that Pāśupatas concentrated more on achievement of Yoga though there was some over lap of philosophical borrowing between them and the Bhairavas. However, the Bhairavas of Vāma and Dakṣiṇa Bhairava Schools emphasized achievement of mystic powers, and as revealed by these two texts discussed in this book, it is likely to be one of the sub-sects of the Bhairavas who were responsible for the Elephanta image. Secondly, Collins calls the Elephanta and similar three faced images of Śiva as Maheśamurti. The term Maheśamurti is generally employed in Śaiva rituals to the manifestation above Rudra (in the ascending order of Brahma, Viṣṇu, Rudra, Maheśa and Sadāśiva) and below Sadāśiva. It is not connected with Tri-mukha images which are based on the Pañca Brahmam concept of Tat-puruṣa , Agõra, Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva, and Īśana. The Tri-mukha images are portrayed to emphasize the central face of the deity, to which worship is offered to achieve some siddhis mystic results. The worship of the particular face or manifestation is performed as per one of the Tantras Garuḍa, Dakṣiṇa, Vāma, or Bhūta Tantras of the Bhairava School. The Elephanta image is Tat-puruṣa/Mahadeva who ought to have been worshipped with Garuḍa Tantra for general siddhis.
Sudies of Mukhaliṅgas
Gerd Kreisel illustrates a large number of Mukhaliṅgas with sigle face, four faces and five faces I the collection of many museums and provides valuable details. A few points of relevance are mentioned here. Among those discussed a good number are Ekamukhaliṅga I which case it is difficult to identify either Tatpuruṣa , Sdyojāta, or Vāmadeva faces or even Aghora faces (except in the Aghora case the fierce aspect of the deity is portrayed with moustache beard, ball like eyes and gasping mouths. Most of the Ekamukhaliṅga illustrated above book have pleasing countenance and there fore may be atken as Tatpuruṣa Mahadeva. However the illustrations no 32 and 33 may illustrate Aghora form. The author uses the term brahmacārins, Ardhanārī, and Aghora sometimes. Thus he calls both Tatpuruṣa and Sadyojāta Yogins; Vāmadeva as Brahmacārin (I am not sure whether the term Brahmacārin can be applied to Vāmadeva. For it is only the Sadyojāta form which is named Balā-veśa-dhara boyish countenance. For example the Caturmukhaliṅga of the Russak collection Pl.60a-to-h shows Aghora on one side and on the opposite side represents Ardhanārīśvar form. While the Aghora face has along moustache on both sides of the face and beard, raised eyebrows and has raudra drishti The Ardhanārīśvara side shows moustache on one side only the other side of the face being feminine. The author has also carefully demonstrated that the ehad dress which is divided into two parts the right side shows the jatāmakuṭa and the left shows keśa bandha. Among the other tw faces the one having curly hair like that of Buddha is evidently the Tatpuruṣa form called by the author Yogin 60c. The other one 60f which has a boyish face like almost shaven head and has tuft is that of Sadyojāta. iHe could be identified as brahmacārin for he is the one attributed with boyish countenance. However in the illustrations the order of the faces are shown reversed Ill.60a shows Aghora to the left of Tatpuruṣa 60g, and Vāmadeva/Ardhanāri to the right of Tatpuruṣa. This is not a correct order. Similarly the Brahmacārin ushnishin (Sadyojāta) appears to the right of Vāmadeva/Ardhanāri 60f. The illustration 60b shows Aghora and Ardhanarīśvar side by side by which is not possible 9If. It is not known whether there is a any textual authority for such a depction or or there is any error in the illustrations. The correct position may be seen in the ill 60 a-e.
Vāmadeva Ardhnāri
This would bring us to two important specimens one in the VA museum in London (ill.114a) and the other in Los Angeles County Museum of Art(ill.113) both showing Ardhanārīśvar image emanating from liṅga shaft. We have noticed that Vāmadeva form appear as Ardhanāri emanating from liṅga. The Two Sanskrit texts Sarva-siddhanta-Viveka and the Jñānasiddhi refers to the worship of Vāmadeva by the followers of Bhairava school using Vama-tantra for attracting men and women. Both the illustrations mentioned above show the membrum virile erect. Their association with Bhairava Pāśupata cult is certain It seems that both the illustrations of Ardhanāri emanating from liṅga represent the Vāmatantra worship of the Bhairavas. (Dte Śiva- Bildwerke der mathura kunst. Ptfranz stainer Verlag Weisbaden, GMBA Stutgart, 1986)
Śiva Parvati
Stella Kramrisch in “Manifestations of Śiva” published by Philadelphia Museum of Art in 1981 – fig 47, illustrates an important image of Śiva-Pāravatī from Pan Asian Collection. The provenance of the image is given as Kashmir and the figure is assigned to eleventh cent. It represents Śiva and Pārvatī shown standing, Śiva standing to the right and Parvati to the left. Śiva is four armed holding trisula and matuliṅga fruit in the upper arms and preaching gesture and kamaṇḍalu in the lower arms The preaching arm is turned inwards. He wears a headdress usually seen in Kashmir images. Śiva in the image is three headed, the front head is calm and serene representing Tatpuruṣa/Mahādeva while the right one is figured with a ferocious look and represent Aghora/Bhairava face. The face to the left is that Vāmadeva/Umā-vaktra with a feminine countenance. Parvati stands with two arms holding a mirror with one and the other in preaching pose with the palm turned inwards as in the Śiva image. To the right of Śiva stands his vehicle Nandi. Gaṇeśa is seated on the pedestal to the right of Śiva while Kārtikeya is seated to Pāravtī’s left. In the Vedic tradition the reciters hold their palm inwards even to this day as noticed in this group of Śiva Pārvatī images. The gesture stands for Vedic recitation.
Stella Kramrisch in her catalogue mentions (p.56) that “the triune heads of the god show Mahādeva, the Great God (as existence, Tatpuruṣa) in the centre, Aghora/Bhairava in his destructive fury on the right and Vāmadeva/Umā central feminine that dwells in Śiva on his left. The three heads stand for a total of five heads, the fourth is not shown in the relief, though in other images of the same subject is turned on the nimbus while the fifth head belonging to transparency is invisible.”
As has been shown by me earlier, this image of Śiva is meant to have only three faces as a Tri-mukha, the other two heads are not part of the manifestation. This emphasizes the Tatpuruṣa/Mahādeva aspect only. It belongs to the Bhairava school to be worshipped according to the Garuḍa Tantra.
Umā-Maheśvara
Śiva with Umā seated on his lap, looking up to her master with intense affection, is a common theme. A sculpture of beauty of this theme is in the State Museum of Bhopal. The sculpture belongs to 10th cent. Śiva is seated on a pedestal and on his lap is Umā, both the couple looking at each other with great love. With one of his hands, Śiva is hugging Umā while with other he wields a trident. With the upper right arm Śiva holds a flower but his lower fore arm of the right hand is broken. The goddess seated is two armed holding a flower in one arm and with the other arm embraces Śiva. To the right and left of the couple are seated Gaṇeśa and Kārtikeya on the seat. To the right of Śiva is standing his attendant holding khaṭvāṅga; to the left of Devi is the other attendant holding a sula and behind him stands a lady attendant of the Devi. To the right of Śiva stands a nude Bhiarava above and on the left is a deity with his consort. Vidhyadhara couples are carrying a garland above. There is a crown above the image of Śiva to show the Lord as Devadeva. The khaṭvāṅga bearing attendant and the nude Bhiarava in the panel suggest that it belongs to the Bhairava school.
Śiva Sūrya
Two Sūrya images in the State Museum of Bhopal are illustrated here. One is a seated image with four arms with sula and snake in the rear arms and lotuses in the front arm. The sula and snake in his hand shows the identity of Sūrya with Śiva. The god wers high shoes in his udicya veṣa. Flanking him are his attendants Daṇḍi and Piṅgala, one with a beard. Flanking Sūrya are two cāmara dhārinis probably his consorts Uṣā and Pratyuṣā.
The second one is standing with multiple arms which are broken. He wears high shoes to indicate his udicya veṣa; beneath his legs stands a goddess; flanking him are his attendants Daṇḍi and Piṅgala. Further behind are one woman each on each side. They are probably wielding bow and arrow who are Sūrya-Śaktis. Brahma with three heads is above to the right, while Viṣṇu is seated on to his left. These two gods Brahma and Viṣṇu flanking Sūrya in the centre suggest that Sūrya in this panel is identical with Śiva worshipped as Śiva-Sūrya as the Trimūrti concept is suggested in such panels. The sculpture mentioned above portrays the same concept of Śiva Sūrya by the weapons in the hands - sula and snake. Sūrya is adored as Mārtāṇḍa identical with Bhairava embodying in himself the aspects of Trimūrti need to be recalled here.
Lakulīśa
Most of the temples of Śiva in Madhya Pradesh incorporate the sculptures of Lakulīśa images that show their affiliations with either Bhairava, Pāśupata, or the allied subsects of the Śaivas. Two of the sculptures identified with Lakulīśa illustrated here are now in the State Museum of Bhopal. The earlier one among them, assigned to fifth cent, comes from Gajendragar, dist. Mandasor. The figure looks like a Kumāra, a young boy - Brahmacārin with two arms holding a lakuḍa (club) in his right hand while the other hand is placed on the thigh. He is seated on a high pedestal with legs hanging cross-legged. There is a necklace of rudrākṣa-mālā around his neck with a pendent. His finely combed curly hairs fall on either side. A cross chain fastens the hairs above the fore head. This is certainly a fine representation of Lakulīśa appearing as a youth and yet a humān form.
The second comes from Hinglajgar, dist. Mandasor and assigned to 10th cent. The representation is four armed and hence a deified image. He holds a sūla with a long handle in the right arm. The forearm of the other right arm is broken. He holds a club with the front left arm, which is somewhat damged. The other hand holds a long handle probably a pāśa. The god is seated in padmāsana pose. His phallus is erect while his testicles are pressed down by the crossed legs. This is a yogic pose adopted to control sexual energy. The God wears a high jaṭāmakuṭa fastened by a cross chain with a flame like buckle. Above is a crescent moon. A snake coiling around the jatāmakuṭa raises its hood elegantly. Among three necklaces, adorning the neck one is a fine snake with its hood well depicted. In addition, the god wears an upavita of snake. A snake is coiling around the handle of the trisūla. The label of the Museum reads identifies portrayal as that of Lakulīśa. But it is not unlikely that the image represents Śiva himself when he was about to appear as Lakulīśa.
Pañca Brahmam
An interesting Sculpture, showing four human ascetics emanating from a liṅga on its four Sides is now in the Gwalior Central Museum. All are seated in different asanas in different poses. Beneath the seat of one are seen two severed hands and two feet. All the four ascetics are with two hands but no one is shown with a lakuḍa. In between each ascetic are shown in miniature forms, some deities that seems to be that of Siva. The sculpture is generally identified with Lakulīśa.
In this context it is interesting to note a chapter in the Liṅgapurāṇa, regarding the emanation of Pañca-Brahmams, Tatpuruṣa, Agora, Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva and Īśāna. All the five are said to be Kumāras likened to human youth. The first to appear was Sadyojāta who is said to have a tuft-sikhā (śikhā-yukta), who was white in colour and was probably exponent of yoga System. We see from other texts, that Sadyojāta taught Pāśsupata yoga with an emphasis on prāṇāyama (yoga) to Upamanyu. The second was Vāmadeva, who appeared with red garments, red garlands etc. He was the embodiment of dhyāna he was the giver of dhyāna System. The third to appear was Tat-puruṣa, with golden colored costumes, garlands etc., and also with uṣnīṣa. As Brahma meditated on this form, there appeared Mahā Devi, Maheśvari with four legs, four faces, etc., like a cow. She was called Mati - (mind), Smṛti (remembrance) and dhṛti (retention). So Śiva told her she would become Rudrāṇi. She became Raudri Gayatri, and Brahma - recited the Gayatri as Japa and achieved his prayers. Tatpuruṣa is associated with Japa. The fourth to appear was Agora with black colour, garland etc. He wore black garment, and had uṣnīṣa. Brahma beheld him by dhyāna yoga. Worship of Agora with different kinds of homas absolves the devotee of all his sins. It seems Agora taught the path of worship through Kriya-Yajñas.
Īśāna to appear at the end is called Viśvarūpa who appeared as a cow with four legs and personification of Gauri, Māyā, Vidyā, Kṛṣṇā, and Haemavatī. She combined in herself Yoga, Sāṅkhya, Japas, Vidyā, Vidhi-kriya, Ritam, Satyam etc. and She was Sarasvati and Lakṣmi. She was also the supreme bliss-Ānanda. So Īśāna is Viśvarūpa represnting all aspects culminating in Ānanda.
In the image under discussion, (F.90, 91, 92) there is the liṅga in the centre from which four Kumāras emanate in four directions. Each is shown in a particular pose like Svastika, Ardha-padma, Ekoru (Ūrdhva-jānu) and Samāsana. All of them show different arrangements of hairs on head. One of them seems to hold an antelope like animal in hand. It is possible that this sculpture with Kumāras, appearing as teachers represent the four Brahmams, Tatpuruṣa, Agora, Sadyojata, Vāmadeva in human form the linga representing the Īśāna form. One of the sculpture has a pair of severed hands and pada on the pedestal. The severed hand as an ornament along with human skulls appears on the head of Aghora, in the Gyarasper Trimukha, which indicates its association with Bhairava cult. It comes from Nareśvar where temples to the three (is not four) manifestations exist.
Narēśar Group of temples
The Narēśvar group, consists of a large number of small and about light medium size temples, numbering over 27 built in clusters in the same place, and evidently suggest that they are dedicatory temples built for the fulfillment of specific prayers. The earliest of the group, is the west facing temple with inscription, assigned to 8th cent. The presence of Lakulīśa sculptures in Śiva temples and the recovery of a good number of Yogini sculptures some of which are now housed in the Gwalior museum suggest that the site was a centre of Bhairava cult. Behind this early temple is the temple of Mahiṣāsura-mardini temple, indicates the Vāma Bhairava school. We have seen that the Vāma Bhairava school is divided into Gāruḍa, Dakṣiṇa, Vāma and Bhūta tantra branches, for worshipping, Tatpuruṣa, Aghōra, Sadyōjāta and Vāmadeva form of Bhairava and that the name of Tatpuruṣha is given as Nārēśa in Svacchanda-Bhairava-tantra. We have also seen that Kṣēnarājā the commentator on this text, assignable to the end of 10th cent or beginning of 11th cent, defines Nārēśa as narāṇām idam-nārēśam. The present name of the place is derived by many scholars from Nalēśvara-the lord of tube of water drain. This is based on an inscription which calls the name of the deity as Nālēśvaradēva. I think the name Nārēśa itself is the original name of the site derived from the earliest temple built at that site. The earliest temple faces east and is dedicated to Nārēśa Tatpuruṣha. There is an ancient liguistic rule in Sanskrit, which holds that there is no difference between “ra” and “la”, Nārēśvar and Nālēśvar are identical.
The central India seems to have been a great centre of Bhairava Śaivam from very early times as seen from the Udayagiri and Vidisa at Udaygiri we have seen the Śiva temple and Durgā side by side. An imposing Durgā, perhaps the tallest so far noticed is now preserved in the Gwalior Museum. The magnitude of the sculpture and the presence of remarkable group of early Mātrikas from the same site point to the over whelming influence of Śākta tradition in the region. The combination of the Vāma Bhairava tradition seems to have continued in the region upto probably 11th - 12th cent. A number of monumental sites, like Gyaraspur, Nārēśvar, Bhaṭeśvar, Terahi, Padavali, Śivapuri, Survaya, Bheraghat, Bilaspur, Badoh, Pathari, Mahua and early Khajuraho, seemed to have been influenced by this school. It is also possible to identify some of these sites by their orientation, as one of the Gāruḍa Tantra, Dakṣiṇa, Vāma, or Bhūta tantras guided them. It would be interesting to trace these four texts and study them for identifying these monuments as it is beyond the sclpe of this book, I am not elaborating further, except to state that they did have a great impact and wielded great influence in Central India, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and their neighboring regions. The same sub schools are mentioned in two texts, namely the well-known Svacchanda-bhairava-tantra and the Sarva-siddhānta-Vivēka, clearly point out that these four sub sects did exist.
Based on our study we may say atleast few other temples at Nārēśvar were built for Sadyōjāta, and that the west-facing temples of the group might have been built for this deity, using Bhūta tantra.
The same group of priests might have built separate dedicatory temples for different devotees.
The temple at Padavali, that has yielded not only two Trimukhas with Sadyōjata as the main deity and the intricately carved sculptured panels depicting Bhutas pretas, and Pisācas in exuberance show that in all probability followed the Bhūa-tantra.
The group of temples and monastery at Suravaya might also belong to the same school for we see two groups of temples, oriented in opposite directions one facing east and the other facing west, at the same place. It may not be wrong to suggest the orientation of these temples as clusters, but facing differently is neither haphazard, nor thoughtless but for the fulfillment of specific prayers, and are based on specific texts.
Nārēśvar
About 15 km from Gwalior and about three km through rough road is Nārēśvar village. One has to halt and go up the hill lock to cross the hilltop. At the other end side of the hilltop is the group of temples, called Nareśvar. There are about 27 temples of different size, all at one place of the hill that go by that name Nareśvar. There is a pond endroute with sufficient water said to be potable. On its bank are in twelve small temples nine of which have disappeared leaving only the base lines o the rock. Three are in position; some of them show Gaṇēśa at the lintel. Inside two of them are liṅga pithas, facing the entrance in one and the other reoriented. As these temples are in a row on the southern slopes of the pond they all face north. Therefore, the praṇāla facing the entrance in one temple is in its original shape. The water chute (vārimārga) is facing east in one and north east in another. These are said to have been repositioned in later times.
Before one reaches the pond, are seen two modest temples in a group and another a little away. They are devoid of sculptures or architectural embellishment. There are a number of small temples as a cluster. As one approach the Nareśvar group there are four in a row all facing west three of which are fairly well preserved, the fifth one has disappeared while one contains a liṅga.
From here, one has to cross a small ancient stone bridge and descend through steps to reach the floor of the main Naresvar group. The floor cut and flattened forms the ground for the temples.There are three levels in which the temples are built.
There are three temples in a row, all of them of the same height. Two of them face east and the third faces north. Among them, the one on the extreme south is the earliest of this group, which has a simple kapota-bandha-adhiṣṭāna. It has a resemblance to South Indian temple mouldings of the early age. It is architecturally the best among the three. The sanctum is empty now, but the arch above the entrance in the śikhara, shows a seated Lakulīśa image. The entrance to the sanctum has lovely carvings of Ganga and Yamuna on either side. As in other examples, the heads of both the river goddesses are chopped off. The wall on the north of entrance shows beautiful entwined chain motif hanging. The lintel shows simple rafter marks in geometric design.
The central temple is almost a contemporary of the northern one with simple plain adhiṣṭāna. The one on the north is based on the north Indian type of adhiṣṭāna but the superstructure has been conserved, rather hap hazzardly. There are some sculptures, but it is not clear whether the positions in which they are seen, are original. In all probability, they are displaced.
At a deep lower level of about fifteen feet, is another temple, intact upto its āmalaka. The enormous amount of debris, show a large number carved stones, and in all probability had some more temples of the same dimensions but have disappeared.
The one in front of the the three temples faces west. It consists of a base-(adhiṣṭāna) bhitti, and super structure of the Nāgara variety. Only a part of the śikhara remains the grīva and āmalaka have disappeared. Gangā and Yamunā flank the entrance to the sanctum with attendants. Vandals have chopped the heads of Gangā and Yamunā away. The lintel above the entrance carries a Garuḍa holding the tail of cobras winding and coming down on either side but the heads of both the snakes have been damaged. There is nothing in the sanctum. But on both the walls flanking the entrance are seen nagari inscriptions in Sanskrit language, giving the samvat and the king’s name and gifts. On the northern sidewall also is seen an inscription of the same age. Based on a record the temple is assigned to the eighth cent, is considered one among the earliest of the group.
At the back of this temple is another early temple, at an elevated level in more or less fine condition including the sikhara and āmalaka. Inside the sanctum of this temple was the image of goddess Durgā, the sculpture is completely covered with saffron but there is evidence of the main image is Durgā though the sculpture above the waist has disappeared. One of her right hand is rested on an attendant. To the left is a beautiful image bending to the right in an animated pose. At the lower part is seen a figure resembling the body of the Mahisha upto the neck and from the neck emanates a diminutive figure. In all probably the main image was that of Mahiṣāsura mardini.
The entrance to the temple has lovely carvings. Beautiful images of Gangā and Yamunā with their attendants are seen on either side, but unfortunately, the heads of both the river goddess are chopped off. Above at threm three levels are seen on either side musicians and dancers. On the lintel is seen Garuda in the center holding the tails of snakes, which come down either side, framing the entrance to the sanctum. Tne heads of the snakes are broken. On a level above the Gāruḍa humān figures (gandharvās?) are seen flying towards the centre. On either side do two seated figures, one on each side at the extreme, resemble Lakulīśa. As the sculptures are worn out, it is difficult to be assertive but may be the ascetic priests.
This temple (no 23 of ASI) we may call, Mahishāsuramardini temple has on its bhadra nicha on the south side Ganēsa, on the north Ambikā, the back niche is completely covered with debris and probably contained Kārtikēya? The front of the śikhara portrays a broken image of Simhavāhini.
By the side of this temple is a plain three storied structure designated as the monastery. The courses of stone up to the first story are regular and indicate an early date, but the upper part shows rebuilding. The monastery building has an entrance, that leads a narrow passage that is blocked at some distance. It is clamed the passage leads as a tunnel to a cave (guha) in the hill but no one has so far investigated the same. The monastery building is devoid of architectural embellishment.
This remarkable group of temple, at an extreme part of the hill lock, built after cutting a large part of hill, quite high at some places, as if completely fortified by impregnable hill fort and hidden from normal onlookers, seem to give a halo of secret worship in this area.
Survaya Temples
The group of Survaya temples at Survaya village, dist .Śivapuri is a landmark in the Central Indian monuments. There are three temples, and a big mediaval monastry inside a protected fort, that show that show the temples and Śaiva priests played a great role not in the religious life of the sphere but also in defending the political power for considereable length of time. I have discussed elsewhere that the people looked to the Rajaguru as a the saviour of the country – rakṣā-śakti - in times of dange from invasion, epidemics, natural calamities like fire etc.And this role brought in the danger to the heart of the temples and the habitations of the Śaiva priests. Evidently, the temples were symbols and places that invited the mystic powers for protection. The deity invoked expected to be the most powerful of the Śaivite system. It is well known from monuments inscriptions and literature it was Kāla Bhairava was the embodiment of ferocious attack on enemies and the most kind to the devotees The Kāla Bhairava called for some gruesome forms of worship, which was thought to confer victories in most dreaded battles.and disasters. We have noted that most of theregion being prone to frequent attacks from all directions required temples to Bhairava. This is the main reason for building temples to Bhairava and practicing awesome and secret worship, within well-fortified areas, that is nowhere better illustrated than in Surwaya and naresa in Central India. There are three well built temples within the Survaya fort, one facing east and two facing west within few yards. All the three temples are dedicated to Śiva and the portrayal of deities like Andhakāsura samhara, a form of Bhairava on the walls confirm that these temples appearing as clusters within a place are dedicated to some form of Bhairava. No inscriptions are found on the temple now but on stylistic consideration, all are assigned to 10th cent. For conveneience, the temples are serially nymbered by Archaeological Survey of India under whose protection these are now placed.The east facing temple, which is the most ornate among the group, is beautiful inspite of the dilapidated condition and damges. It carries some remarkable sculptures. The front maṇḍapa and the entrance to the sanctum are covered with marvelous sculptures. The front maṇḍapa carries the portraits of the Śaiva Priests who were responsible for the constructions. The ceiling of the maṇḍapa is carved with beautifully conceived dancing figures and deities. The entrance to the sanctum is decorated superbly with five śākhās (frames). The stepping-stone is carries two lions one on either side. The temple is built over four and four principles namely dhrama, jñāna, vairāgya and aiśvarya.( righteousness, knowledge, sacrifice, and governorship). The four opposites are also required for the former to exist.so the texts prescribe eight principles as the Temple form. They also appear as lions. The lions represented on the base are thus the personification of dharma, jñāna, vairāgya and aiśvarya. In the centre of the entrance to the temple is the lotus also called vidyāpadma - the lotus of learning. Flanking the entrance are Gaṅgā and Yamunā followed by Nandi Mahākāla, and behind themare the Apsaras, the cāmara-dhārinis. The central frame of the entrance carries a row of mithuna couples.
Viṣṇu on Garuḍa appears in the centre of the lintel above the entrance. The panel behind is divided inot two tiers depicting the nine planets-Navagraha including Rāhu and Ketu at the extreme left of Viṣṇu. The upper tier carries Apsaras carrying garlands. At the extreme right of Brahma while at the left is an image, which is totally damaged. The central panel of the middle lintel carries Śiva-tāṇḍava. Flanking Śiva-tāṇḍava to the right is Gaṇeśa with his consort and to the left is Kārtikeya with his consort. At the extreme right of Śiva is a deity in dancing pose with a Vīṇa probably representing Vīrabhadra while on the extreme left is a dancing Bhiarava. In between are seen musicians and dancers with drum etc. The top lintel carries śikhara like ornaments, and minor deities.
Ther full description of this temple is not attempted hereas as it is not the scope of this work. It would be advantageous to take up the sseperate study of every detail o the temple against the text Svacchanda Bhairava tantra that is likely to throw more light. As mentioned earlier the worship of Bhairava called Dakṣiṇa Bhairava School had four branches as Gāruḍam, Dakṣiṇam, Vāmam, and Bhuta-tantram. The east facing temple that enshrines Tatpuruṣa who will be worshipped according to Gāruḍa tantra.
At this stage it may be said that according to Svacchanda Bhiarava tantra, every deity in the circle of Bhiarava worship is invoked as as amsa of Bhairava.
The second temple in the Survaya temple cpmples is facing west located exactly facing temple no 1 just few yards in front. Both the temple face each other. This temple fairly well preserved except its śikhara carries a sanctum and preceding maṇḍapa. The entrance to the sanctum has ornate sākhā frames with sculptures. The lintel of the entrance above the sanctum carries an image of Viṣṇu on Garuḍa. The part behind Viṣṇu is divided into two tiers horizontally. The part behind Viṣṇu portrays the nine planets (Navagraha) while the upper tier shows the seven mothers Saptamātās dancing along with Gaṇeśa. This brief account of the temple is to provide an idea as to how a temple dedicated to Bhairava was conceived in the mediaeval periods.
A little away is the monastic buildings that served as residential portions of the Temple priests-Ācāryas. It consist of a two storied portions with a number of rooms but what is interesting is the central part of the building that was occupied by the chief Ācārya has a śikhara like that of the temple that shows the importance of the guru who was likened to Śiva himself at other places.
Conclusions
The importance of the two Sanskrit texts Sarva-siddhānta-Viveka and Jñānasiddhi have been discussed in the introductory part of this work. A study of many temples and sculptures, especially in Central India, in the light of these two texts, show there was a great preference for the Bhairava School in the region that had been brought out in the fourth chapter of this work. I have also given a given an account of the Ancient city of Ujjaini, with the temple of Mahākāleśvar and the overwhelming presence of Bhairava school, that continues to this day in some form there.
It is important to recall that the study of Saiva iconography is closely associated with Ujjaini. The earliest representation of Śiva in human form is traced to Ujjain coins, in which the god is portrayed with a staff and kamaṇḍalu. Many Kushan coins from first cent BCE to 2nd-3rd Cent.CE portrays Śiva in front of his vehicle-Nandi in different forms. Considerable varieties of these coins appear with the legend Osho. (Īśa) Śiva with three heads. J.N. Banerjee has discussed in detail the occurrence of Śiva in Kushan coins and their significance in his development of Hindu iconography chapter IV (P. 113-128). “Siva appears for the first time in an anthropomorphic form on the coins hailing from Ujjaini and its environs. The single standing figure on many of these coins can definitely be identified with him”. (P.117). However Banerjee’s discription of another series is relevant to our study here. The three headed standing figure on the obverse of a third variety of the Ujjaini coins carrying identical attributes (staff in the right and vase in the left) further strengthen my hypotheses, Cunningham doubt identified the latter as Mahakala but his statement that this coin may be accepted as a single evidence of Brahminism at Ujjaini” is unjustifiable, Alan is no doubt that this figure and its variants may stand for both the deities, viz., Śiva Mahākāla and Skanda Kārtikeya. The three heads of the figure on some Ujjaini coins have been taken by him to represent partially the six heads of the latter divinity. But we have three headed Śiva figures known from Kushan coins.” (P.117). Banerjee goes on to describe and discuss many coins of the Kushanas. Gondophares, Wema Khadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva - Some gold coins of Huvishka show three faced and four armed Śiva, holding water vessel, thunderbolt, trident and club respectively in the four hands. (p.123)
Huvishka’s gold coins described by Gardner in p. 148 of his look (p.XXVII, 16) have a type of Siva figure on the reverse which is of outstanding interest from iconographic as well as cult point of view. His description is as follows “Śiva facing, three-headed nimbate clad only in waist band itiphallic, has four arms and hands, in which are goat, wheal, trident, and thunder bolt.” (p. 124). It was Suggested that this might represent Harihara because of cakra and mace in two hands and trident and mṛga on the other. R. Chrisman deciphered the inscription on the coin, as in charian script and language, read Mihira, Viṣṇu and Śiva. Banerjee Suggesting that it represented a composite figure of Śiva, Viṣṇu and Sūrya that would remind later composite figures of Brahma, Viṣṇu, Siva and Sūrya.
Banerjee has dealt with the representation of Śiva in Kushan coins in detail. There is no need to give them again in detail except to say that atleast six different varieties of coins with Siva are noticed. 1. Single headed Śiva with multiple arms. 2. Three headed Śiva with two or four arms 3. Śiva and Pārvatī with an inscription reading Osho. 4. Śiva with bow as a warrior and saint, 5. Śiva as Harihara and 6. Śiva with Viṣṇu and Sūrya.
Primarily, Śaivism left tremendous impact on Kushan kings, prevailed in the N.W. Frontiers of India, and went as far as central Asia. The second point that deserves attention is the occurrence of three-headed Śiva appearing on the Kushan coins. Three-headed Śiva appears not as Trimurti but as one of the manifestations like Tat-puruṣa. Sadyōjāta, Vāmadēva or Agora/Bhairava. Among the three heads, the central head is the most important for identification. We have noted that the N.W. and Kashmir were more inclined towards Bhairava worship, and we may not be wrong in holding that the coins of Kushanas with three-headed Śiva were inspired by the Bhairava School of Śaivism. We have seen that a number of illustrations from Kashmir, discussed in this book are the imagery of the Bhairavas. We have also seen that Cunningham identified the Ujjaini coins with three heads as Mahākāla. Probably he was right. Again the coins of Kushanas with Śiva as an archer with Brahmi inscription reading Gaṇeśa, might represent him as Agora/Bhairava. Judging from the fact that Kashmiri pratyabhijñā system from 8th–9th cent onwards, absorbed Bhairava Bhaṭṭāra as the primordial deity, we are justified in holding that the N. Western frontier upto central Asia Were followers of Bhairava branch of Śaivism.
Khajuraho
Finally we may have to examine one of the most fascinating group of temples from Madhya Pradesh. The question that arises at this stage is when the Bhairava school was so influential in Central India, in so many sites like Gyaraspur near Vidisa, Ujjaini, Batesvar, Naresa Padavali, (F. 126, 128) Survaya, Bilaspur, Amrol, Terahi (F. 127) Pathari etc., did it have any impact on the magnificent monuments of Khajuraho? Both Krishnadeva and Devangana desai have done yeomen service by their work on Khajuaraho. They have already pointed out, that the Chausad yogini temple at the outskirts of Khajuraho, and which is the earliest of the group, had the Vāma practices. Devangana has argued that other group of temples like Khandariya Mahadeva temple, Jagadamba temple, Viśvanāth temple etc., followed the Soumya Siddhānta Śaivam. In fact she has rejected the suggestion of Pramod chandra that it could have been a Kāpālika centre.
It would require a voluminous work to deal with this monumental group, as such it is not attempted here. However, because of this study, I think it is possible to evaluate the group, especially the Khandriya Mahādeva temple. In my opinion, it is possible that the Khandariya Mahādeva temple was inspired by the Bhairava school for the following reasons. (a) The distribution of the Sapta mātrikās on the base of the temple niches (b) The distribution of Bhairava Sculpture in the inner ambulatory (e) The images on the main bhadra niches around the walls of the sanctum and (d) the distribution of Sculptures on the entrance śakhā-s and finally (e) The so called Sadāśiva catuṣpāda image. (My full discussion on this identification is under print in Prof. Gail flicitation volume).
This book focuses on the two rare Sanskrit texts not known to scholars so far and the need to correlate the Agamic texts with temples for proper identification. It is hoped this work will stimulate further studies in this field.