Samskara

(“making perfect”) Collective name for
the various life-cycle ceremonies in
Hindu society. Although status in Indian
society depends most on one’s birth,
this alone is not sufficient to become a
complete and finished person. In an
individual’s development, the raw material given by nature must be refined
through the process of culture, or the
590
Samskara
The chudakarana samskara, in which a child’s head is shaved as a rite of purification.
action of samskaras. This process of
transformation begins before birth,
with the three prenatal samskaras, and
continues to death with the antyeshthi
samskaras. In general, samskaras transform people in two ways: by removing
latent or residual impurities, such as the
childhood chudakarana samskara, or
by generating new capacities and entitlements, such as the upanayana (initiation) and vivaha (marriage) samskaras.
Although different writers in the dharma literature disagree on the number of
samskaras, traditionally, sixteen are
accepted. Three were prenatal samskaras:
one to ensure conception (Garbhadhana),
one to ensure the birth of a boy
(Pumsavana), and one to ensure an easy
delivery and a healthy child (Simantonnayana). Six samskaras were associated with childhood: ritual actions immediately after birth (Jatakarma), name-giving
(Namakarana), the first outing (Nishkramana), the first solid food (Annaprashana), head-shaving (Chudakarana),
and piercing of the ears (Karnavedha).
Five samskaras were connected with life as
a celibate student (brahmacharin): beginning of learning (Vidyarambha), adolescent religious initiation (Upanayana), the
beginning of Veda study (Vedarambha),
the first shave (Keshanta), and the return
home at the conclusion of studies (Samavartana). The final two samskaras were
marriage, and the last rites for the dead
(antyeshthi samskara).
These sixteen samskaras were the
rites for a twice-born man, whom this
literature considered the default person.
A twice-born man was one born into
one of the three “twice-born” varnas—
brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya—who
were ritually eligible for the adolescent
religious initiation known as the “second birth.” Women in the twice-born
groups would undergo all the rites
through the childhood rites, but would
have no further rites until marriage,
which was considered equal to all samskaras for them. People born outside the
twice-born groups—namely, shudras
and untouchables—would perform few
if any of these rites.
These life cycle rites drive and govern the formation of the individual. In
modern times many of these samskaras are still performed, but mainly
by brahmins who, because of their traditional role as priests and scholars,
conserve this practice to help maintain their traditional prestige. For further information see Pandurang
Vaman Kane, A History of Dharmasastra, 1968; and Raj Bali Pandey,
Hindu Samskaras, 1969. The former is
encyclopedic and the latter more
accessible; despite their age, they
remain the best sources about traditional Hindu rites.