Kapalika

Extinct monastic sect of Shaivite
ascetics, or devotees (bhakta) of the god
Shiva. Although none of the Kapalikas’
own written records have survived,
there are numerous descriptions of
them by other ascetic groups and by
dramatists of their time such as Bana
(7th c.) and Bhavabhuti (8th c.). The
sources describe the Kapalikas as worshiping the god Shiva in his wrathful
form as Bhairava and as emulating
Bhairava’s characteristics: wearing their
hair long and matted, smearing their
bodies with ash (preferably from the
cremation ground), and carrying a club
and a skull-bowl (kapala). The Kapalikas
are cited as indulging in forbidden
behavior—drinking wine, eating meat,
using cannabis and other drugs,
performing human sacrifice, and
enjoying orgiastic sexuality. Needless to
say, most of the available sources do not
approve of them.
David Lorenzen argues that despite
the disapproval of their contemporaries,
all the Kapalika practices must be seen
in the context of tantra. Tantra is a
secret, ritually-based religious practice
that its initiates believe is far more powerful and effective than ordinary religious worship. One of its most essential
themes is the ultimate unity of everything that exists. From a tantric perspective, to affirm that the entire universe is
one principle—often, conceived as the
activity of a particular deity—means
that the adept must reject all concepts
based on dualistic thinking. One way to
do this is to partake of the “Five
Forbidden Things” (panchamakara),
consciously breaking societal norms
forbidding illicit sexuality and
consumption of intoxicants and nonvegetarian food. This is always done
within a carefully defined ritual setting,
in a conscious effort to sacralize what is
normally forbidden.
Seen in this context, the Kapalikas’
behavior is shocking but becomes more
understandable. Lorenzen also speculates that in performing such behaviors
(which may have only taken place during religious ceremonies), the Kapalikas
were identifying themselves with their
chosen deity, Bhairava. In the Hindu
pantheon Bhairava is known for his
uncontrolled excesses, particularly for
cutting off one of the heads of the god
Brahma, for which he has to perform
severe penances (prayashchitta). In this
understanding, the Kapalikas’ practices
are not motivated by hedonistic selfgratification but by the desire to imitate
their chosen deity. The only developed
source on the Kapalikas is David
Lorenzen, The Kapalikas and the
Kalamukhas, 1972.