Asceticism

In the most general sense, this word
denotes physical discipline, most often
the renunciation of regular society and
conventional social life in a quest to
seek religious insight and to gain final
liberation of the soul (moksha).
Historically, ascetic practice has
stressed several constant themes. One of
the most common has been celibacy,
for a variety of reasons. Not only does
sexual enjoyment use the senses to trap
a person, but the attachments caused by
home and family are seen as a distraction to serious spiritual life. Yet the
emphasis on celibacy is also motivated
by the belief that semen is a man’s concentrated essence, and thus it is something to be carefully hoarded. Although
semen must be expended for procreation, it should not be spilled casually
since this drains away a man’s vitality. It
is believed that energy gained from
celibacy leads to greater spiritual
accomplishment.
Another hallmark has been the practice of tapas, or physical asceticism,
under the assumption that enduring
physical hardship not only builds character but also generates spiritual power.
At times tapas can assume grotesque
forms of self-mutilation and mortification. At other times it may be a milder
physical discipline, such as a form of
hatha yoga, to train the body and mind
for extended practice.
In general, ascetic spiritual development can proceed along a variety of different paths, which often reflect the
abilities and inclinations of the ascetics
following them. Some paths have
stressed the importance of traditional
learning, some have stressed worship
and devotion, some have stressed physical asceticism, and some have stressed
meditation and individual realization.
In almost all cases, this spiritual training
takes place under the direction of a religious preceptor (guru), who takes
responsibility for the spiritual development of his disciples.
Asceticism in India has a long and
venerable history, although there is
considerable disagreement regarding
how long and how venerable. The most
ambitious claim is that the Indian
ascetic tradition comes from the
religion of the Indus Valley civilization.
This claim is based on one of the Indus
Valley seals, an ancient artifact that
shows a figure sitting cross-legged as if
in meditation.
Whether or not one accepts this
claim, there is ample evidence of
asceticism in the Vedas, the earliest
Hindu scriptures. The Vedas mention
renunciant figures, such as the vratya,
yati, and muni, and also refer to
ascetics living in the forest. Indeed,
the very name of one stratum of the
Veda, the Aranyakas or “Forest
Books,” suggests that it was composed
by such ascetics. Buddhist and Jain literature clearly shows that ascetic life
was well established by the fifth century B.C.E., as do some of the later upanishads. All of these ascetics, whether
Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain, were designated under the umbrella term shramana, a word whose basic meaning is
“to strive.” It is generally accepted that
there was religious tension between
the two dominant religious paradigms,
the Brahmana ideal connected with
Vedic religion and the shramana ideal
associated with asceticism. The
Brahmana ideal was based on sacrifice, mastery of complex sacred texts,
and hereditary priesthood; furthermore, it was so expensive that it virtually required royal patrons—all of
these factors rendering it the “establishment religion.” These concepts
clashed with the shramana ideal,
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Asceticism
which was renunciant, individualist,
and stressed inner experience.
By the time of the Dharma
Shastras (treatises on religious duty),
this tension had been somewhat
resolved; asceticism had been relegated to the last of the four ashramas
(stages of life), that of the Sanyasi. Yet
even here the tension remains, since
according to these texts, a twice-born
man cannot become a Sanyasi until he
has seen his children’s children, which
would make him well advanced in
years. These texts restrict asceticism to
twice-born men who have fulfilled
their obligations as householders, but
they deny it to women and low-caste
men. Needless to say, the actual picture has never been quite as neat as
the idealized society found in the
Dharma Shastras.
Organizationally, initiated Hindu
ascetics can be divided into several
major groups. One division is based on
the ascetics’ patron deity; the Shaiva
are devotees (bhakta) of Shiva, and the
Vaishnava worship Vishnu.
The Kapalikas, Kalamukhas, and
Pashupatas are Shaiva ascetic groups
that have disappeared; the two Shaiva
groups that still survive are the
Dashanamis and the Nathpanthis. The
Dashanamis are the most prestigious of
all ascetics. They were supposedly organized by the great philosopher
Shankaracharya and have traditionally
emphasized learning. The Nathpanthis
trace their origin to Gorakhnath, a miracle-working yogi about whom little
is definitely known. The Nathpanthis
are known for their stress on the
transformation of the physical body
through yoga.
Vaishnava ascetics are more recently
organized, and in northern India they
are broken into four groups (chatuhsampradayi Nagas), named after each
group’s reported founder: Ramananda
for the Ramanandis, Nimbarka for the
Nimbarkis, Chaitanya for the Madhva
Gaudiyas (Brahma Sampraday), and
Vishnuswami for the Vishnuswamis.
From at least the sixteenth century,
and perhaps much earlier, both the
Dashanamis and the Vaishnava ascetics
organized bands of fighters known as
Nagas (“naked”). These soldier-ascetics
were commissioned to protect the other
ascetics, but they also served as longdistance traders and mercenary
soldiers. These Naga orders still exist
today, although they are no longer
prepared for battle. Another important
sect is the Udasis, who worship the
panchayatana (“five-fold”), a collection
of five Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu,
Durga, Ganesh, and Surya. Religiously
speaking, the Udasis thus fall between
the Shaivas and Vaishnavas.
In the past few centuries, reformminded ascetics have organized their
own ascetic bands, a process that still
continues today. For further information see G. S. Ghurye, Indian Sadhus,
1964; Jadunath Sarkar, A History of the
Dasanami Naga Sanyasis, 1958;
Padmanabh S. Jaini, “Sramanas: Their
Conflict with Brahmanical Society,” in
Joseph Elder (ed.), Chapters in Indian
Civilization, 1970; Robert Lewis Gross,
The Sadhus of India, 1992; and Peter van
der Veer, Gods on Earth, 1988. See also
panchayatana puja.