04 Parts of Speech and the Sanskrit Sentence

4.0

4.1

4.2

Conjugation of Verbs; Declension of Nouns and Pronouns Despite the fact that Sanskrit preserves many formal distinc tions no longer maintained in English, it expresses ideas in sentences that are in many ways quite close to English sen tences. A grammatical sentence in either language normally requires that certain categories be filled, either explicitly or implicitly. All the words of the Sanskrit language may be divided roughly into three basic types. These may, for the moment, be crudely designated as nominal (nouns and adjectives), verbal, and ad verbial. It is important at the outset to understand that the only unam biguous basis for this classification is formal rather than functional. In other words, despite grade school training, one should avoid regarding nouns as “things” and verbs as “ac tions.” The distinctions that will concern us are as follows: a. A finite verb, fasa (tiñanta), is a word that varies in

accordance with person, number, tense, mode, and voice. b. A nominal item, OR (subanta), is a word that varies in

accordance with case, number, and gender. c. An adverbial item 3704146 (avyayapada) is a word that

never varies, (except, of course, when affected by a

(sandhi) rules). The Sanskrit Verb The Sanskrit verbal system comprises several conjugations. These permutations of several hundred, mostly monosyllabic, verbal roots (UTC-s dhātu-s) constitute perhaps the single most intimidating aspect of the language to the beginner. It must be

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kept in mind, however, that many of the possible forms are of very rare occurrence and are retained only because of the con servative and artificial nature of the language. In this course we shall be concerned chiefly with a relatively small number of forms which will not absolutely defy your command. Re member, the first rule of learning Sanskrit is Don’t Panic; everybody in the class is going through the same thing. Finite Verbs A finite verb is a verbal root, modified in accordance with the categories of person, number, tense, mode, and voice. Such modifications comprise the conjugation of a verb. A finite verb is the heart of a Sanskrit sentence. Without a finite verb, either expressed or implied, there can be no complete gram matical sentence or independent clause. On the other hand, a finite verb by itself may (with an implied or expressed subject) constitute a minimal sentence. Examples: 44114: 1

FRA paśyāmah (we see); hanyate (he, she, it is killed);

345511 tya jet (he, she, it should abandon);

छिन्दन्ति । chindanti (they cut);

करिष्यति । karișyati (he, she, it will do);

Hagi bhavatu (let it be);

4.6

T111

37 jagāma (he, she, it went); asmi (I am) Thus, the finite verb is the key word of any Sanskrit sentence or independent clause and must be discerned and understood in order to construe the sentence. This fact is basic to the un derstanding of any sentence, and we shall refer to it repeatedly when discussing the technique of reading a Sanskrit sentence.49

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4.8

You will have noticed that in the above examples a single word seems to specify the act, the person, the number of actor(s), the time of action, the way or mode in which the speaker in tends the action (i.e., as a description, or prescription, or command, or wish, etc.), and even the distinction of passive/ active. All these categories are, in fact, specified in a given Sanskrit finite verb and are encoded in a given verbal form by the presence or absence of several series of subverbal units. These units are interrelated and may vary according to the other determinants in the same word. Person “Person” specifies the relationship among the actor(s) or subject(s) of a finite verb, the user(s) or speaker(s) of the clause or sentence of which the verb forms a part, and the audience, person, thing, or group to whom the sentence is addressed. The possible relationships are: a. First Person: The actor and the speaker are the same.

Example:

आगच्छामि। āgacchāmi (I’m coming.)

4.9

b. Second Person: The actor and audience are the same.

Example:

tat tvam asi.(You are that.)

Third Person: The actor is neither the speaker nor the au dience. Examples: Tagal rāmo vadati. (Rāma speaks.)

देवा नन्दन्ति । devā nandanti. (The gods rejoice.)

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On means

4.11

Person, then, is used just as in English. First person means that “I” or “we” is the subject of the verb. Second person means that “you” (any number) is the subject of the verb. Third per son means that “he, she, it, or they” is the subject of the verb. Since we shall be using traditional Sanskrit grammatical ter minology, it is important to note here that, since verbs tend to be cited in their “third person” form (as opposed to the English practice of citing “infinitives”), the third person is called in Sanskrit 181944 (prathamapuruşa), which means literally “first person.” Second person is called 4221444 (madhyama purusa), literally “middle person,” and first person is called 3774434 (uttama puruṣa), literally “last person.” Thus, Sanskrit stu dents in India learn their verbal paradigms upside down” with respect to the way in which paradigms are leamed in European languages, insofar as the issue of person is concerned. Number This category specifies the number of subjects (or in some cases-see Lesson 9-objects) of a finite verb. Thus, we have in Sanskrit, as in English, a singular and a plural. In addition, Sanskrit has retained a third category, the dual, which is used with verbs having two subjects. The numbers with their San skrit names and function, are: Singular- Ce (ekavacana), speech for one, one subject. Dual- a (dvivacana), speech for two, two subjects. Plural—6699 (bahuvacana), speech for many, three or more subjects. Examples:

(ekavacana)—yn aala

śuko vadati. (The parrot speaks.)

4.12

द्विवचन (dvivacana)—शुकौ वदतः (sukau vadatah)

sukau vadataḥ. (The two parrots speak.)

afqan (bahuvacana)—2017 agha

sukā vadanti. (The parrots speak.)

4.13

Tense Generally, the “tense” of a Sanskrit verb indicates the time of the action or state expressed by the verb, relative to the time at which the verb is used. Basically, there are three such times, past (

a b hūtakāla), present (adhrahis-vartamānakala), and future Hour: bhavisyatkāla), although these do not actually correspond to the tense systems of Sanskrit. These systems will be studied individually. Examples: रामो वनं गच्छति । rāmo vanam gacchati. (Rāma goes to the forest.)

रामो वनमगच्छत् । rāmo vanam agacchat. (Rāma went to the forest.)

रामो वनं गमिष्यति । rāmo vanam gamisyati. (Rāma will go to the forest.)

वनं जगामेति वक्ष्यति । vanam jagāmeti vakşyati. (He will say, “I went to the forest.”)

4.14

Mode

Distinctions of mode specify how a finite verb is to be used or how the actor or the subject is related to the action. Important examples are the indicative (description or narration), impera tive (injunction, command), and optative (exhoration, prescription). Examples: रामो वनं गच्छति । rāmo vanam gacchati. (Indicative: Rāma goes to the forest.)

हे राम, वनं गच्छ । he rāma, vanam gaccha! (Imperative: Rāma! Go to the forest.)

रामो वनं गच्छेत् । rāmo vanam gacchet. (Optative: Rāma should go to the forest.) (The modes will be learned individually as we proceed.)

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Voice The distinction of voice is one of the most pervasive and ini tially puzzling aspects of the Sanskrit verbal system. Essentially, it is a binary distinction, encoded along with per son and number in the verbal paradigm. What is puzzling about it is not that it presents any special difficulties in memoriza tion. In fact, such difficulty is minimal, as the binary voice-pairs are usually closely similar. The problem is that, for the most part, voice has lost its semantic significance in Sanskrit, per sisting in the main as a purely formal, but nonetheless significant, distinction. In accordance with the distinction of voice, then a verb is clas sified as either R 4C (parasmaipada—word for another) or 37147146 (ātmanepada-word for one’s self). These forms are frequently referred to in Western grammars as active and middle voice. However, the Sanskrit terms should be memorized im mediately to avoid confusion with the binary pair active/passive, a wholly different issue. 347446 (Ubhayapada) Verbs Many verbal roots (UTC-s dhātu-s) of classical Sanskrit are conjugated either in the आत्मनेपद (ātmanepada) or the परस्मैपद (parasmaipada). However, a large number may be conjugated, sometimes under certain conditions, in either 46 (pada). Such roots are sometimes called 342448 (ubhayapada—word for both). Still, to facilitate your mastery of the verbal paradigms, and to avoid confusion, in general verbal roots have been cited only in the 4G (pada) in which they most commonly appear and in which it is, therefore, most convenient to learn them. Thus, in the glossaries, verbal roots will be followed by the signs (Ā) or (P) to indicate either 31154746 (ātmane pada) or 2145 (parasmaipada). These, then, are the major categories involved in the conjuga tion of Sanskrit verbs. As will be clear from the fact that there

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are three persons, three numbers, some five modes, four tense systems, and, throughout, two voices, a Sanskrit verb may po tentially have a very large number of forms. Of these, however, in the case of a given verb, many never occur or are only theo retical. Of those that do occur, many are rare and even deliberately obscure. Of the remainder, only a small portion are very common and need be mastered in the first year. ada mę (Vartamāne Lat): The Present Indicative The Sanskrit grammarians have, for the sake of precision and concision, designated each of the tenses of the language with its own little code word. All of these words consist of the letter " (1) followed by a vowel and a consonant. These little code words are often used in conjunction with other words which signify relative time, past (Tabhūta), presentaden vartamāna), or future (

Hot bhavisya). One of the most common and useful of the tenses is the present indicative, a tense used for simple description or narration of actions, states, or events occurring in the (relative) present or even the imme diate past and future. The grammarians call this tense CAA MC (vartamāne lat).

4.20

The endings for the CC

MC (vartamāne lat) are as follows:

H4C (parasmaipada) active वचन

एकवचन द्विवचन बहुवचन vacana (number) → ekavacana dvivacana bahuvacana

पुरुष

अन्ति -anti

-tah

puruşa (person) प्रथमपुरुष prathamapuruşa मध्यमपुरुष madhyamapuruşa

उत्तमपुरुष uttama purusa

-thah

-tha

-mi

-vaḥ

-maḥ

आत्मनेपद (ātmanepada) middle वचन

___ एकवचन द्विवचन बहुवचन vacana (number) → ekavacana dvivacana bahuvacana

पुरुष

I purusa (person)

प्रथमपुरुष prathama purusa मध्यमपुरुष madhyamapuruşa उत्तमपुरुष uttamapuruşa

आते -ate

आथे -āthe

वहे -vahe

अन्ते -ante

ध्वे -dhve

महे -mahe

ए

Examples: रामो वनं गच्छति । rāmo vanam gacchati. (Rāma goes to the forest.)

सीतालक्ष्मणावपि वनं गच्छतः । sītālakṣmaṇāv api vanam gacchataḥ. (Sītā and Lakşmaņa also go to the forest.)

सीते किं भाषसे । site! kim bhasase? (Sita, what are you saying?)

यत्र गच्छन्ति वीरास्तत्रापि गच्छाम्यहम् । yatra gacchanti vīrās tatrāpi gacchāmy aham. (Wherever the heroes go, I also go.)

साधु वयमपि गच्छामः । sādhu! vayam api gacchāmaḥ. (Very well. We too are going.)

Note that there are some characteristic clues to person, num ber, and voice. a. “-इ” (-i) is typical of the singular active (एकवचन

ekavacana, परस्मैपद-parasmaipada) and the third person plural (प्रथमपुरुष-prathamapurusa, बहुवचन–bahuvacana परस्मैपद-parasmaipada).

b. “-ए” (-e) is characteristic of all the आत्मनेपद (ātmanepada)

endings. c. “त्-” (t-) is characteristic of (प्रथमपुरुष-prathamapurusa,

एकवचन-ekavacana), the third person singular in both the

आत्मनेपद (ātmanepada) and परस्मैपद (parasmaipada).

Note that the उत्तमपुरुष एकवचन (uttamapurusa ekavacana first person singular) आत्मनेपद (atmanepada-middle)ending is simply “ए” (e), with no characteristic consonant. The very important singular voice contrast, then, is:

ति

आ ते

-ti -si

A -te

-se

मि

-mi

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.एक०

dvi

The paradigms for the verbs वद् (vad-speak) परस्मैपद (para smaipada), and भाष् (Nbhās_speak) आत्मनेपद (ātmanepada)

are as follows: वद् (प)

द्वि

. बहु vad (P) eka

bahu

प्रथम

वदति

वदतः

वदन्ति prathamai vadati

vadataḥ vadanti

मध्यम

वदसि

वदथः

वदथ madhyamao vadasi vadathaḥ vadatha

उत्तम

वदामि

वदावः

वदामः uttamao vadāmi vadāvaḥ vadāmaḥ

भाष (आ) bhas (A)

प्रथम prathama मध्यम madhyamao

एक eka भाषते bhāşate भाषसे bhāșase

द्वि० dvi भाषेते bhāşete भाषेथे bhāşethe भाषावहे bhāṣāvahe

बह bahu भाषन्ते bhāşante भाषध्वे bhāşadhve भाषामहे bhāṣāmahe

उत्तम

भाषे

uttamao

bhāse

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It is important that the following rules be learned now. a. When the vowel “-37-”(-a-) precedes any of the above end

ings which begin with either “H” (m) or “q” (v), it is lengthened. Examples: वदति

vadati (He speaks.) but agit

vadāmi (I speak.)

गच्छति

gacchati (He goes.) but tela:

gacchāvaḥ (We two go.)

b. When the vowel “-32” (-a-) (short) precedes either of the third

person plural endings (9214454 26997prathamapuruşa bahuvacana), it is lost. गच्छ + अन्ति → गच्छन्ति gaccha + antigacchanti (They go.)

N + 3 + HN bhāşa + ante → bhāşante (They speak.)

c. When“-39-” (-a-) precedes the first person singular middle

ending (3714459 Bohdetuttamapuruşa ekavacana), it is lost. Example: मन्य + ते → मन्यते

manya + te → manyate (He thinks.) but मन्य + ए → मन्ये

manya + e + manye (I think.)

d. After“-31-” (-a-) the initial “31’ (ā) of the genye

(prathamapuruṣa) and 4€274479 receta (madhymapuruşa

dvivacana-second and third person dual) 31164146 (ātmanepada—middle) ending becomes “T’ (e) and as in the previous rule (c) the “-31-” (-a-) is lost. Example: HRT + 3110 → HR manya + āte → manyete (Two people think.)

After any letter but“-31-” (-a-) the nasal “-7-” (-n-) of the genya, 469 , 31764-146 (prathamapurușa, bahuvacana, ātmane pada) is lost. Example: 903+37 yosta yuñj + ante yuñjate

but you +31 yosh

yuñj + anti → yuñjanti

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The verbal root 37 (Vas—to be) One of the most common and useful of the Sanskrit verbal roots is 376 (as—to be). It is regularly used in the sense of “there is” or “there are” and is especially common as a copula to establish predication of the sort“A is (are) B,” where A and B are any two nouns or a noun and an adjective. One peculiar ity of this verb is that, when it is used as a copula, it need not actually appear in the sentence and may be “understood.” Examples:

अस्त्यस्मिन्देशे नृपः । asty asmin deśe ngpah. (There is a king in this country.)

स्वर्गे सन्ति देवाः । svarge santi devāḥ. (The gods are in heaven.) रामो नृपः । rāmo nộpaḥ. (asti understood) (Rāma is king.)

ca: S1 kākāḥ kṛṣṇāḥ. (santi understood) (Crows are black.)

ART SCHI vānaro ‘smi. (I am a monkey.) AGRI 5641 vānaro ‘ham. (asmi understood) (I am a monkey.)

One slight problem that arises out of this frequent omission of the copula is that there may be some difficulty, on occasion, in distinguishing between a descriptive and a predicate adjective or between nouns that are in a predicate relationship and those that are in apposition. Thus, the phrase acut: 06-106: (krsnah kākaḥ) might mean “The crow is black,” or “The black crow…” By the same token, the phrase Rret 24: (daśaratho nrpah) could mean “Dasaratha is king," or “King Dasaratha …” In these and similar examples only the context can serve as a sure guide. It is clear, for example, in sentences like tout: la ga

hai (krṣṇaḥ kākaḥ vrkṣe vasati) “The black crow lives in the tree," and दशरथो नृपः सुखं जीवति । (dasaratho nrpah sukham jivati) “King Dasaratha lives happily," that the copula is not involved. Memorize immediately the 47 C (vartamāne lat) para digm of this important verb. 37 (as) (P)

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एक०

दि०

dvi

GE bahu सन्ति santi

स्तः

staḥ

98790 prathama मध्यम madhyamao

उत्तम uttamao

eka

अस्ति asti असि asi

अस्मि asmi

FY: sthah

स्थ stha

Fa:

H: smah

svah

The irregularities of this paradigm will be discussed in a later chapter.4.25

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Declension: The Sanskrit Noun Nominal forms together with the finite verbs make up the skel etal structure of the Sanskrit sentence. Just as verbs are conjugated, i.e., vary in accordance with person, number, tense, mode, and voice, so nominal items are “declined,” i.e., vary in accordance with gender, number, and case. 105 (Linga) Gender Gender is a thoroughgoing distinction throughout the declen sional system of Sanskrit. Sanskrit, like German, has three genders, masculine (for 5-pumlinga), feminine (Fils strilinga), and neuter (ngafox-napumsakalinga). The genders are “natural” insofar as animals and people are usu ally masculine or feminine according to their sex, but for the most part words simply belong to a given gender on a rather arbitrary basis and must simply be learned with their proper gender. Examples: 954: (purusah)

man adit (devi)

goddess भार्या

(bhāryā)

wife Opel (kanyā)

girl H (mitram)

friend Tel: (granthah) (m) book kry (pustakam) (n) book Adjectives have no inherent gender and take on the gender of the nouns they modify. den (Vacana) Number As with verbs (4.12), nouns are singular, dual, or plural, de pending upon whether one, two, or more than two of the persons, places, things, actions, etc., represented by the noun are indicated. 3151: (ajaḥ)-goat; 375 (a jau)—2 goats; 37511: (ajā))-goats Note: The category of number is the only one which is applicable to both nouns and verbs. Because of this, verbs and

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their subjects (or objects (see Lesson 91) must always be in number agreement. Examples: पुरुषो गच्छति । puruṣo gacchati (The man goes.)

yout Tod: 1 puruṣau gacchataḥ (The two men go.)

) me

पुरुषा गच्छन्ति । puruşā gacchanti (The men go.)

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4.29

ft (Vibhakti) Case

Cases are a series of formal modifications, marked by special terminations, that define precisely the function of a noun in a sentence, that is, the relation of that noun to a verb or to an other noun. The case endings thus serve much the same function that is served in English by word order and preposi tions. There are seven differentiated case functions in Sanskrit. This fact, although appalling at first, makes for a system that is much more lucid in its fine distinctions than are the declensions of many other Indo-European languages, which must define the same relations with a smaller number of cases. The seven cases fauft-s (vibhakti-s) are usually distinguished by the first seven ordinal numbers in Sanskrit and are, with their Sanskrit names, Westem names, some principal functions, and corresponding English prepositions:

g41 (prathamā—first) Nominative, naming, subject, or

direct object case. 2. Faili (dvitīyā—second) Accusative, direct object case. 3. gate (trtīyā—third) Instrumental, agentive, or subject case.

(with, by) 4. ageff (caturthi-fourth) Dative, indirect object case. (to,

for) 5. 40 (pañcami-fifth) Ablative, source case. (from)

481 (sasthi—sixth) Genitive, possessive (partitive) case.

(of) 7. HHH (saptami-seventh) Locative, location case. (in, on) Examples: (numbers following words indicate case) दशरथस्य वचनं श्रुत्वा नगरानिःसृत्य daśarathasya (6) vacanam (2) śrutvā, nagarān (5) nihsstya,

लक्ष्मणेन सहेहागत्य धर्माय वने वसति रामः । lakṣmaṇena (3) sahehāgatya, dharmāya (4) vane (7) vasati

rāmaḥ(1).

Having heard Dasaratha’s (6) speech (2), having come out from the city (5), and having come here with Lakşmaņa (3), Rāma (1) lives in the forest (7) for the sake of righteousness (4).

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To this list is often added an eighth item which is not a true case. This is the vocative, or HTF (sambodhana), the form of direct address. Example: हरे कृष्ण हरे कृष्ण कृष्ण कृष्ण हरे हरे । hare krsna, hare krşņa, kṛṣṇa kṛṣṇa, hare hare

O Hari! O Krşņa, etc.

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4.32

Sanskrit nouns fall into several declensions depending upon their phonological structure (predeclension stem final) and in herent gender. The Citation of Nouns Although it is common practice in the West to cite Sanskrit nouns in their stem forms (i.e., predeclensional forms), we shall depart from this practice to a certain extent. For “-37-” (-a-) stems particularly, it is advisable to learn the nouns in their nominative singular form. In this way, the gender of each item can be learned along with the word itself. These nominative forms should then be cited in absolute final position. For example, cite 96 (puruşa) as 984: (puruṣaḥ) (nom. sing. masc.)

“man”; and cite पुस्तक (pustaka) as पुस्तकम् (pustakam) (nom. sing. neut.)“book.” Nouns ending in other vowels, particularly “ऋ” (r) and in consonants should be learned both in stem-form and nominative singular. Examples: stem

nom. पितृ (pitr) (m) पिता (pitā)

father राजन् (rājan) (m) राजा (rājā) ब्रह्मन् (brahman) (n,m) ब्रह्म (brahma) (n) brahman

ब्रह्मा (brahmā) (m) Brahma

king

4.33

Declension of the “-34-” (-a-) stems. Example: पुरुषः (purusan) पुंलिङ्ग (pumlinga) (masculine) man

एक

eka

बह bahu°

___dvi°

वचन vacana → विभक्ति vibhakti प्रथमा prathamā द्वितीया dvitīyā

पुरुषः

पुरुषाः puruşāḥ

puruṣaḥ

पुरुषान् puruşān

पुरुषम् puruşam

पुरुषेण puruṣeņa

तृतीया tặtīyā चतुर्थी caturthi पञ्चमी pancami

पुरुषाय puruṣāya पुरुषात् puruṣāt पुरुषस्य puruṣasya

पुरुषो purusau . पुरुषो puruşau पुरुषाभ्याम् puruşābhyām पुरुषाभ्याम् puruşābhyām पुरुषाभ्याम् puruşābhyām पुरुषयोः puruṣayoḥ पुरुषयोः puruṣayoḥ पुरुषो purusau

षष्ठी

puruṣaiḥ पुरुषेभ्यः puruşebhyah पुरुषेभ्यः puruṣebhyah

पुरुषाणाम् puruṣāņām पुरुषेषु purușeșu पुरुषाः puruşāḥ

पुरुषे

puruse

şaşthi सप्तमी saptami सम्बोधन sambodhana (vocative)

पुरुष puruşa

द्वि

बह

bahu°

पुस्तके

Example: पुस्तकम् (pustakam) नपुंसकलिङ्ग (napunsakalinga) (neuter) book वचन एक vacana → ekai ___dvi° विभक्ति

vibhakti प्रथमा

पुस्तकम्

पुस्तकानि prathamā pustakam pustake pustakāni द्वितीया पुसताकम्

पुस्तकानि dvitīyā pustakam

pustake pustakāni तृतीया पुस्तकेन पुस्तकाभ्याम् पुस्तकैः trtiya.

pustakena

pustakābhyām pustakaiḥ चतुर्थी

पुस्तकाय पुस्तकाभ्याम् पुस्तकेभ्यः caturthi pustakāya pustakābhyām pustakebhyaḥ पञ्चमी पुस्तकात् पुस्तकाभ्याम् पुस्तकेभ्यः pañcami pustakāt pustakābhyām pustakebhyaḥ

पुस्तकस्य

पुस्तकयोः

पुस्तकाणाम् şaşthi pustakasya pustakayoh pustakāņām सप्तमी

पुस्तकयोः पुस्तकेषु saptami pustake pustakayoh pustakeșu सम्बोधन

पुस्तकानि sambodhana pustaka

pustake

pustakāni

षष्ठी

पुस्तके

पुस्तक

पुस्तके

4.34

4.35

The declensions of the masculine and neuter stems differ only in the first and second cases. This is true of almost all sets of masculine and neuter nouns with the same stem final.

The संबोधन (sambodhana), or vocative, form differs from the nominative only in the singular. This is true of all nouns re gardless of stem final or gender. Memorization of paradigms

This is perhaps the least stimulating aspect of language learning. Unfortunately, however, it is necessary to memorize at least the major paradigms in order to avoid constant reference to grammar books. Paradigms should be learned in the traditional

4.36

4.37

Indian fashion (i.e., case by case “across the number). Thus, the declension of 954: (puruṣaḥ) should be recited as 454: (puruṣaḥ)/4-47 (puruṣau)/441: (puruşāḥ); 444(puruşam)/ get (puruṣau) / Go (puruşān); etc. In the same way, the conjugation of verbs is learned person by person “across” the number. Thus, the conjugation of aara (vadati) should be recited as: वदति (vadati)/ वदतः (vadatah)/ वदन्ति (vadanti); वदसि (vadasi)/ वदथः (vadathah)/ वदथ (vadatha); etc. Parts of Speech, the 146 (kriyāpada) and the dres (kartr) a. As mentioned above (4.6) a finite verbal form may be con

sidered to be the heart of and indeed, the minimal requirement for a grammatical Sanskrit sentence. Consid ered as an element of a sentence, such a verbal form may be called the foll4C (kriyāpada-action word) in that it is expressive of the action or state that is indicated by a given verbal 91 (dhātu) or root. There is normally only one finite verb in a clause. The next most important word, or group of words in a sentence is the stoel (karty), the agent or subject. The does (karty) denotes the person, thing, place, or even abstract concept that carries out the action or experiences the state or condition expressed by the I (dhātu). All grammatical sentences must have a finite verb (or some equivalent form) and a nominal subject whether or not the words for those items actually appear in the sentence. Thus, in the sentence रामः पश्यति (rāmah pasyati-Rama sees), the word पश्यति (paśyati—sees), which is the 924464 (prathamapuruṣa) एकवचन (ekavacana) परस्मैपद (parasmaipada) वर्तमाने लट् (vartamāne lat) of the root 47 (pas), is clearly the 146 (kriyāpada). The ending”-fa” (-ti) here specifies the number of the subject. If we ask now “Who sees?” we must answer “Rāma.” “Rāma” then is the ones (karts) or the subject; the one who does the seeing. It is important to note here, for later reference, that the subject to (karty) of a Sanskrit sentence is always the agent of the action,

4.38

regardless of whether the sentence is “active” or “passive.” Thus, although we might say that “dog” is the subject of the English sentence, “The dog bites the man,” but that “man” is the subject of the sentence, “The man is bitten by the dog," Sanskrit grammarians would not hesitate for a moment in saying that “dog," the biter, is the fact (karty) of

both. Parts of Speech Continued: *** (sakarmaka) and 377443 (akarmaka) UTC-s (dhātu-s) and the cost (karman). The verbal UTC-s (dhātu-s) must be distinguished according to whether or not they express an action that may have, in addi tion to the necessary toes (karte) an immediate and direct recipient of its force. This distinction corresponds to the one we know that separates transitive from intransitive verbs. The immediate recipient of the force of an action is called the (karman) or direct object. Transitive roots are said to be H44 DU-s (sakarmakadhātu-s-roots with a direct object) while intransitive roots are called 37047U-s (akarmakadhātu s-roots without a direct object). In general, it is correct to say that a Sanskrit root is Hap (sakarmaka) when its English equivalent is transitive. The equivalence holds for 314 (akarmaka) or intransitive roots. One should note here, how ever, a peculiarity concerning the treatment in Sanskrit of verbs of motion (see 4.41). Despite the fact that such verbs are re garded, like their English equivalents, as intransitive, it is the usual practice in Sanskrit to place the goals of motion in the cases appropriate to the genuine direct objects. Thus, in the sentence <741 upea i (rāmo nrpam paśyati-Rāma sees the king), 24: (nrpaḥ), the one who is seen, is thereby the (karman) or the direct object of the verbal ut (dhātu) 421 (pas). This too, would be so whether the sentence were active or pas sive. In addition, in the sentence 741 A Taula 1 (rāmo vanam gacchati-Rāma goes to the forest), 1 (vanam), the goal of Rāma’s going, is treated like a direct object.

4.39

4.40

The Cases and Their Functions It is by no means accurate to say that each case has one and only one function. Some of the cases may have several func tions in different contexts while one function may be served by more than one case. Moreover, even so cultivated a lan guage as Sanskrit shows numerous examples of what may be called “loose construction," whereby a case may be forced to serve a function other than its own. This is especially true in the language of the epics. On the other hand, it is true that each case generally does have, if not one, then a fairly restricted range of uses. It is these significant uses that must be leamed now. gena (Prathamā Vibhakti): The Nominative Case The qe fa (prathamā vibhakti) has a variety of func tions, all of which may be subsumed under the heading of “naming.” It is unique among the cases in that it is used to name or specify parts of speech whose form has already been determined by the form of a finite verb. Thus when a nominal item in a sentence appears in the Tea Pa (prathamā vibhakti), it must be in number agreement with a finite verb whether that verb actually occurs in the sentence or is “under stood." The full application of this mysterious statement will not be clear until you have studied the contents of Lesson 9. Until then, however, it will suffice to say that, in general, the 9441fa (prathamā vibhakti), is used to denote the subject of a finite verb in a clause or sentence. It may also be used as the citation case for a noun. Examples: नृपो वदति । nrpo vadati. (The king speaks.)

ब्राह्मणौ नृपं पश्यतः । brāhmņau npam paśyataḥ. (The two brāhmans see the king.)

तत्र पुस्तकानि न सन्ति । tatra pustakāni na santi. (There are no books there.)

4.41

Gripen af (Dvitīyā Vibhakti): The Accusative Case The facilit fat (dvitiyā vibhakti) or accusative case is pre dominantly the case that marks the direct object of a transitive verb or the goal of a verb of motion. Examples: पुरुषो मृगं हन्ति । puruṣo mrgam hanti. (The man kills the deer.)

ब्राह्मणाः पुस्तकानि पश्यन्ति । brāhmaṇāḥ pustakāni paśyanti. (The brāhmans see the books.)

रामो वनं गच्छति । rāmo vanam gacchati. (Rāma goes to the forest.) (See 4.38.)

It may also be used with words meaning units of time to indi cate duration. Example: रामः संवत्सरं वने वसति । rāmaḥ samvatsaram vane vasati. (Rāma lives in the forest for a year.)

The accusative singular of many nouns may be used adverbially. The resulting forms are, of course, 3144146-s (avyayapada-s indeclinables). Examples: अस्ति नृपो दशरथो नाम । asti nļpo daśaratho nāma. (There is a king by name Dasaratha.)

दशरथः सुखं जीवति । daśarathaḥ sukham jīvati. (Dasaratha lives happily.)

al (Trtiyā Vibhakti): The Instrumental Case The gaten fant (trtīyā vibhakti) or instrumental case, serves several functions. a. It is the case of agency or accompaniment.

Example:

शरेण हन्ति बालकम् । śarena hanti bālakam. (He kills the boy with an arrow.) When accompaniment is meant, the instrumental is fre quently followed by one of three 3Top (avyaya) words: HE (saha), 444 (samam), or H1974 (sākam). Example: दशरथेन सह संवदति ब्राह्मणः । daśarathena saha samvadati brāhmaṇaḥ. (The brāhman converses with Dasaratha.)

b. The air fat is the agent or subject case in so-called

“passive,” or 0 PITT (karmaṇi prayoga) constructions,

(Lesson 9) c. The gaten aufs (trtiyā vibhakti) has a number of impor

tant idiomatic usages, among which you should learn the following:

With the 3Top (avyaya) word faal (vinā) the sailen

fauft (trtiyā vibhakti) (like the accusative and sometimes the ablative) is used to indicate the ab sence of something in the sense of “without,” or “excluding.” Example: बालकेन विना वनं गच्छति ब्राह्मणः । bālakena vină vanam gacchati brāhmaṇaḥ. (The brāhman goes to the forest without the boy.)

With the invariable word 374 (alam-enough, sufficient), the instrumental is used in the sense of “enough of..!“Example: अलमनेन वचनेन । alam anena vacanena! (Enough of this talk!)

With the interrogative pronoun 4 (kim), the salen

fat is used in the sense of “what of (it),” signi fying lack of interest or belief in the relevance or use of something. Example: किमनेन पुस्तकेन ।

kim anena pustakena? (What’s the use of this book?)

4.43

481 faut (Şasthi Vibhakti): The Genitive Case The 487 ft (sașthi vibhakti) or genitive, is the possessive case, and unlike the other cases, it generally relates one noun to another. Examples: ब्राह्मणस्य पुत्रः । brāhmaṇasya putraḥ (the son of the brāhman)

ब्राह्मणस्य पुत्रस्य मित्रम् । brāhmaṇasya putrasya mitram (the friend of the son of the brāhman)

It is very commonly used with a verb “to be” to indicate pos session, as Sanskrit has no verb really equivalent to English “to have.” In this important construction the possessor is put in the genitive while the thing possessed in the nominative is the subject of the copula. Examples: ब्राह्मणस्य पुत्रो नास्ति । brāhmaṇasya putro nāsti. (The brāhman has no son.)

दशरथस्य द्वे पुस्तके (स्तः)। daśarathasya dve pustake (staḥ). (Dasaratha has two books.)

4.44

Word Order Since the case endings of Sanskrit so precisely specify the relationships of all the parts of speech, there is no need for the rigidly restricted word order associated with English. For example the sentence <TH Yielà 1 (rāmo mrgam paśyati Rāma sees the deer) will be perfectly clear, regardless of the sequence of the words. Thus, Ti qefa 214: 1 nefat <TH (mrgam paśyati rāmaḥ; paśyati rāmo mrgam); both mean exactly the same thing. This is clearly not the case with the English translation. Because of this, word order is relatively free in Sanskrit, and in some cases, because of the requirements of metrical composition, words of a complex sentence may occur in fairly jumbled order with, for example, a noun and its modifier at opposite ends of the sentence. However, there is a general order of words in Sanskrit prose to which we should closely adhere when composing sentences, unless there is an overriding reason to ignore it. The order is basically subject object-verb. Other parts of speech are inserted within this framework, and all modifiers of a given noun should be contiguous. For example: राक्षसानां नृपो दशरथस्य पुत्र रामं सरोषं पश्यति । rākṣasānām nypo (subj.) daśarathasya putram rāmam (obj.) saroșam paśyati (adverb-verb). (The king of the rākṣasas views Dasaratha’s son Rāma with anger.) One regular departure from this order is that narratives, or sto ries, often begin with a form of the verb 376 (as—to be). Example:

अस्ति नृपो दशरथो नाम । asti nrpo daśaratho nāma. (There is a king named Dasaratha.)

4.45

4.46

bahu°

Personal Pronouns Sanskrit has a large and varied system of personal and demon strativepronouns (सर्वनाम-s-sarvanāman-s),and it is convenient to learn this system as quickly as possible. The pronouns of the first two persons उत्तमपुरुष (uttamapurusa) and मध्यमपुरुष (madhyamapuruṣa) are closely analogous and are alike in not distinguishing gender. a. अहम् (aham-I): The उत्तमपुरुष (uttamapurusa) or first

person pronoun. वचन एक

बहु vacana → ekai

dvi° विभक्ति vibhakti

अहम्

आवाम्

वयम् aham

āvām

vayam

माम् (मा)

आवाम्

अस्मान् (नः) mām (mā) āvām

asmān (nah)

मया

आवाभ्याम्

अस्माभिः mayā

āvābhyām asmābhiḥ मह्यम् (मे) आवाभ्याम् अस्मभ्यम् (नः) mahyam (me) āvābhyām asmabhyam (nah)

आवाभ्याम्

अस्मत् mat

āvābhyām asmat मम (मे) आवयोः

अस्माकम् (नः) mama (me) āvayoh asmākam (nah) मयि

आवयोः अस्मासु mayi

āvayoh asmāsu

मत्

b. त्वम् (tvam): Just as the pronoun of the first person is de

rived from various stems मत् (mat), अस्मत् (asmat),etc., so that of the second person 4 (tvam) is similarly derived

from त्वत् (tvat), युमत् (yusmat), etc. वचन एक vacana → ekai

bahu° विभक्ति vibhakti

बहु

dvi°

त्वम् tvam

युवाम् yuvām

यूयम् yūyam युष्मान् (वः) yuşmān (vah)

त्वाम् (त्वा) tvām (tvā)

युष्माभिः

त्वया tvayā तुभ्यम् (ते)

yuşmābhiḥ युष्मभ्यम् (वः) yuşmabhyam (vah)

युवाम् yuvām युवाभ्याम् yuvābhyām युवाभ्याम् yuvābhyām युवाभ्याम् yuvābhyām युवयोः yuvayoḥ युवयोः yuvayoḥ

त्वत्

tvat

तव (ते) tava (te)

त्वयि tvayi

युष्मत् yuşmat युष्माकम् (कः) yusmakam (vah) युष्मासु yuşmāsu

The shorter forms in parentheses which follow some of the forms above are equivalent but are generally subordinate in that they can never occur at the beginning of a sentence or in position of great emphasis. Examples: तव दासो ऽहम् । tava dāso ‘ham. (I am your servant.)

वयं न जानीमः । vayam na jānīmaḥ. (We don’t know.)

पुस्तकं नः पठति । pustakam nah pathati. (He reads our book.)

मम भार्या ग्रामं गच्छति । mama bhāryā grāmam gacchati. (My wife is going to the vil lage.)

Note: These forms are declined pronouns and not adjectives. Therefore, there is no issue of agreement between them and the things they appear to modify. Keep this in mind especially with regard to the 981 (şaşthi) or the genitive case. Examples: 44 45:(mama putrah)(m) my son 44 HRT (mama bhārya) (f) my wife 44 9 (mama pustakam) (n) my book

4.47

Ayla (Nipāta). Particles a. The particle 7 (sma), when it appears after a m (lat

present indicative) form, makes of the form a simple past tense. Examples: sofa i gacchati. (He goes.)

TUR I gacchati sma.(He went.) b. The particle sta (iti) is one of the most important and useful

of the Sanskrit particles. It functions frequently as a quo tation mark immediately after the speech, thought, or idea quoted. Since Sanskrit rarely uses indirect quotation, the use of stà (iti) is extremely common. Thus, 14 serta

GRI (nrpo ‘ham iti vadati), “He says he is the king” or literally, “He says, “I am the king’.” ştà (iti), then, has the function of setting off independent sentences within sen tences. Thus, in the above example there are two sentences;

14 64 (nrpo ‘ham-I am the king); and aata (vadati he says). Unless the std (iti) is understood, the two will be confused and difficult to separate. If you find an sla (iti) in a sentence, then, use it as a convenient point to break the sentence down into smaller, more manageable units.

EXERCISES

Translate the reading selection into English. Translate the following sentences into Sanskrit. 1. The brāhman’s son sees the angry king. 2. The people say that our king is a fool. (Use iti.) 3. The king and the brāhman see our son. (Use dual.) 4. The king kills the beautiful deer with your arrow. 5. The brāhman says again that the king does an evil act.

(Use iti.) 6. Rāma, the son of king Dasaratha, dwells there without

sorrow. 7. King Dasaratha, afflicted with sorrow, thinks, “How will

I live without a son?” 8. The angry brāhman sees and curses the righteous king. 9. The king, though a young man, experiences grief. 10. “Oh! Rāma is afraid,” thinks the fool. (Use iti.) 11. The fool sees the two slain deer and again becomes very

angry. 12. The beautiful boy and the righteous king live in the

forest. 13. I have a sharp arrow. You have (two) sharp arrows.

(Use & A.) We have (many) sharp arrows. (Use

45944.) (See 4.43.) 14. We both think that the king is angry. 15. How do you (all) afflicted with misery speak to right

eous people (use faciten falta?

READING

।। श्रीरामस्य चरितम् ॥

अस्ति नृपो दशरथो नाम । सो ऽतीव धार्मिको भूमिपः सुखं जीवति । नृपस्य दुःखं नास्तीति भाषन्ते जनाः । एकदा दशरथो वनं गच्छति । तस्मिन्वने* ब्राह्मणस्य पुत्रो वसति । अहो सुन्दरं मृगं पश्याम्यहमिति चिन्तयति नृपः । बालकं च तीक्ष्णेन शरेण हन्ति । ब्राह्मण आगच्छति हतं पुत्रं पश्यति च । सो ऽतीव कुपितो भवति । नृपं च शपति । हे मूर्ख। त्वं किमिति मम पुत्रं हंसि । तव दुष्कृतेनाहं दुःखमनुभवामि । पुत्रेण विना न जीवामि । त्वमप्यहमिव पुत्राच्छोकमनुभवसीति । नृपो वदति । हा हा नश्यामीति । शोकेन पीडितो गृहं गच्छति ॥

See 5.5

GLOSSARY

इति

इव

ABBREVIATIONS

311 + 74 (311tufa) m-masculine

ā + Vgam (1P) (āgacchati) come f-feminine n-neuter adj-adjective

iti (ind)—quotation mark

ind- indeclinable

(see 4.47.b)

prop—proper name pr—pronoun

iva (ind)—like, as (follows word A-ātmanepada (numbers are I to which it refers)

gaņa-s) (See Lesson 7)

एकदा P-parasmaipada (numbers are

ekadā (ind) once, one time gana-s)

एवम् अतीव

evam (ind)—thus, in this way

atīva (ind) exceedingly, very

कथम् 37 +1 (3194afa)

katham (ind)—how? anu + Vbhū (1P) (anubhavati)—

How is it …?

experience, feel

किमिति

अपि

kimiti (idiom)—What’s this?,

api (ind)—also, too, even; question

marker indefinitiser (with कुपित

interrogative pronouns) kupita (adj)-enraged, angry (see 6.19)

(alla) 378 (31 )

Vkp (8P) (karoti)do, make (See Vas (2P) (asti)—be

glossary lesson 5)

-14 (Toula) aham (pr)—I (See 4.46.a) Vgam (1P) (gacchati)-go

गृहम् aho (ind)—“Aha!”

gļham (n)-house, home

why?

अहम्

अहो

ca (ind) and (placed aftera series | दुष्कृतम्

or between each pair of a series, | duskrtam (n) e.g.,रामश्च लक्ष्मणश्च or रामो लक्ष्मणश्च)

evil act

na (ind)

negative particle

चरितम् caritam (n)-adventures, life story चिन्त् (चिन्तयति) Ncint (10P) (cintayati)-think,

consider

नश् (नश्यति) Vnaś (4P) (naśyati)-perish, be

destroyed

नाम nāma (ind)—“by name,” namely

नृपः

जनः janah (m) person; as

collective noun—people; plural—folk जीव (जीवति) Vjiv (1P) (jivati)—live, survive

तत्र tatra (ind)—there, with regard to

that

तीक्ष्ण tiksna (adj)-sharp

nxpah (m)-king पश् (पश्यति) Npas (4P) (pasyati)-see पीडित pidita (adj)—afflicted, oppressed पुत्रः putrah (m)-son पुनः (पुनर) punaḥ (punar) (ind)—again;

पुनःपुनः again and again, (for सन्धि see 3.40)

त्वम् tvam (pr)-you (See 4.46.b)

बालकः

bālakaḥ (m)-boy, young man

दशरथः dasarathah (m) (prop)-famous

king, Rāma’s father

धार्मिक dhārmika (adj)-righteous

दुःखम् duhkham (n) sorrow, misery

बाह्मणः brāhmaṇaḥ (m)—a brāhman भाष (भाषते) Vbhās (1A) bhāsate-speak, say,

address

भीत

शोकः Sokah (m)-grief, sorrow

bhita (adj)-afraid भू (भवति) Vbhū (1P) (bhavati)-be,

become भूमिपः bhūmipaḥ (m)—king मन् (मन्यते) Vman (4A) (manyate)—think

सः sah (pr)—he (See 5.5, and 3.38)

श्रीरामः śrīrāmaḥ(m) (prop)—“glorious

Rāma” सुखम् sukham (ind)—happily सुन्दर sundara (adj)—beautiful,

handsome स्म sma (ind-see 4.47) (used after

लट् to form simple past tense)

मूर्खः

mūrkhah (m)-fool

मृगः

स्वयम् svayam (ind)—by one’s self, to

one’s self

mrgah (m) deer वद् (वदति) vvad (1P) (vadati)-speak

वनम् vanam (n)—forest वस् (वसति) Vvas (1P) (vasati)—dwell विना

vinā (ind)—without (use after

द्वितीया, तृतीया or पञ्चमी विभक्ति) शप् (शपति) Vsap (1P) (apati)—curse शरः Sarah (m)-arrow

hata (adj)—killed हन् (हन्ति) Vhan (2P) (hanti)—kill, strike

hā (ind)—vocative particle

(“Ah”) expressing grief

he (ind)—vocative particle (“O’)

precedes vocative