Silk and Swords: The Great Game Between China, India, Tibet, and the Caliphates from the 7th to the 9th Century
Source: TW
A Long Thread on the epochal battle for the Silk Routes and The Role of the Ancient Empire of Kashmir
In the vast expanse of Central and South Asia, from the 7th to the 9th century CE, four major powers engaged a great game of power. The canvas of history was painted with the ambitions and maneuvers of China, Tibet, the rising Arab Caliphate, and the enduring Indian kingdoms.
Emergence of Caliphets
In the 7th century, India, led by flourishing kingdoms, shared its eastern border with a bustling China, both separated by the vast Tibetan plateau.
Towards the end of the century, the Arab Caliphate expanded rapidly, eyeing the riches of the East. The Arab Muslims made their move first. By the beginning of the 8th century, they began pushing into Central Asia, seizing Balkh, and Tokharistan, and establishing a foothold in the Sindh region and the Deval seaport. Their rapid rise posed a significant threat to the traditional strongholds of the Chinese and Indian empires on the western front.
Whereas the increasingly aggressive stance of Tibet created another frontier in between.
Kashmir — The Diplomatic Powerhouse
Amidst the colossal giants of China, Tibet, and the Arab Caliphate, Kashmir emerged as a pivotal kingdom. Chandrapida Muktapida, the king of Kashmir, recognizing the looming Arab threat, began forging alliances.
Between 708-711 CE, Muhammad Bin Qasim’s campaign aimed at the Sindh region, prompting Chandrapida to forge an alliance with the rulers of Zabul and Kabul. Seeking a broader coalition, he also attempted to enlist China’s support. By 713 CE, Chandrapida, grasping the shared interest of thwarting the Arab invasion, dispatched an envoy to the Chinese Tang dynasty. But, distracted by internal matters, China couldn’t help in time. The burden, thus, rested on Kashmir, and Shahi-s of the northwest frontier.
As the Arab expansion continued, Chandrapida made another strategic move, lending support to China against the Tibetans, reinforcing Kashmir’s central role in this geopolitical chess game. The Chinese, in gratitude, recognized Chandrapida’s contributions in 720 CE.
Despite Chandrapida’s efforts, the Arab conquest of Sindh was brutal, culminating in the demise of its king, Dahar. Before the conquest, a united front of the Shahi rulers and Chandrapida had hindered Qasim’s movements.
Marriage, Alliances, and the Tibetan Threat
China and Tibet, meanwhile, continued their power struggle. In an effort to solidify peace, in 710 CE, Princess Jincheng of China married the Tibetan king, Me Agtsom. But peace was short-lived. Tibet posed a significant risk to India.
By 731 CE, India felt the pressure, leading King Yashovarman of Kanauj to send his minister, Simhagupta, to the Chinese court, perhaps seeking an alliance against the looming Tibetan invasion.
By this period, Tibet, apart from threatening Nepal, also set its sights on India’s Magadh and Madhya Desha regions.
Lalitaditya Muktapida
Kashmir, however, wasn’t a passive observer. Under the valiant leadership of Lalitaditya Muktapida, the Kingdom of Kashmir emerged as a powerhouse. Lalitaditya, after consolidating his position, undertook an expedition. Marching from Kashgar, he ventured into Gilgit and Skardu, securing essential trade routes. By 733 CE, he had asserted his dominance and offered China his assistance against Tibet. As per various historical accounts, his empire once stretched from parts of Central Asia to Magadh.
However, while Lalitaditya was asserting his dominance, China grappled with internal strife, placing the responsibility of curbing Tibetan ambitions squarely on Lalitaditya’s shoulders. This lapse would prove to be a historic blunder.
The Clash of Titans
The situation soon escalated. By 750 CE, Tibet formed an alliance with the Abbasid Caliphate, challenging the Tang Empire. In 751 CE, this alliance faced off against Chinese forces in the Talas River valley, culminating in a significant defeat for China.
Meanwhile, Tibet itself wasn’t without problems. Plagued by internal issues and epidemics, its aggressive policies shifted under Trisong Detsun, who fervently supported Buddhism and sought to develop ties with Indian scholars.
Lalitaditya, capitalizing on the unrest, embarked on a Tarim Basin campaign in 755-56, though detailed accounts of this venture remain elusive, and it appears that King Lalitaditya never returned from this campaign.
The Changing Winds
As the Tang dynasty weakened, China’s direct influence began to wane. Despite the political instability, trade, the lifeblood of these nations, persisted. By the 9th century, the Uighur Empire facilitated substantial trade exchanges, especially silk. However, by 840 CE, the decline of the Uighur Empire marked the end of the Sogdian trade, ushering in the dominance of the Samanids and a shift in trade routes.
Epilogue
The grand tale between the 7th and 9th centuries is not merely a chronicle of warfare and political maneuvering. The period witnessed profound cultural, religious, and commercial exchanges, leaving an indelible mark on Asia’s history. The kings of Kashmir, particularly the visionary Chandrapida and the dynamic Lalitaditya Muktapida, and their legacy is a testament to the grandeur and importance of the region in shaping the contours of Central and South Asian politics.