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Abbasid caliphs, 15–16, 36, 48, 77
‘Abd Allah Qutb Shah (sultan of Golconda), 182, 183
‘Abd al-Razzaq (Timurid ambassador), 147
‘Abd al-Wahhab (Mughal chief judge), 328, 336
Abu’l-fazl ‘Allami (Akbar’s vazir and chronicler), 88, 221, 230, 231, 234, 238, 369, 387: assassination, 244; author of Akbar’s imperial gazetteer, 394; on Akbar’s religion, 237; on Indians, 242; on zamindars, 345
Achyuta Raya (Vijayanagara emperor): patronizes the god Venkateśvara, 159, 160, 164
Adham Khan (Akbar’s foster-brother), 216
Adi Granth (Sikh scripture), 268, 269
‘Adil Shahi (dynasty of Bijapur), 151–2, 168–71, 316–17, 319. See also Bijapur
Afghan War (First), 22–3
Afghanistan: Ghurid dynasty, 39–40, 44, 47; Herat 39–40, 199, 200, 211–12, 383; Kabul 199, 228; Kandahar 212, 295–6; Lodi dynasty 109–10; mamluks 30; Mughal campaign 311–12
Afghans: in Bengal, 227; and Lodi dynasty 108–10; and Marathas 355; and Rajputs 203; reputation 51; under Sher Khan Sur 207–8; and Tughluq empire 95–6; in upper India 215–16
African elite slaves, 260–1
Afzal Khan (Bijapur noble), 317
Agra (fort-city), 228, 249, 270, 272, 274, 291: Akbar’s first capital, 216; Akbar’s tomb in, 273; Babur builds gardens in, 205; captured by Ibrahim Ghaznavi, 34; Dara Shukoh’s defeat near, 306; Jat uprisings near, 350; Lodi capital, 203; Shah Jahan confined in, 329; Shivaji’s appearance in, 217–8; site of Taj Mahal, 279; symbolism of Shah Jahan’s court, 281; threatened by Prince Khurram, 251; threatened by Prince Salim, 244
Ahmad Bahmani, Sultan, 145–6
Ahmad II Bahmani, Sultan, 146
Ahmad Shah (Gujarat sultan), 120
Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghan warlord), 355, 361
Ahmadnagar sultanate, 166, 275, 391: coinage, 192; cultural production, 173; dissolution, 290, 316; founding, 151; modernizes forts, 171; Mughal occupation of capital, 249, 262; recruitment of Marathas and Africans, 259–64; repulses Mughal invasions, 260; Shahji’s attempts to salvage, 291. See also Malik Ambar, Nizam Shahi
Ahmedabad, 226–7
Ahom kingdom, 277, 310–11
Ahrar, Ubaid Allah (Central Asian shaikh), 205
Aibek, Qutb al-Din (slave sultan of Delhi), 42, 44, 45–6
Ajit Singh (Marwar raja), 312–13, 343
Akal Takht, 271
Akbar (Mughal emperor): administration 393–5; astrology 241; co-sovereignty 240–1; early years 211, 215–17; governance 393–5; ‘ibadat-khana, 234; imperial expansion 224–32; and Rajputs 217–24, 242; religion 233–9; and Sanskrit aesthetics 386–7; seafaring 368–9; succession 244–6, 286; Sufism 241–2. See also Abu’l-fazl, sacred kingship
Akbar (Mughal prince), 313–14, 319
Akhlaq-i Nasiri (Persian treatise), 225–6
‘Ala al-Din Husain Shah (sultan of Bengal), 113
‘Ala al-Din Khalaji (Delhi sultan), 63–5, 94, 129–30
‘Ala al-Haq (Bengal Sufi), 79
‘Alam Shah (Delhi sultan), 108, 109
‘Alamgir (Mughal emperor), 309–39: character, 304–5, 324, 327, 338–9; conception of sovereignty and law, 334–8, 395–7; concern for political stability, 330–1; conquests in Bengal, 311; craving for legitimacy, 328–9; death and burial, 324; decline of princely households, 340–1; imposition of jizya tax, 330; jagir crisis, 325–7; and Marathas, 319–24; an obsessively energetic administrator, 310, 338; people’s attitude towards, 332–4; policies towards Hindu temples, 331–2; quits Delhi for protracted Deccan campaigns, 319; Rajput rebellions, 312–4; religious posture, 329–33; and Sikhs, 357–8. See also Aurangzeb, sacred kingship, War of Succession
Alaol (Bengali poet), 385–6
Albuquerque, Afonso de (Portuguese viceroy), 168, 369
alcohol 64, 204, 245, 248, 271, 272, 297, 298, 329
Alexander (the Great), 14
‘Ali Hamadani, Saiyid (Kashmiri Sufi), 90–1
Alp Khan (prince of Malwa sultanate), 123
Alptigin (Ghaznavid sultan), 30
Amar Das, Guru, 268–9
Amar Singh (Mewar raja), 248–9
Ambar, Malik (African ruler), 260, 261–3, 264
Amber (Rajput state), 223, 259, 304, 317: alliance with Mughals, 217–18; Jai Singh II, 389
Amin Khan (Qutb Shahi noble), 153–4
Amir Hasan (poet), 75
Amir Khusrau (poet), 26, 75, 97–8
Amritsar (city), 269, 270–1, 356, 360. See also Sikhism
Aq Saray palace, 145, 146. See also Timur
Arakan, 254, 311, 385–6
Aravidu (Vijayanagara dynasty), 164, 175–80, 437n51
archers, mounted, 31, 64, 169, 172, 229–30
Arjan, Guru: builds Harmandir, 269; executed by Jahangir, 270; supervises compilation of Adi Granth, 269; meets Akbar, 270; supports Prince Khusrau, 270
art: drawing, 173; paintings, 128, 174, 212
Asaf Jahi (dynasty), 347. See also Hyderabad
Asaf Khan (Mughal noble), 247, 250, 273–4
Ashrafi Mahal (monument in Mandu), 126–7
‘Askari (Mughal prince), 211, 212–13
Assam kingdom, 277, 310–11
astrology, 213–14, 241
astronomy, 388–90
Aurangzeb (Mughal prince): combat with elephant, 288–9; in custody of Nur Jahan, 251, 274; dalliance with Hira Bai, 297–9; governor of Deccan (first), 289–91, (second), 298–300; invades Bijapur, 301; invades Golconda, 299–300; Kandahar campaigns, 295; character, 304–5; rivalry with Dara, 291–2, 296–301, 305–9; Uzbek campaign, 292–5. See also ‘Alamgir, War of Succession
Avicenna (Persian polymath) 34, 387–8
Ayurvedic medicine 387–8
A‘zam (Mughal prince) 340
‘Azim al-Sham (Mughal prince) 341, 342
Aziz Koka (noble) 245–6, 247, 248
Baba Farid, or Shaikh Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakar (Chishti Sufi), 367–8
Baba Lal (Punjabi holy man), 302
Babur (Mughal emperor): aesthetic sensibility, 205; and collective sovereignty, 206–7, 213; defeats Lodis at Panipat, 201; defeats Sisodiya Rajputs, 203–04, 217; invades India, 200–03; parcels kingdom among sons, 207; response to India, 196; struggles with Uzbeks, 198–9, 216, 225; ties to Sufi orders, 205; Timurid connection, 195–6, 199–200, 204. See also Babur-nama
Babur-nama (memoir of Babur): character, 195, 206; contrast with Akbar-nama, 242; legacy, 206
Badakhshan, 292–5
Baddena (Telugu poet), 16
Baglana (kingdom), 290
Bahadur (Gujarat sultan), 207
Bahadur Shah (Mughal emperor), 340–1, 358–9
Bahlul Lodi (Delhi sultan), 109–10
Bahman Shah, ‘Ala al-Din (founder of Bahmani sultanate). See also Zafar Khan
Bahmani (dynasty), 84–6, 98, 142–7, 149–51, 191–2
Bahram Shah (Ghaznavid sultan), 34
Bairam Khan (Akbar’s guardian), 215–16
Baji Rao (Maratha Peshwa), 352, 353–4
Bakhtiyar Khalaji, Muhammad (conqueror of Bengal), 45, 58, 77
Balaji Vishvanath (Maratha Peshwa), 351–3
Balban (sultan of Delhi), 50–2, 56, 63, 73, 77. See also Ulugh Khan
Balkh (city), 292–5
Banda Bahadur (Sikh warlord), 358–60
banking, 348, 352
bara bhuyan (Bengal chieftains), 228
Barani, Ziya al-Din (historian), 16, 53–4, 75
Barid Shahi (dynasty), 153
Battle: of Raichur, 168–71; of Talikota, 166–7, 171–2, 177, 192
Behzad (Timurid artist) 212
Bengal: architecture, 113–14; Buddhist monasteries, 58; Chittagong, 311; Chola raid of, 25–6; East India Company, 376–7; forest clearance, 362; growth of Islam, 361–6; independence, 347–9; indigenous peoples; language, 113; literature, 113–14, 136; and Mughal Empire, 227–8, 230, 254–6, 277; population density; secession from Delhi, 97–8; sultanate, 76–80
Berar (Deccan sultanate), 151
bhakti (fervent religious devotion), 91, 137–8, 265
Bharmal (Rajput raja), 217–18
Bhimsen (Mughal news writer), 322, 323, 330, 333, 334
Bidar: fort, 84, 167; sultanate, 145–7, 153, 174;
bidriware, 174
Bihar, 58, 76
Bijapur sultanate: architecture, 174; cultural production, 173–4; currency, 192; gunpowder technologies, 170–1; independence, 151; and Madurai, 183; and Maratha state, 316–19; Marathi language, 136; and Mughal Empire, 290, 298–9; religion, 151; Vijayanagara Empire, 176–7. See also ‘Adil Shahi
Bir Singh (raja), 245, 247, 275, 276, 391–2. See also Bundela Rajputs
Biruni, Abu Rayhan al- (Persian polymath), 390–1
Bohras (Isma‘ili sect), 335
Brahmins, 57, 76, 90, 92, 115, 118, 155, 178, 232, 352, 386, 389
Brajbhasha (language), 134, 392
Buddhism: decline of, 58
Bughra Khan (Bengal ruler), 51
Bukhara (city): 13, 30, 35, 36, 59, 76, 108, 147, 197, 199, 294. See also Samanid
Bukka (Vijayanagara co-founder), 82, 83
Bundela Rajputs, 275–7
Burhan al-Din Gharib (Chishti Sufi), 86
Burhan Nizam Shah III, Sultan, 274–5. See also Nizam Shahi
Burhan-i ma’athir (chronicle), 173
Cabral, Pedro (Portuguese admiral), 188
Calcutta (seaport), 376
Calicut (seaport), 187, 188–9, 438n65
Cambay (seaport), 95–96
cannon. See under military innovations
Cera (dynasty), 25
Chalukya (Deccan dynasty), 25, 27, 28, 29, 152, 165–6, 193. See also Kalyana
Chandar Bhan Brahman (Mughal chief secretary), 383–4, 391
Chandela (dynasty), 29
Chandra (dynasty), 76
Chandragiri. See under forts
Charminar. See under Hyderabad: city
Chauhan (dynasty), 40, 42–3, 129–30
Chengiz Khan (Ahmadnagar peshwa), 262
chess, 24
Chittagong (seaport), 311
Chittor. See under forts
Chola (dynasty), 19–21, 23–9
Christianity, 4, 152, 186–7, 189
Clive, Robert (English East India Company officer), 376
coinage: Bahmani, 191–2; Bengali, 77, 112, 114, 208; Bijapur, 192–3; Deccan, 173; Delhi sultanate, 49, 54, 59, 71; Ghaznavid; Ghurid, 43–4; Golconda, 192–3; Gujarati, 121, 370; Kashmiri, 116; Mughal, 237; Suri, 209–10, 214, Vijayanagara 161, 191–3
Coromandel coast, 161–2, 374–5
Coryat, Thomas (English traveller)
cotton textiles, 373–4, 378
Danishmand Khan (Mughal noble), 304
Daniyal (Mughal prince), 245
Dara Shukoh (Mughal prince), 289, 291–2, 295–6, 298, 301–9, 329, 335, 396, 452n42
Daud Khan Karrani (Indo-Afghan sultan), 231
Daulatabad (fort and capital), 71, 80–1, 84, 142, 154
Deccan. See Ahmadnagar sultanate; Bahmani sultanate; Bidar sultanate; Bijapur sultanate; Chalukya dynasty; Chola dynasty; Golconda Sultanate; Maratha kingdom; Vijayanagara
Delhi sultanate, 39, 44–57, 64–5, 73–6, 92, 103–4, 108, 124, 133–4
deshmukhs (Maratha chiefs), 263–4, 315–16, 325, 327
Deva Raya I (Vijayanagara emperor), 158
Deva Raya II (Vijayanagara emperor), 147, 149, 162
Dhar (Malwa capital), 126
dictionaries, 17, 125, 382, 383, 389
Dilawar Khan Ghuri (founder of Malwa sultanate), 122–3
Diwani of Bengal, 376, 377
Dungar Singh Tomar (Gwalior ruler), 134
Durga Das (Rathor chieftain), 312–14
Dutch traders, 363, 370–1
East India Company: Dutch, 363, 370–1; English, 7, 363, 370–1, 372–7, 379, 440n4, 443n44; French, 374–5
Eklakhi Mausoleum, 113
elephants: and Akbar, 226, 230; Jahangir’s concern for, 272; Jaunpur’s access to, 107–8; Malwa’s access to, 123–4; as Mughal entertainment, 246, 288–9; and Sher Khan, 208; as symbols of royalty, 181–2, 232; taken by Timur to Samarqand, 104; as tribute to Delhi, 74; at Vijayanagara, 148, 175; war-elephants, 123, 124, 226, 230, 304
Elliot, Sir Henry M. (British Orientalist), 6–7
Estado da India, 370, 371
Ethiopia, 260
Farhang-i Jahangiri (Persian dictionary), 383
Farrukh Siyar (Mughal emperor), 319–24, 342–4
Fatawa-i ‘Alamgiri (law code), 336–7, 396
Fath Allah ‘Imad al-Mulk, 151
Ferghana (valley), 102, 197–8, 206
Firdausi (epic poet): and Alexander, 14; and Iranian nationalism, 392; patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni, 59, 60; and Persian canon, 98, 382, 384; read by Brahmins, 118. See also Shah-nama
First Afghan War, 22–3
Firuz Bahmani, Sultan: relations with Gisudaraz, 142–4; patron of Timurid culture, 145
Firuz Shah Tughluq (Delhi sultan), 103, 367
Firuzabad (palace-city), 145–6
forest clearance, 364–5
forts: Adoni, 164; Amber, 223; Amritsar, 357; Asirgarh, 251; Bankapur, 176; Bayana, 27; Champaner, 121, 207; Chanderi, 73, 75, 124, 322; Chandragiri, 159, 176; Chauragarh, 276; Chittor, 135, 219, 226, 234, 248–9; Chunar, 221; Dabhol, 317; Dhubri, 256; Elichpur, 151; Erachh, 275; Gagraun, 124; Gulbarga, 84; Gwalior, 43, 134, 215, 271; Hanamkonda, 156; Jinji, 300, 320–21; Junagadh, 96, 121; Junnar, 151; Kalinjar, 218; Kalpi, 127; Kalyana, 167, 193, 301; Kandahar, 295, 302; Kangra, 32; Kherla, 123; Koilkonda, 153; Kondavidu, 163; Kurnool, 164, 176; Mandu, 123; Mulhir, 290; Nandyal, 164; Panhala, 317; Penukonda, 167, 175; Pratapgarh, 316; Purandar, 317; Raichur, 167–70, 194; Raigarh, 316; Raisen, 131; Ranthambhor, 42, 47, 129, 218, 220–21, 226; Rohtas, 210, 221, 251; Rohtasgarh, 210; Sagar, 84; Salhir, 290; Tanda, 228; Torna, 316; Tughluqabad, 123; Udayagiri, 162, 163, 176; Vishalgarh, 321; Warangal, 156; Yadgir, 170. See also Bidar, Golconda, Daulatabad
Gama, Vasco da (Portuguese admiral) 188–9, 369
Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Chola capital) 26
Ganges river: Humayun nearly drowns in, 209; and Mughal navies, 254; shifting courses in Bengal, 362; symbolically brought to South India, 21, 25–6, used to deport criminals, 78; waters used ritually by Bengal sultans, 141
Gawan, Mahmud (merchant-prince): execution, 150; recruits ‘Westerners’ to Bidar, 147; rise in Bahmani sultanate, 146; patronizes madrasa, 147; use of gunpowder, 167–8
Genghis Khan (Mongol warlord): Babur’s connection, 195; as inspiration for Timur, 103; invades western Asia, 47, 63; practice of co-sovereignty, 240; Timur’s connection with, 101.
Ghazali, Abu Hamid al- (theologian), 15, 226
Ghaznavid (dynasty): carriers of Persian culture to India, 33–37; decline and collapse, 37–40; Indians integrated into their polity, 35; institutions, 35–37; origins, 30; political legacy, 76;raids of north India, 32
Ghazni (capital city), 21: base for Muhammad Ghuri, 4; a centre of Persianate culture, 59–60; destination for Indian loot, 32; established as new capital, 30; and “gates of Somnath”, 22–23; sacked by Ghurids, 34, 39
Ghiyath al-Din bin Sam (Ghurid sultan), 39–40, 41–2, 44
Ghiyath al-Din Shah (sultan of Malwa), 127
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (sultan of Delhi), 66–7, 68
Ghurid (dynasty), 5, 33, 37–45, 38*,* 47, 77
Gisudaraz, Shaikh Muhammad (Chishti Sufi): relations with Firuz Bahmani, 142–4; renown in Deccan, 142; tomb venerated by ‘Alamgir, 334
globalization, 368–77
Goa (Portuguese seaport), 168, 369
Gobind, Guru, 356–8
Golconda fort, 153, 155
Golconda sultanate, 153–56: annexed by ‘Alamgir, 319; assaults on Vijayanagara, 176–8; coinage at, 192–3; coveted and invaded by Aurangzeb, 299–300; distinctive culture of, 175; founding, 153; hybridized culture, 153–7, 175; military modernization at, 171; a Mughal vassal, 290; and nayakas of Tamil south, 178–84; and Rama Raya, 164, 166; Telugu Brahmins in, 135
Granth Sahib, Guru 267–8
Gujarat, region: Aurangzeb and local qazis, 335–6; commercialization, 371; Dara takes refuge, 308; early Muslim settlement, 93; Ghurid invasions, 40, 43; governed by Aurangzeb, 292; governed by prince Murad, 291, 305; invaded by Marathas, 322, 350; Khalaji invasion, 64, 94; meaning of shari‘a in courts, 337; Mughal customs duties, 330; nature of Mughal expansion, 232; rebellions against Tughluqs, 95–7; seaports, 45; topography, 92–3; wide use of Persian, 381;
Gujarat, sultanate: annexed by Akbar, 226–7; bards and Rajput identity formation, 132, 139; exporters of Malabari pepper, 189; founding, 119–20; invaded by Humayun, 207; patronage of Sanskrit texts, 140; relations with Malwa, 123; religious traditions, 122; settled by Babur’s enemies, 216; settlement of armed pastoralists, 121; struggles with Portuguese, 189; textile production, 120, 260; under Mahmud Begada, 120–22
gunpowder technology 167–73, 201
Guru Granth Sahib 267–8
Guru Nanak, 138, 265–8
Gwalior (fort) 73–4, 134
Habshis (East Africans) 260–3, 264
Hammira-Mahakavya (Sanskrit epic poem), 129–30
Hanafi legal code, 188, 336
Hargobind, Guru, 270–1, 356
Harihara (co-founder of Vijayanagara), 82–3
Harmandir. See under temples: at Amritsar
Harsha (Kashmiri king), 29
Herat (city), 39–40, 199, 200, 211–12, 383
Hindal (Mughal prince), 208–9, 211, 213
Hindavi (language), 134, 135, 392
Hindu Kush (mountains), 70
Hindu scriptures 267–9
Hinduism, 9–10, 53–4, 303–4, 331–2, 364: Śaiva, 114, 158–60; Vaishnava, 114, 116, 122, 158–60, 222, 441n24
Hira Bai Zainabadi (singer), 297–8
Hooghly (seaport), 363
horses: branding of, 228; from Central Asia, 30–31, 64, 108–9, 138, 199, 210, 263; from Persian Gulf, 95, 119–20, 146, 149, 185, 191; in Maratha light cavalry, 263; Mughal regulations, 394; purchases of, 97, 98; 108–9; war-horses: 31, 95, 108–9, 149
Hoshang Shah (Malwa sultan), 126: recruits elephants and military labour, 123
Hoysala (dynasty), 62; Delhi’s conquest of, 81; and rise of Vijayanagara, 82–3
Humayun (Mughal emperor): troubles with his brothers, 206–9, 212–3; campaigns in Bengal and Gujarat, 207–8; exiled from India, 209, 210–11; begins building Purana Qila, 210; regains throne, 213; rituals of royal authority, 213–4;
Husain Nizam Shah (sultan of Ahmadnagar), humiliated by Rama Raya, 166; in Battle of Talikota, 167
Husain Shah Sharqi (sultan of Jaunpur), 109
Hyderabad, city: founding, 154; roots in Telangana culture, 155–7; Charminar monument, 157, 175; attacked by Aurangzeb, 300;
Hyderabad, state: founding, 347; constituent social groups, 347. See also Nizam al Mulk
Ibn al-‘Arabi (philosopher and mystic): influence on Akbar, 234; influence in Deccan, 144
Ibn Balkhi (Persian theorist): notion of kingship, 15–16
Ibn Battuta, 14, 80–3; assessments of Muhammad bin Tughluq, 72; describes Calicut, 187; describes Cambay, 95; reception in Tughluq court, 71–2; visits Baba Farid’s shrine, 367
Ibn Sina: library in Ghazni, 34; medical theory, 387–8; and Persian anon, 98
Ibrahim ‘Adil Shah I (sultan of Bijapur): dismisses Westerners, 164; orders vernacular public records, 136; recruits Maratha cavalry, 263; revives Chalukya memories, 152, 193
Ibrahim ‘Adil Shah II (sultan of Bijapur): captures Kurnool, 176; height of cultural production, 174; preserves Chalukya temple, 193; his tomb, 174
Ibrahim Lodi (sultan of Delhi): alienates nobles, 201; and court ceremony, 110; defeat, 195, 201
Ibrahim (Ghaznavid sultan), 34
Ibrahim Qutb Shah (sultan of Golconda), assisted by Telugu warriors, 155; refuge in Vijayanagara, 153; and Telugu literature, 136, 156, 175
Ibrahim Sharqi (sultan of Jaunpur): portrayal in vernacular literature, 231
Ihtiman Khan (Mughal admiral): operations in Bengal, 25–4
Iltutmish (sultan of Delhi), 51, 52, 58, 60, 61, 97, 126, 329: architecture, 49; coinage, 49, 59; consolidates Delhi sultanate, 46–8; defeats slave cohorts, 45–7; growth of Delhi, 48; marginalizes Sufis, 49; recognized by ‘Abbasid caliph, 48, 77; tries to launch dynasty, 50
Ilyas Shah, Shams al-Din (sultan of Bengal), 98, 111: monumental architecture, 79–80; Pandua his capital, 79; rise to power, 78; support of Sufis, 78–9
‘Imad Shahi sultanate, 151
Indra III (Rashtrakuta king), 29
Indra Singh (Rathor chief), 312
iqta‘ system, 35, 74 110: corrupted by Firuz Tughuq, 103; evolution, 35; and jagir system, 286; and nayamkara system, 88
Iran, 46, 72, 90, 91, 147, 172, 199: annual revenue, 371; Arab conquest, 13; Ghaznavid campaigns in, 32–3; Ghurid power in, 47; headgear from, 148, 194; Humayun seeks refuge in, 211–2; kingship in, 36; legal system of, 188; migrants from, 74, 90–1, 115, 153, 164, 216, 247, 299, 391; Mongol invasions, 14; and Nadir Shah, 253–4; nationalist ideology, 392–3; and Persian dictionaries, 17, 61, 140; and Persian language, 48; pre-Islamic, 15, 36, 59, 80, 148, 281; prince Akbar flees to, 319; secularist notion of governance, 15; struggle for Kandahar, 246, 295; Timur’s invasion, 101–2; trade routes, 13, 312, 380; Turks’ immigration to, 15, 33 See also Persian language, Persian literature, Persian Renaissance, Safavid, Sasanian
Islam: Sunni Islam 35, 37, 39, 41, 102, 112, 152, 198, 200, 216, 226, 235, 331, 334, 335; Shi‘ism, 151, 152, 200, 212, 331; administration of law, 239, 337; and Akbar, 233–8, 241, 395; and ‘Alamgir, 328–31, 336, 396–7; appropriated by Persian writers, 13, 59; architectural conventions, 49, 279; and Babur, 204; and the Bengal sultanate, 112; Bijapur court, 152; coinage in, 43; conversion of Ghurids, 39, 41; and Dara Shukoh, 302–4; in Delhi sultanate, 54, 57; and the design of Hyderabad, 154–7; growth of, in Bengal, 363–6; growth of, in Malabar, 187; growth of, in Punjab, 366–8; and Guru Nanak, 266; and Hindu religious ideas, 93–94; and holy war, 41; India as safe haven for, 57; and the Kashmiri court, 115; and Mahmud of Ghazni, 391; and the Malwa court, 125; and the millennium, 233; and Mughal ideology, 257, 285; and political legitimation, 86; and politics in modern South Asia, 5, 8; and primogeniture, 306; and Rajputs in Mughal service, 209; relation to Persian, 381; Shah Jahan and, 285; Sufi shaikhs as champions of, 111; and state power, 15, 36; and the Vijayanagara court, 158. *See also *shari‘a law, Sufism
Islam Khan Chishti (governor of Bengal), 254–7
Isma‘il ‘Adil Khan (sultan of Bijapur); and the Battle of Raichur, 168–9, 171; a zealous Shi‘i, 151–2
Isma‘il Safavi (shah of Iran), 200, 236
Isma‘ili Bohras, 335
I‘timad al-Daula (Mughal noble), 247
Jagat Seth (Bengali banking house) 348
jagirs (land assignment), 219, 224–5, 284, 296, 319, 349: collapse of system, 327, 344–5; East India Company and, 375; as inducement to Mughal service, 255, 257, 277, 312; and military contingents, 283; reforms of system, 283, 286, 346, 348; of Mir Jumla, 300; shrinking number of, 325–6, 345
Jahanara (Mughal princess): Shah Jahan’s favourite daughter, 274, 291; family mediator, 292, 306–7
Jahandar (Mughal emperor): 341–3
Jahangir (Mughal emperor) 391: aesthetic sensibility, 273; Brahmin and Jain scholars in court, 386; character, 273, 280; tomb, 274, 279; conciliatory gestures to Sisodiya Rajputs, 248–9; deteriorating health, 250; devotion to justice, 272; execution of Guru Arjun, 270; failed invasions of the Deccan, 249, 260, 290, 316; imprisons Guru Hargobind, 271, 356; integration of Rajput practise under, 258–9; launches naval invasion of Bengal, 253–4; marriage to Nur Jahan, 247–8, 271–2; personality cult, 284; reconciliation with Khurram, 252; re-integration of Indo-Afghan rebels, 257–8; religious sensibility, 285; sensitivity to nature, 272; supresses Khusrau’s rebellion, 246. See also Prince Salim
Jai Singh (raja of Mewar): concludes peace with ‘Alamgir, 313; insulted by Dara, 304; pursues Dara, 308; subdues Shivaji, 317
Jai Singh II (raja of Amber): fascination with astronomy, 389–90
Jains: conceptually incorporate Mughals, 386–7; at Mughal court, 234, 386; patronized by Aurangzeb, 302, 331; patronized by Gujarat sultans, 122, 128, 141; patronized by Khalajis, 95; patronized at Vijayanagara, 158; pilgrimage sites, 122; Sanskrit literature at Malwa, 128; temples plundered, 29, 65
Jalal al-Din Khalaji (sultan of Delhi), 63: deports criminals to Bengal, 78
Jalal al-Din Muhammad (sultan of Bengal), indigenization of Bengali mosques, 113; rise to power, 111–12
Jamshid Quli Qutb (sultan of Golconda), 153
Jaswant Singh (raja of Marwar), dismissive of Shivaji, 318, 326; fickle loyalties, 308; succession dispute following death, 312; in War of Succession, 305, 308
Jat (community): agrarian pioneers, 359; become cultivators, 268; become Muslims, 366–7; become Sikhs, 268–9, 359, 368; marital ties with Sufi shrines, 367–8; migration from Sind, 268, 367; uprisings, 332–3, 350, 358
jauhar: at Chauragarh, 276; at Chittor, 219; at Gagraun; practiced by Mughals, 258; at Ranthanbhor, 130
Jaunpur (sultanate), 111, 139, 208: attacks on Delhi, 108, 109; origins, 107; recruitment of peasant-soldiers, 131; rise of Sher Khan in, 207–8; Tughluq influence in, 107; in vernacular poetry, 231
Jayasi, Muhammad (poet), 134–5: Padmavat, 135; patronage
Jesuits: account of Madurai, 180–2; at Akbar’s court, 234–7, 394; in Bengal, 263; at Bijapur’s court, 152
jharokha, 214: adopted by Akbar, 238, 242; discontinued by ‘Alamgir, 329; in Jahangir’s court, 249, 253; political implications of, 278; used by Bengal governor, 258; used by Nur Jahan, 271; used by Shah Jahan, 281, 285
Jhelum River, 88–9, 91, 210, 367
Jhujhar Singh (Rajput rebel), 275–8, 289, 296
Jinji (state), 177–8, 180–3. See also forts: Jinji.
jizya tax:, 54: abolished by Akbar, 233; abolished by Saiyid brothers, 343; corrupt collectors, 396; imposed in Kashmir, 115; reimposed by ‘Alamgir, 330
Jodhpur (city), 21, 259, 312–13
Jonaraja (chronicler), 117, 386
justice: ‘Alamgir, 310; Akbar, 239; Baddena, 16; Ibn Balkhi, 15–16; in Bijapur, 136; Jahangir, 260, 272; Mahmud Shah Khalaji, 125; Muhammad bin Tughluq, 72; as ruling ideology, 16, 98, 411n21; Shah Jahan, 280, 285; Ziya al-Din Barani, 16;
Kabul (city), 45, 110: Akbar captures, 228, 236; Aurangzeb in, 294; Babur’s grave, 20, 279; base for Babur, 195–6; 199–201; base for Mirza Hakim, 215, 217, 228, 240, 242; governed by Kamran, 207; Grand Trunk Road, 210; Humayun captures, 212; Jahangir in, 246; and Man Singh, 221, 229; Shah Jahan in, 295
Kachwaha (Rajput lineage), 217–18; alliance with Mughals, 218, 221; contribution to Mughal cavalry, 230; family ties to Mughals, 259; patrons of Vaishnavism, 441n22. See also Man Singh
Kafur, Malik (slave general): raids the Deccan, 64, 81; briefly seizes, 65;
Kakatiya (dynasty), 27, 62, 155: assimilates Persianate ideals, 16; conquered by Tughluqs, 67–8; influence on Qutb Shahis, 156–7, 175; Svayambhu Śiva as state deity, 67–8, 88; Telugu warrior tradition, 154
Kalpa Sutra 128
Kalyana (city): attacked by Rajendra Chola, 25; Bijapur preserves Chalukya temple at, 193; Chalukya capital, 27, 29, 70 165; firearms at, 167; Rama Raya’s association with, 166; seized by Aurangzeb, 301; Tughluqs restore Chalukya temple at, 68, 70.
Kam Bakhsh (Mughal prince), 320, 340
Kampili (kingdom), 87
Kamran (Mughal prince) 207, 209, 212–13. See also Humayun
Kamrup (region): Mughal operations in, 255–6, 277
Kandahar (city), contested by Mughals and Safavids, 246, 295–6, 302; controlled by Prince Kamran, 207, 211; surrendered to Iran by Humayun, 212;
Kangra (region) 391: pillaged by Pratiharas, 29; pillaged by Mahmud of Ghazni, 32;
Kara (fort): base for ‘Ala al-Din Khalaji, 63; strategic location, 74
Karrani (dynasty), 227, 231
Kartalab Khan (Diwan of Bengal): given title of Murshid Quli Khan, 348; gives name to Murshidabad, 349; revenue reforms of, 347–8
Kashmir (region): topography, 88–89, isolation, 89–90;
Kashmir (sultanate): Brahmins in, 115, 117–18; bypassed by Timur, 104, 114; conquered by Akbar, 229; establishment of, 89–90; uniqueness, 92, 98; temple destruction in, 115; literary patronage in, 116–18. See also Zain al-‘Abidin, Sikandar, Lalla
Kaveri (delta): Chola heartland, 25–6; textile production, 161–2; conquered by Bijapur, 300;
Kayasthas (class): administrators for Mughals, 331, 347; facility in Persian, 381–2;
Keshavdas (poet): literary pioneer, 392; patronized by Bir Singh of Orchha, 392
Khalaji (dynasty): architecture, 65–6; basis of military power, 64; collapse, 67; conquests in the peninsula, 63–4, 94; diffusion of Indo-Afghans under, 95; established in Delhi, 51, 63; fiscal basis, 97; origins, 49. See also ‘Ala al-Din Khalaji, Jalal al-Din Khalaji, Qutb al-Din Mubarak
Khalil Allah Khan (Mughal officer), 304
khalisa (directly administered land): ‘Alamgir, 326; Humayun, 214; Kartalab Khan (Bengal), 348; Muhammad Shah, 346; Shah Jahan, 283
Khalsa (Sikh community): attacks on Mughal centres, 359; established, 357; growth among Jats, 358–9; growing militancy, 360; relations with ‘Alamgir, 357–8; as threat to Hindu class system. See also Sikhism
Khan Jahan Lodi (Mughal rebel), 274–6
khanazad (faction), 344, 346
Khan-i Khanan (Mughal noble), 216, 249
Khanua, battle of, 203–5, 217
Khizr Khan (Punjabi chief), 105–7
Khurasan: and Central Asian Sufis, 37; Ghurid rule, 39–42, 44, 58; immigration of Turkish pastoralists, 33; location, 32; migrations to India from, 49, 51, 53, 60 Mongol conquest, 47; Persianate culture in, 3, 59; Seljuq and Ghaznavid rule, 37, 37, 39
Khurram (Mughal prince): diplomacy in Deccan, 349; estrangement from Nur Jahan, 250; and Nur Jahan’s clique, 248; orders elimination of rival princes, 274; Rajput mother, 259; rebels, 251–2; subdues Sisodiya Rajputs, 248; transferred to Deccan, 250–1. See also Shah Jahan (Mughal emperor)
‘Khush Mahal’ 68
Khusrau (Mughal prince), 251: blinded, 247; contests Jahangir’s succession, 245–7, 286; death, 251; Guru Arjan’s support, 270; promoted by Akbar, 245
Khusrau, Amir (poet): and Alexander, 14; disciple of Nizam al-Din Auliya, 75; Indian heritage, 97; Persian literary canon, 98, 384.
Khwaja Usman (Indo-Afghan warlord), 257–8
kingship: Akbar, 395; ‘Alamgir, 335, 337–8, 395–7; ancient Iranian, 112; classical Indian 111, 122, 140, 178, 259; Dara Shukoh, 396; hybridized, 231; Malabari, 186–87; predicted by Sufi shaikhs, 85; Rajput, 323; and Śiva worship, 114; Shah Jahan, 285, 337; among Telugu nayakas, 178; universal, 391. See also sacred kingship
Kitab-i Nauras, 174
Krishna (deity), 134, 159–60, 222, 333
Krishna Raya (emperor of Vijayanagara): captures Raichur, 168–9; conquests, 162–3; eschews firearms, 169–70; gives daughter to Rama Raya, 164; glorification of, 179; humiliates Isma‘il ‘Adil Khan, 171; patron deity, 159; recruits Muslim soldiers, 149, 163; and Telugu nayakas, 177; temple patronage of, 160; his Persian garb, 194. See also Raichur, battle of
Krishna river 81, 169, 177, 190
Krsnadasa (lexicographer), 387, 389
kshatriya warriors, 122, 139, 140, 223, 224
Kuch Bihar, 255–6, 332
Kunbi (class) 351–3, 368
Lahore: ‘Alamgir builds Badshahi Mosque, 336; and Babur, 201; and Dara Shukoh, 302; and Ghurid slaves, 40, 42, 44–6; and Khizr Khan, 107; and Mahmud of Ghazni, 35; and Nur Jahan, 274; and Prince Kamran, 209; and Prince Khusrau’s rebellion, 246; Ghaznavid capital, 34; Mughal capital under Akbar, 229; patronage of Persian culture, 60
Lalla (poetess), 91–2
Lodi (dynasty): and Babur, 195, 199, 201–3; defeat of Jaunpur, 131, 139; influx of Afghans under, 110; origins, 108–9; patronage of Sufis, 205; use of Persian and Hindavi, 135, 381. See also Bahlul Lodi, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi
‘long fifteenth century’: 104–5, 108, 124, 131, 133–4, 137–8
‘Lord of the Conjunction’ (title): and sacred kingship, 241; and Shah Jahan, 280, 285, 292; and Timur, 280, 292
Louis XIV, King of France, 282
Madras (city), 375, 376, 378
Madurai (city): composition of Rayavacakamu, 179; conquered by Delhi sultanate, 64; as nayaka capital, 177; Pandya capital, 25, 29; relations with Vijayanagara, 178–83
Mahabat Khan (Mughal general), 251, 274, 278
Mahabharata (Indian epic), Ibrahim Qutb Shah and, 136; translations patronized by Akbar, 387; by Amin Khan, 154; by Bengal sultan, 113; by Dungar Singh, 134; by Kashmir sultan, 117
Maham Anga, 216
Mahanavami Dibba (Vijayanagara monument), 149
Mahdavi (millennial movement), 335
Mahimasahi (proto-Rajput), 129–30
Mahmud Begada (sultan of Gujarat), 120–2
Mahmud of Ghazni (sultan): attacks Somnath, 21; and cavalry warfare, 30–1; failed attacks on Kashmir, 89; Hindus in his service, 35; historical memory of, 22–2; motives for raids, 32; invades Iran; patron of Persianate culture, 33; translates Muslim confession of faith to Sanskrit, 391; use of ‘sultan’ title; use of Turkish slave soldiers, 30
Mahmud Shah Khalaji (sultan of Malwa): creates ‘Circle of Kings’, 124; expands sovereign territory, 123–4; participation in Persianate world, 125; Timurid-style architectural projects, 126–7
Malabar (region): Arab traders in, 187; architecture, 188; arrival of Portuguese, 188–90; Christians in, 186–7; growth of Mappila community, 187–8; topography, 184; pepper production and trade, 185; political economy, 185–6
Malik Ahmad: founds Ahmadnagar sultanate, 151
Malik Ambar (African slave ruler): commands Maratha cavalry, 264; Indo-African commercial relations, 260; Jahangir’s adversary, 259–60; and military slavery, 260–2; political career, 261–3; regent for Nizam Shahi sultans, 262; Shivaji’s grandfather in service of, 316
Malik Sarwar (African slave ruler), 122: founds Jaunpur sultanate, 107
Maloji Bhonsle, 316
Malwa, 28, 63, 64, 94, 133, 145, 205, 276, 337: attacked by Marathas, 322, 350, 353–4; Delhi’s tenuous hold on, 70, 84, 95; founding of sultanate, 122–23; Indo-Afghans in, 216; invaded by Akbar, 226; its hybrid Sanskritic-Persianate culture, 128; a site for Rajput recruits, 131, 139; Timur’s legacy in, 125–7; vernacular Hindavi in public documents, 135. See also Mahmud Shah Khalaji, Hoshang Shah
Man Singh (Kachwaha raja): career as high-ranking Mughal, 221–2; demoted by Jahangir, 247; in Dhaka, 228; enters Mughal court, 218; in Rajput chronicles, 384; religious patronage, 222–3; in Kabul, 229; supports Prince Khusrau, 245–6. See also Kachwaha
mandala (“circle of states”): 24–9, 32, 37; and Mahmud Shah Khalaji, 124; and Muhammad Ghuri, 43: and Mughals, 287; and nayaka states of Tamil country, 184;
Mandu, 123, 126, 249–50
mansabdars, 224–5, 325: cash salaries; courtly protocol of, 245, 281; escheat, 276; ethnic composition, 283, 331; ordered to brand horses, 227–8; Persian culture and, 225–6; and Rajput cavalry, 230, 392; recruitment, 284; rotated through empire, 240; structural problems, 326–7, 344–6; ties to the emperor, 284
Mappilas (community), 187–8, 189
Marappa (co-founder of Vijayanagara), 83
Maratha kingdom: ‘Alamgir’s political interventions, 319, 321; become protectors of Mughals, 354; Brahmin bankers in, 351–2; defeated at Panipat, 355, 361; expansion northwards, 353; guerrilla tactics, 323; loyalty of deshmukhs to, 319, 325; origins in Deccan sultanates, 26, 315–6; under Rajaram, 319–21; revenue system, 350; rise of Peshwas, 351–2; share administration with Mughals, 322, 353; struggle with Mughals, 319. See also Shahu, Shivaji Bhonsle, Tarabai,
Marathas: ‘Alamgir’s dogged pursuit of, 338–9; contrasted with Rajputs, 326; incorporate Mughal culture, 354; Kunbi agriculturalists and, 351, 368; in Malik Ambar’s service, 264; meaning of ‘Maratha’, 351; Mughal perceptions of; recruited to Mughal service, 326, 331, 343, 345–6; recruitment by Deccan sultans, 263–4
Marathi language, 85: appearance as written language, 137; devotional literature, 138; official use in Bijapur, 136; Shivaji and, 384–5;
Marco Polo, 14, 79, 185
Marwar (region), 305: a Mughal vassal state, 218; rebellion against Mughals, 312–3. See also Jaswant Singh
Mas‘ud I of Ghazni, 33
medicine: in Indian and Persianate traditions, 387–8
Mewar (region), 124: Akbar invades, 218–19; ‘Alamgir’s policies towards, 313; Babur invades, 203–4; perceptions of ‘Alamgir in, 332–3; rapprochement under Jahangir, 248; Shivaji claims origins in, 318. See also Rana Sanga, Sisodiya
military innovations: the ‘military revolution’, 167–8; cannon technology at Bijapur, 170–3, 369; and Babur, 201; and Akbar, 230
military labour market, 124, 130–1, 133, 230, 253, 379: and commercialization, 378; in the Deccan, 155, 191; Europeans and, 253, 379; in Central Asia, 36, 263; in eastern India, 131–2, 139, 208; in Maharashtra, 263, 351; in the Punjab, 359; and new cultural identities, 368; zamindars and, 378
millennial sovereignty, 236, 237, 280, 285–6, 395. See also sacred kingship
millennialism, 236–7, 241, 335–6
Mir Jumla (Mughal noble), 299–300, 304, 305, 308, 310
Mirza Hakim (Mughal prince), 215, 217, 225, 228–9, 235, 236, 240, 242
Mirza Nathan (Mughal junior officer), 253, 254, 258
Mongols, 66, 195, 204–5, 388: abolish caliphate, 53; destabilize west Asian courts, 14, 47; drive refugees into India, 47–51, 57, 60, 73; invade Kashmir, 89; memories of, 198; need to defend India, 63–5, 67, 77, 97, 103; and Persianized oasis towns, 197; political traditions, 88, 206, 224, 240, 242, 306; Timur emulates, 101–3
Monserrate, Father Antonio SJ, 235–6
mosques: Agra, 281; Ahmadnagar (Damri), 173; Atiya, 442n33; Bijapur (Karim al-Din), 66, (congregational), 174; built by Babur, 205; built by Bengal pioneers, 365–6; Calicut, 187; Cambay, 93, 95; Chhota Pandua, 79–80; Delhi (Qutb), 49–50, 126, (Purana Qila), 210; Devagiri/Daulatabad 65–6, 68, 84; Fatehpur Sikri 234; Herat 39; Hyderabad (Charminar), 157; Jaunpur (Atala), 107; Lahore (Badshahi), 336, (Wazir Khan) 285; Mandu 126; Pandua (Adina), 79–80, 113; Patan, 94; Dhar (Kamal Maula), 126; Veraval, 93–4; Vijayanagara, 149; Warangal, 68;
Mu‘azzam (Mughal prince), see Bahadur Shah (Mughal emperor)
Mubariz Khan, 346–7
Mughal architecture: absorbs Rajput traditions, 242; the Govinda Deva Temple and, 222; and power, 232; in Kashmir, 273; and Louis XIV, 282; Shah Jahan’s lavish patronage, 278; Shahjahanabad, 281; Taj Mahal, 210, 279–80, 324, 337
Mughal empire: character, 197–8, 239–43, 372–3; consolidation, 195–243; decline, 377; economy, 370–3; frontiers, 252–9; imperial succession, 286–7; Maratha uprisings, 350–5; modernity, 392–7; Persianate culture, 383–4; political change, 340–50; Sanskrit culture, 386–90; Sikh uprisings, 355–61; sovereignty, 334–8. See also emperors Akbar; ‘Alamgir; Babur; Bahadur Shah; Farrukh Siyar; Humayun; Jahandar; Jahangir; Muhammad Shah; Rafi‘ al-Darjat; Shah ‘Alam II; Shah Jahan
Muhammad ‘Adil Shah (sultan of Bijapur): concludes peace treaty with Mughals, 290; death and disputed succession, 300–01; loyal Maratha clients, 319; pursues southern campaigns, 176, 300
Muhammad bin Tughluq (sultan of Delhi): accession, 68; alienates southern colonists, 84; builds road from Delhi to Daulatabad, 71, 80; colonizes northern Deccan, 81; demolishes Warangal temple as prince, 70; failed effort to transfer Delhi population to Deccan 71; failed expedition into Afghanistan, 70; failed experiment with token currency, 71; flamboyant devotion to justice, 72; Ibn Battuta’s assessments of, 71, 72; lavish generosity, 71, 74; provokes rebellions, 92, 95; repairs Kalyana temple, 70; reputation for brutality, 72; southern Deccan’s tributary status, 81–2; territorial expansion, 70
Muhammad Ghuri (Ghurid sultan): defeats Prithviraj III at Tarain, 40; delegates authority to senior slaves, 44; efforts to minimize disruptions, 42–4; invasions of north India, 40; motives for invasions, 41–2; shared governance with brother, 40
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (sultan of Golconda): founds Hyderabad, 154–5; patronizes Rama Raya, 164, 191
Muhammad Shah (Mughal emperor): inability to check Afghan invasions, 361; installed by Saiyid brothers, 344; lax administration under, 344–6; imperial bankruptcy under, 350; weakness before Maratha advances, 353;
Muhammad Shah (soldier), see Mahimasahi
Multan (city) 44–45, 105, 107, 207, 229, 266, 268, 296, 308: Isma‘ili community in, 40–1;
Mumtaz Mahal (wife of Shah Jahan), 248, 274, 291: and Taj Mahal, 279; tragic death, 279
Mun‘im Khan (Mughal officer), 227, 230, 231
Murad (Mughal prince), 292: governor of Gujarat, 291; leads failed invasion of Afghanistan, 294; in War of Succession, 305–7
Murshid Quli Khan (Iranian immigrant): restores Deccan administration, 299.
Murtaza Nizam Shah II, Sultan of Ahmadnagar, 262
Musa Khan (Indo-Afghan warlord): leads anti-Mughal chiefs in Bengal, 255, 257
Muzaffar Shah (sultan of Gujarat), 120, 123. See also Zafar Khan
Muzaffar II (sultan of Gujarat), 227
Mysore, 177, 178–9, 183
Nabi-Vamśa (Bengali epic), 364
Nadir Shah (Iranian warlord): invades India, 353–4, 361, 377
Nairs (Malabar community), 185, 186, 188
Nana Saheb (Maratha Peshwa), 354, 355
Nanak, Guru, 138, 269: early life, 265; religious institutions under, 267; self-fashioning; verses of, 268; teachings, 266–7. See also Sikhism
Narasimha, Saluva (warlord): founds new Vijayanagara dynasty, 159, 162; Vaishnava identity, 159
Narasimha, Tuluva Vira: founds Vijayanagara’s third dynasty, 162
Nasir al-Din Khusrau Shah 66–7
Nasir al-Din Mahmud Shah (sultan of Delhi), 50–1, 63
Nasir al-Din Nusrat Shah (sultan of Bengal), 113, 114, 227
Nasir al-Din Tusi (Persian polymath): observational astronomer, 388–90; and Persian literary canon, 98, 384; read by Mughal nobility, 225
nayaka (political title or class): and Balban, 56; lineages of Telugu chieftains in Tamil country, 177–84, 326; Vijayanagara officials, 88
nayakwaris (Telugu warriors) 154–5
nayamkara (land assignment), 87
Ni‘mat-nama (cookbook), 127
nisab (word-book), 382
Nityananda (Indian astronomer), 389
Niyogi Brahmins, 155, 156
Nizam al-Din Auliya (Chishti shaikh): perception of Turks, 48; prominent followers, 75; and political legitimation, 78, 79, 85–6; his tomb-shrine, 203;
Nizam al-Mulk (Mughal governor), 344, 346–7, 351, 353
Nizam Shahi (dynasty), collapse, 264, 316; cultural production under, 173; founding, 151; Shahji’s attempts to salvage, 291, 316; sustained by Marathas and Africans, 260; under Malik Ambar, 262–3. See also Ahmadnagar
Nujum al-‘ulum (treatise): ‘Ali ‘Adil Shah the author, 152; overlapping Persianate and Indic themes, 152–3; miniature painting, 174
Nur al-Din Firuz (maritime merchant) 93–4
Nur Jahan (Mughal ruler): celebratory feast at Mandu, 249; centre of political clique, 248; estrangement from Khurram, 250; marriage to Jahangir, 247; political collapse, 274; political influence, 247, 250, 251, 271; relations with Jahangir, 250–1, 271–2
Nur Qutb-i ‘Alam (Chishti shaikh): promotes strict vision of Islam, 111; relations with Bengal court, 79; a spiritual guide of Sultan Jalal al-Din Muhammad, 112
Orchha (palace-fort), 245, 259: architecture, 391–2; base of Bundela Rajputs, 275; destruction of royal temple, 276; a Mughal tributary state, 391
Orissa (region) 74, 251: conquered by Cholas, 19; Gajapati kings of, 163; tributary state for Firuz Shah Tughluq, 103; ; Gajapati king sacks temples in Tamil country; Indo-Afghan chiefs in, 221; ; Mughal revenue reforms in, 348; tributary state to Jaunpur, 231
Ottoman (dynasty): annual income, 371; defeats Portuguese fleet, 189; and firearms technology, 168, 170; Mahmud Gawan’s correspondence with, 147; military tactics, 171–2; practice of royal succession, 286; Timur’s defeat of, 102; Yusuf ‘Adil Khan’s origins in, 151
Pala (dynasty), 76: conflict with Cholas, 19, 29; architectural influence of, 79–80
Pandya (dynasty) 25, 29
Panipat: 1st battle of, 201, 205; 2nd battle of, 215; 3rd battle of, 355, 361
paper-making, 136–7
Paramara (dynasty), 29
Parasiprakaśa (Persian-Sanskrit dictionary), 387, 389
Pashtun (community), 110, 311–12
Patan (city), 43, 94, 95, 96, 328
Peacock Throne: description, 282; seized by Nadir Shah, 354
Penukonda, 176: seized by Muhammad ‘Adil Shah, 176; seized by Rama Raya, 163; Vijayanagara capital, 167, 175
pepper, 185–90, 438n64, 438n65
Persian dictionaries, 17, 383; Persian-Hindavi, 125, 140–1, 382; Persian-Sanskrit, 389; production in India, 17, 61, 125, 140–1, 383
Persian language: evolution, 13; uses of, 14, 17, 118–19; vocabulary in South Asian vernaculars, 17, 140, 384–5
Persian literature, 59–61, 118–19, 384–6; chronicles, 6–7, 22; Hindu writers and: romance: 133–4; evolution of canon, 13–14, 33, 60, 98, 118, 225–6, 380, 384–5
Persian Renaissance, 59–60
Persian wheel, 73, 268
‘Persianate’; Persianate world, 11–18, 30–7, 380–6, 390–3
Peshwa, 352–4
peshwa, 351–2
pilgrimage sites: Girnar, 122; Veraval (Somnath), 21–2, 93–4; Vijayanagara (Pampa-Virupaksha), 87; Tirupati (Venkateśvara), 159, 162, 176; Ajmer (Mu‘in al-Din Chishti), 234; Amritsar, 269
Polo, Marco, 14, 79, 185
Portuguese traders 121, 163, 168–9, 188–90, 363, 369
Pratap, Rana (raja of Mewar) 219, 221, 248
Pratapa Rudra (Kakatiya maharaja) 67
Pratapaditya (Bengali warlord) 255
Pratihara (dynasty), 29
precious metals: and agrarian society, 197; flow between India and beyond, 32, 59, 98, 191, 363, 370–1, 377–8; in mercantilist thought, 374; minting of, 97, 377–8
Prem Narayan (Gond chieftain), 276–7
premakhyan (literary genre), 9–10, 134–5
Prithviraj III (Chauhan maharaja): capture and death, 42; defeated by Muhammad Ghuri, 40; nephew accommodated to Ghurid rule, 42; and Rajput identity, 224; in subsequent memory, 224
Prithviraj Raso (epic poem), 223–4
Pulicat (seaport), 161
Punjab (region): agrarian productivity, 73, 103; and defence form Mongols, 63, 66, 103; Babur’s campaigns in, 199, 201, 204–5; base for Prince Kamran, 207, 209; Dara Shukoh in, 291, 302, a Ghaznavid base, 5, 34; de facto independence from Mughals, 349, 361; under Iltutmish, 47; growth of Islam, 366–8; and Jats, 268; and Khizr Khan, 105–7; Persianate centre, 35, 61; plundered by Mahmud of Ghazni, 21; Prince Khusrau’s flight to, 246, 270; reoccupied by Humayun, 213; and Sher Shah, 210; Sufi shrines in, 53, 277; Third Battle of Panipat, 355, 361;Timur’s indirect rule in, 107. See also Nanak, Sikhs
Puran Mal (Kachwaha chieftain), 217
Purana Qila, 210, 214
Purbiya Rajputs, 123, 128, 131–2
qasbah (‘town’), 52, 58, 73–4
Qasim Barid (sultan of Bidar), 153
Qubacha, Nasir al-Din (slave sultan), 42, 44–7, 61
Quli Qutb Shah (sultan of Golconda, 153, 155
Qur’an, 66, 303, 331, 455n77
Qutb al-Din (sultan of Kashmir), 90–1
Qutb al-Din Mubarak Khalaji (sultan of Delhi), 66: patronizes Daulatabad mosque, 65; annexes northern Deccan, 65
Qutb Minar, 49–50
Qutb Shahi dynasty. See Golconda sultanate
Rafi‘ al-Darjat (Mughal emperor), 344
Rafi‘ al-Din Shirazi (chronicler), 391
rahit-nama (literary genre), 361
Raichur, battle of: cause of Bijapur’s loss, 169; Krishna Raya’s behaviour after, 171; military consequences, 169–71; outcome, 168–9; Vijayanagara’s Muslim troops at, 149
Raj Singh, Rana (raja of Mewar), 313–14, 452n51
Raja Ganesh (Bengali ruler), 111, 112
Rajadhiraja (Chola maharaja), 29
rajaputra (title), 129–30
Rajaraja (Chola maharaja), 24–5
Rajaram (Maratha king): escape to Jinji, 319–20; establishes capital at Satara, 321; raids Mughal territory to the north, 322
Rajasthan (region): ‘Ala al-Din Khalaji’s raids, 64; alliances with Mughals, 217–8; anti-Mughal rebellions, 312–3; bards and genealogists of, 223; Malwa’s authority in, 124; miniature painting in, 128; pastoral communities of, 93, 121; political culture, 314–5; temple destruction in, 332. See also Amber, Mewar, Marwar, Rajputs
Rajendra I (Chola maharaja), 19–21, 23–4, 25–7, 29, 56
Rajputs: and Afghans, 203; and ‘Alamgir, 312–15; emergence and consolidation of identity, 128–33, 223–4; alliance with Mughals, 217–23, 242; major lineages 218; and Persianate world, 384; political culture, 314–5; women in the Mughal harem, 258–9. See also Rajasthan, Sisodiya
Ram Das, Guru, 269
Rama (deity), 158–9
Rama Raya (Vijayanagara ruler): claims association with Chalukya dynasty, 166; defeated at Talikota, 166–7, 171–2; in Golconda’s service, 164; hosts Prince Ibrahim of Golconda, 191; manipulates northern sultans, 166; recruits Iranian and Turkish troops, 149, 164; rise to power, 164–5.
Ramayana (epic): Krishna Raya’s identification with, 194; Persian translation, 387; and topography of Vijayanagara, 159; vernacular translation, 134
Rana Kumbha (raja of Mewar), 124
Rana Sanga (raja of Mewar), 203–4
Ranthambhor (fort): captured by ‘Ala al-din Khalaji, under Chauhan rule, 42; jauhar at, 130; under Mahmud Shah of Malwa, 124; 129; seized by Iltutmish, 47; surrendered to Akbar, 218, 220–1, 226
Rashtrakuta (dynasty), 28–9
Rathor (lineage), 305, 318, 343, 383: submission to Akbar, 218; succession struggle and anti-Mughal rebellion, 312–3
Raushanara (Mughal princess), 305
Raziyya (Sultana of Delhi), 50
Red Fort, 281, 343. See also Shahjahanabad
rekhtah (literary style), 393
religion: and ‘Alamgir, 301–2, 327–38; and agriculture, 364–6; and Akbar, 233–8, 284–5; and Dara Shukoh, 301–4; detached from ‘sultan’, 15–6; Indian governance and, 28; informing historical interpretation, 4–10; and Jahangir, 257, 273, 285; Persianate governance and, 16, 35–6, 66, 226, 391; political loyalties and, 164; Shah Jahan and, 285–6, use of shari‘a under Mughals, 337; used by colonial authorities, 22–3. See also bhakti, Christianity; Hinduism; Islam; Jains, Sikhism
Rinchana (sultan of Kashmir), 89, 90
Rohtas (fort), 210
Rohtasgarh (fort), 210
Roshaniyya movement, 229, 235
Rukn al-Din Kaikaus (sultan of Bengal), 78
Sa‘adat ‘Ali Khan (governor of Awadh), 349
Sabuktigin (slave ruler of Ghazni), 30
sacred kingship: associated with Timur, 241; challenges to Mughal monopoly of, 360; embraced by Akbar, 241, 395; embraced by Dara Shukoh, 335, 396; embraced by Shah Jahan, 285; rejected by ‘Alamgir, 335, 337–8, 395–7; Timurid roots, 241
Sadaśiva (emperor of Vijayanagara): Rama Raya’s puppet king, 165, 263; released by Tirumala, 167, 175
Safavid (Iranian dynasty): Akbar recovers Kandahar from, 246; annual income, 371; Bijapur imitates courtly customs of, 152; declared a Shi‘i state, 151; defeated by Ottomans, 171–2; help Babur regain Samarqand, 200; help Humayun regain north India, 212; seize Herat from Uzbeks, 200; Shah Isma‘il’s character, 200; struggle with Mughals over Kandahar, 295–6; practice of royal succession, 286
sahib-i qiran (title): associated with Timur, 241, 280, 292; claimed by Shah Jahan, 280, 285, 292
Śaiva Hinduism: Persianate courts wary of, 114, 441n24; pilgrimage sites, 122; and Vijayanagara, 83, 158–60
Saiyid ‘Ali Hamadani (Kashmiri shaikh), 118
Saiyid brothers (Mughal rulers), 342–4, 353
Saiyid dynasty (of Delhi), 107, 108, 109, 124, 134
Saiyid Muhammad Hamadani (Kashmiri shaikh), 115
Salim (Mughal prince): arranges assassination of Abu’l-fazl, 244–5; fondness for wine and drugs, 245; his name, 226; strained relations with Akbar, 244–6; strained relations with Prince Khusrau, 257. See also Jahangir
salt: political symbolism of, 257–8
Samanid (Central Asia dynasty): elaboration of Persianate institutions, 35, 37, 98; historical importance of, 13; idea of ‘sultan’, 14, 36; military slavery at, 30, 36; and New Persian, 13, 59. See also Bukhara
Samarqand (city), 107, 126, 195, 196, 206, 211: a centre of Persianate culture, 101–2, 197; architecture, 145–6; Babur’s attempts to rule, 198–201; Man Singh claimed to have seized, 384; observatory at, 388–9; and Timur, 101–4, 127, 145, 234
Sambhaji (Maratha king): at the imperial court, 317; rule and execution, 319.
Sangama (Vijayanagara dynasty): establish a new state, 83–4; political origins, 82; service in Delhi sultanate, 82; religious origins, 87–8, 158–9; rivalry with Bahmanis, 163; temples of, 158; overthrown, 159, 162
Sanskrit language: in Andhra, 154; in Arakan, 385; decline in usage, 392, 393; in Kashmir, 92, 117
Sanskrit literature, 82, 113, 116, 223: Atharvaveda, 117; Bhagavad Gita, 387; Daśavatara, 117; Hammira-Mahakavya, 129; Hatakeśvara Samhita, 117; Jainavilasa, 117; Kalpa Sutra, 128; Buddhi Sagar, 128; Katha-kautuka, 117; Kathasaritsagara, 117; Mahabharata, 117, 134, 154, 387; Nilamata Purana; Panchatantra; Parasiprakaśa, 387, 389; Prithviraj-vijaya, 5, 117; Rajatarangini, 117, 386; Rajavinodamahakavya, 122, 140; Rajavyavaharakośa, 384; Ramayana, 134, 387; Surjanacarita, 221; Yogavasistha;
Sanskrit inscriptions: 22, 34, 43–4, 49, 54–7, 77, 93–4, 192, 193, 222,
Sanskrit world, 10–11: interaction with Persianate world, 13, 18, 61, 114, 117, 118, 152, 193–4, 220, 386–91, 393; politics, 23–4; ‘Sanskrit cosmopolis’, 10;
Śanticandra (Jain monk), 386–7
Sasanian (Iranian dynasty), 13, 80, 90
Satnami revolt, 333–4
Satrajit (ruler in Bengal), 255
Saurashtra (region), 96
science, 387–90
secularism, 15, 395
Seljuq (dynasty), 33–4, 37, 39, 41
Sena (dynasty), 76–7, 80
Sewell, Robert (historian), 190–1
Shah ‘Alam II (Mughal emperor), 376
Shah Jahan (Mughal emperor, 248, 249: campaigns to recover Kandahar, 295–6; consolidation of authority, 274–8; coronation, 274; Dara his favourite son, 302; Deccan policy, 290; ethnic composition of nobility, 283–4, 383; growth in territory and wealth, 283–4; illness, 301; confinement by Aurangzeb, 307; as millennial sovereign, 285–6, 292; monumental architecture, 278–82; Peacock throne, 282; Rajput ancestry, 259; rift with Aurangzeb, 295–6, 299; ‘Second Lord of the Conjunction’, 280; self-fashioning as majestic and distant, 278, 280, 284–6, 324, 337; Taj Mahal, 279–80; weakness for jewellery, 300, 327. See also Khurram
Shah Mir (sultan of Kashmir), 89–90
Shah Rukh (Timurid ruler), 147
Shahjahanabad: congregational mosque, 285; construction, 281; 282; Dara publicly paraded through; 309; jharokha, 285; relative cost, 295; display of imperial power, 282
Shahji Bhonsle, 290–1, 316
Shah-nama, 59: Arabic vocabulary in, 5, 154; and Persian canon, 382; as model for Sanskrit literature, 117; role in shaping political ideals, 59–60; Telugu poets inspired by, 154. See also Firdausi
Shahriyar (Mughal prince), 250–1, 274
Shahu (Maratha king): attracts Brahmin bankers, 351–2; captured and raised by ‘Alamgir, 319; draws political support from Tarabai, 350–1; overshadowed by Peshwas, 352
Shaista Khan (Mughal noble), 304, 305, 311, 317
shari‘a law: as administered under Akbar, 239; and ‘Alamgir’s accession, 328; ‘Alamgir’s codification of, 336–7; proper role of, to ‘Alamgir, 334; primogeniture in, 306; as popularly understood and used, 337
Sharqi (dynasty), 107–8. See also Jaunpur
Shaybani Khan, Muhammad (Uzbek khan), 198–200
Sher Shah (sultan of Sur dynasty): architecture, 210; bilingual local administration under, 381; expels Mughals from India, 209; exploits military labour market, 208; governance, 209–10; renovates Grand Trunk Road, 210; social origins, 207–8; successors, 213. See also Sur (dynasty)
Shihab al-Din (sultan of Kashmir), 90
Shivaji Bhonsle (Maratha king): acquires hill forts, 316–7; at Mughal court, 317–18; attempts to purge Persian from Marathi, 384; confronts Afzal Khan, 317; early encounters with Aurangzeb, 31–76; lavish coronation, 318; military recruits, 351; roots in Deccan sultanates, 316; sacks Surat, 317; style of warfare, 354
Shuja‘ (Mughal prince): disappears in Arakan, 308; governor of Bengal, 291; in War of Succession, 305–8
Shuja‘ al-Din Muhammad Khan (governor of Bengal), 349
Sikandar (sultan of Kashmir), 91: persecutes Brahmins, 115; relations with Timur, 115
Sikandar Lodi (sultan of Delhi), 110
Sikandar Shah (sultan of Bengal), 80
Sikhism, 3: bhakti origins, 264–5; challenge to caste hierarchy, 266; distinctive identity, 266–7; the guru institution, 267, 357; rituals and liturgical basis, 267–8, 269–70; theology, 266. See also Guru Nanak, Guru Granth Sahib, temples: at Amritsar (Harmandir)
Sikh community: growth of, 268–9; Guru Arjan’s execution and consequences, 270–1, 356; focus on Amritsar, 269–71, 356, 360; relations with Mughals, 357–61; rise of Jats in, 268–9, 359; Khatri Sikhs, 268, 359–60. See also Khalsa
silver. See precious metals
Sind (region), 47, 93, 103, 296, 308, 343: and Akbar, 229; Arab conquest of, 8; Ghurid raids in, 40; Humayun in, 210–1; and Muhammad bin Tughluq, 96–7; pastoral groups of, 121; Jats of, 268, 367; ruled by Qubacha, 42, 44; Shah Jahan’s efforts to integrate, 277
Siraj al-Din, Akhi (Bengali shaikh), 79
Siraj al-Din Junaidi (Deccani shaikh), 86
Sisodiya (Rajput lineage), 245, 318: defeated by Babur, 203–5; resists allying with Mughals, 218–20, 248; Man Singh confronts, 221; accommodation with Jahangir, 248–9; and the Rajput rebellion, 313; attitudes towards ‘Alamgir, 332–3;
Śiva (deity), 40, 55, 266: association with the Ganges, 26; association with Hindu kingship, 114, 156, 159, 391; association with royalty, 28; in devotional religion, 91; and Ghaznavid coinage, 34; and Ghurid coinage, 58; identified with Virupaksha, 87; image destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni, 21; image seized by Rajendra Chola, 19, Muhammad bin Tughluq’s policies toward temples, 68, 70; in mythic architecture, 155; and the Nujum al-‘ulum, 152–3;
slavery, military: absence in Kashmir sultanate, 92; in the Ghurid state, 42; the Central Asian trade, 30–2, 35–6; the African trade, 260–4,
slavery, non-military: India and the transatlantic trade, 374; raids on Bengali villages, 254
Solanki (Gujarati dynasty), 93, 94
Someśvara III (Chalukya emperor), 28
Sri Lanka, 25, 28–9
Śrimara Śrivallabha (Pandyan king), 29
Śriranga III (emperor of Vijayanagara), 180–3
Śrivara (Kashmiri chronicler), 115–16, 117, 386
Śrivijaya (kingdom), 27
Statute of Artificers, 372
succession: and ‘Ala al-din Khalaji, 65; and Balban, 52; and Iltutmish, 46; and Mughals, 206–7, 213, 240–1, 247, 252, 286–7, 301, 327, 340, 342; and Muhammad Ghuri, 45; among Ottomans and Safavids, 286; among Rajputs, 219, 223, 312; and Sikhs, 356–7; at Vijayanagara, 88, 177
Sufism: Chishti order, 75–6, 203, 205, 234; conversion of Turks, 37; Naqshbandi order, 205; Qadiri order, 302; romance literature, 9–10, 134–5; Shattari order, 241. See also shaikhs.
Suha Bhatta (Kashmiri minister), 115
Sulaiman Karrani (sultan of Bengal), 227
Sur (dynasty), 207–10, 213, 215
Surjan (Rajput raja), 220–1
Syrian Christians, 186–7, 189
Ta‘rif-i Husain Shahi (chronicle), 173
Taghi (rebel), 96
Tahmasp (shah of Iran), 211; Humayun takes refuge with, 212
Taj Khan Karrani (Indo-Afghan ruler of Bengal), 227
Taj Mahal. See under Mughal architecture
Talikota, battle of: causes, 165–6; cultural consequences, 173–5; outcome, 167; political consequences, 175–7; use of firepower at, 171–2
Tamburlaine (Marlowe), 100–1. See Timur
Tamil architecture, 158
Tanjavur (city), 180–2, 183
Tarabai (Maratha ruler): ancestry, 321; defends Maratha kingdom, 350; launches northern invasions, 322; loses political support, 350–2; rise to power, 321–2; and the rise of European power, 378–9
Tej Bahadur, Guru, 356
temples: royal, 19, 23, 28, 29, 32, 41, 76, 332, 391; attacks on, 6, 19, 21–3, 28–9, 32, 40–41, 68, 70, 94, 115, 156, 276, 332; in Bengal’s forested hinterland, 113, 365. Jain, 29, 95; reuse of columns, 65–6; at Amritsar (Harmandir, or Golden), 269–70, 356, 360; at Benares (Vishvanath) 332; at Ellora (Kailash), 331, 391; at Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Śiva) 26; at Kalyana, 68–70; at Kangra fort (Bajreśwari Devi), 391; at Khajuraho (Lakshmana) 29; at Kiradu (Śiva) 40; at Machnur; at Mathura (Keśavadeva Temple), 332, 392; at Pandharpur (Vitthala), 160; at Puri (Jagannath), 441n25; at Somnath (Śiva), 21–3, 28, 93–4; at Tanjavur (Rajarajeśvaram), 25; at Tirupati (Venkateśvara), 160, 162, 164, 176; at Vijayanagara (Virupaksha) 87, (Ramachandra) 158, (Balakrishna) 160, (Vitthala) 160, Viruvengalanatha) 160; at Vrindavan (Govinda Deva), 222, 233–4; at Warangal (Svayambhu Śiva), 67–70, 156;
textiles, 120, 161, 363, 373–6, 378
Timur (‘Tamerlane’), 90, 91: accelerates demand for military labour, 130–1; his campaigns, 102–3; consequences for Persian literary production, 140–1; effects on Kashmir, 114–5; overall consequences of invasion, 105, 138–41; influence on Vijayanagara, 147; and the dispersion of Delhi’s population, 107, 142; influence on Akbar, 234; and sacred kingship, 241; influence on Babur, 195–6, 198–200, 204; influence on Mahmud Shah of Malwa, 125–7; and recruitment of Westerners to Deccan, 151; invades India, 103–4; and Jahangir, 259; and the emergence of Saiyid dynasty of Delhi, 107; and the emergence of the sultanate of Gujarat, 120; and the emergence of the sultanate of Jaunpur, 107–8; and the emergence of the sultanate of Malwa, 122–3; legacy in Punjab, 105–7; ‘Lord of the Conjunction’ claim, 280; in modern memory, 101; his origins in Central Asia, 101; and Shah Jahan, 280, 285–6, 292, 395; and Afghan migrations, 108–10; and the growth of vernacular literatures, 133–4; visits shrine of Baba Farid, 367. See also ‘long fifteenth century’
Timurid architecture: Aq Saray palace, 145; characteristics, 126, at Bahmani capitals, 145–47; at Malwa, 126–7
Timurid dynasty: 104, 147, 196–201, 211, 225, 229, 278, 333, 343, 354.
Tirumala (emperor of Vijayanagara), 175–6, 177
Tirumala (nayaka of Madurai), 180–3
Tirupati (temple shrine), 159, 162, 164, 176
Todar Mal (Mughal finance minister), 227, 230
Tughluq (dynasty of Delhi sultans): annexation of northern Deccan, 67–8; architectural style; 68; collapse of rule in Deccan, 83–4; decline, 92–7; diffusion of iqta‘ institution under, 88; origins, 66–7; indirect rule in southern Deccan, 81–2. See also Firuz Shah Tughluq, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, Muhammad bin Tughluq
Tuluva (Vijayanagara dynasty), 162, 164–5
Turkish slaves. See mamluks
Tusi. See under Nasir al-Din Tusi
Ulugh Beg (Timurid sultan and astronomer), 388, 389–90
Ulugh Khan (slave general): origins, 50; as power behind the throne, 51; becomes sultan, 51. See also Balban
Ulugh Khan (Tughluq prince): his two-year Deccan campaign, 67; transforms Warangal into Tughluq provincial capital, 67–8, becomes sultan, 68. See also Muhammad bin Tughluq
Upanishads (ancient Indian scriptures), 303–4
Urdu (language), 393
Uzbek Turks, 201: disaffected elements in Akbar’s nobility, 216–7, 225, 229; dislodge Babur from Central Asia, 198–9; expel Timurids from Herat, 200; Rajputs as a counterweight to, 220; Shah Jahan sends armies against, 280, 292–5
Vaghela (Gujarati dynasty), 94
Venkata II (emperor of Vijayanagara), 177
Venkata III (emperor of Vijayanagara), 180
Venkateśvara (deity), 159, 160, 164, 176
Veraval (seaport), 93–4
Vidyapati (poet), 231
Vijayanagara (city and empire): contacts with the Timurid court, 147; court’s Vaishnava orientation, 158–60; covert power of queens, 165; economic stagnation, 160–2; religious patronage, 158; failure to develop firearms technology, 169–70; imperialism and temple patronage, 160; land system modelled on Tughluqs’, 88; Muslim soldiers serving in, 149; as a patrimonial state, 165; Persian apparel in, 147–8, 184, 194; Persian architecture at, 148; political origins, 82–5; and the question of a religiously divided Deccan, 190–4; religious origins, 87–8; rise of Tuluva dynasty, 162; Saluva dynasty, 162; southwards drift of its capitals, 175–6; ‘sultan among Indian kings’ royal title, 16, 83, 147, 184; Tamil influence in, 158; troubled relations with its southern nayakas, 177–84; its crippled condition after Talikota, 167, 175–6. See also Krishna Raya; nayaka; Raichur, battle of; Rama Raya; Sadaśiva; Talikota, battle of
Vindhya Mountains, 62
Virupaksha (deity), 83, 87–8, 158–9, 160.
Vishnudas (poet), 134
Vitthala (deity), 149, 159–60
Vrindavan (city), 222
War of Succession, 301–9
Warangal (city), 155–7
Wodeyar (dynasty), 177, 178–9, 183
Yadava (dynasty), 62, 63, 65
Yasovarman (Chandela raja), 29
Yildiz, Taj al-Din (slave sultan), 42, 44–5, 46
Yusuf ‘Adil Khan (sultan of Bijapur), 151
zabt system, 238, 283, 299, 345
Zafar Khan, 84, 85, 86, 119–20. See also Muzaffar Shah
Zain al-‘Abidin (sultan of Kashmir), 115–19, 386
Zain al-Din Shirazi (Chishti shaikh), 86
Zulfiqar Khan (Mughal commander and vazir), 320, 341–3