S.P.Q.R

Cause of rise

Why did Rome expand from a small city state to an empire which spanned 3 continents?

Military ambition inculcation

In the Roman republic, every notable person seeking greater power and reputation had to gain military victories. This meant that positive ambition was never in short supply. Political advancement (highly competitive) being heavily tied to military triumphs; led to stronger will to repeatedly keep up the wars.

Highly involved elites

Unlike the selfish elites of the later periods, the aristocracy of the Republic did not spare its blood or treasure in the service of the com interest. When 50,000 Romans, a staggering one fifth of Rome’s totalm power, perished in the battle of Cannae, as mentioned previously th senate lost almost one third of its membership. This suggests that the senatorial aristocracy was more likely to be killed in wars than the averao citizen. Add this to the peculiarly Roman practice of “devotion,” which was always performed by a member of noble lineage, and it is easy to conclude that generally Roman aristocrats led the commoners in battle, and were the first to die.

The wealthy classes were also the first to volunteer extra taxes when they were needed. One of the best examples of such behavior comes again from the Second Punic War, when the internal cohesion of Rome was tested to what would be a breaking point for almost any other state. When the state ran out of money, the propertied classes agreed to pay a surcharge to provide for salaries for galley crews. A graduated scale was used in which the senators paid the most, followed by the knights, and then other citizens. In addition, officers and centurions (but not common soldiers. served without pay, saving the state 20 percent of a legion’s payroll.(Finally, the equestrian businessmen who supplied the army and the fleet agreed to accept promissory notes in lieu of actual payments, which the state simply did not have. In short, everybody sacrificed for the sake of victory, but the greatest burden was placed on the wealthy.

When the leaders do not hide behind rank and shoulder their share of the common burden, the common people are much more likely to fall line. This is perhaps why the plebs and the aristocracy had coexisted rather harmonious relations with each other during the early and mi Republic. Even during the most class conflict-ridden decades of the century, the commons never revolted outright. Were they to start a re tion, they would have made short work of the nobility. Plebeian in men heavily outnumbered the aristocratic knights (by a factor than 10 to 1-a typical legion had 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry great majority of plebeians were veterans. They could easily self-ory into an army by electing centurions and higher officers from among (by a factor of more 300 cavalry).

Leaders

Gaius Julius Caesar

  • raised in the wealthy patrician gens Julia, his family lost everything because the father sided the loosing side in a civil war.
  • Joined the army as a footsoldier to regain prestige and wealth, became a seasoned leader.
  • Convinced the wealthy merchant Crassus not to retreat, to do a suprise attack and defeat the huge army of Spartacus.
  • Lost his wife Capurnia to illness.
  • Took advantage of the rivalry and the resulting stalemate between Crassus and Pompei to broker a peace by getting himself elected Consul of the Senate after gaining Pompei’s trust by giving his daughter Julia in marriage. (From his father’s fall, he had was wary of being on the loosing side of another civil war - so he thought beyond loyalty to Crassus.)
  • When sent off as a governor to contain his growing influence - conquered Gaul, studying and crushing local resistance and capturing Vercingetorix after a remarkable Battle of Alesia, which involved attrition and building a barricade around a barricade to fight enemies on two sides. Even campaigned in Britannia.
  • All the while, he raised his standing in Rome by sending periodic enthralling accounts of the conquest, written in third person. A frustrated Crassus went on the Parthian conquest seeking glory and died instead.
  • When Pompei Magnus and the senate recalled him, he instead crossed the Rubicon with a legion, forcing them to flee. Rather than enter Rome, he tried to cut them off at Brundisium before they gather an army in Greece, but failed.
    • Still, he got to building ships and landed at Greece - thankfully before Marcus Antonius landed with the remaining half. The superior understanding of time and seasons he had as Pontifex Maximus, aided the great Julius in running the blockade during this critical chase.There his superior strategy and better forces won the day.
  • Then chased Pompei to Egypt, came under effective house-arrest of the Pharaoh. Then fell in love with intelligent and manipulative Cleopatra and father Caesarean. He then returned to Rome to fix the unrest and food shortages (Marcus Antonius had proved incompetent). Then.
  • Fixed himself as dictator, implemented many far-sighted reforms, including public works projects, but was murdered by Senators led by Brutus (trusted son of his mistress, but descendent of the founder of the Republic) who were afraid of his imperial ambitions just before he was to take off on his Parthian campaign.
  • As Pontifex Maximus, Caesar was responsible for fixing the Roman calendar to be solar.
  • Despite leaving only 1 offspring and suffering in later life from strokes/ epilepsy, raised SPQR led firmly by his Gens Julia to such great heights!

Kaiser (Caeser) Augustus Octavian

  • first emperor, avenger of his adopted father’s murder, bringer of virtue and strength.
  • Got rid of critics such as Cicero.
  • He wisely sidelined the less disciplined soldier Marcus Antonius (based in Egypt, loving Cleopatra) and routed him when the latter went to the extant of naming Caesarion the successor of Julius.
  • As part of the succession arrangements, Augustus adopted Tiberius on 26 June AD 4, but first required him to adopt great Germanicus, thus placing him next in the line of succession after Tiberius.

Germanicus

  • brilliant General,
  • who avenged and recovered the three lost eagles from the ambushed legions, designated successor of Tiberius, raised imperial suspicions by his independent actions there,
  • recalled and sent to Asia, reorganized various client kingdoms,
  • sadly likely murdered by paranoid and jealous Tiberius.

Tiberius

  • of gens Claudia, step son of Augustus, imperator for 23 years.
  • He became paranoid and ordered treason trials (punishing slightest criticisms harshly).
  • Likely murdered much loved general Germanicus to secure his son’s succession - but lost his son to illness. With the fueling of his paranoia by Sejanus, he further had the remainder of Germanicus’s family - including the irate wife Agrippina, exiled, killed or confined under the treason trials.
  • Retreated to the island of Capri in paranoia, leaving much power in the hands of the head of Preatorian Guard, Sejanus. There he pursued a life of decadance. Sejanus took advantage and increased his power and wealth - partly with confiscations as part of further “treason” purges of Senators.
  • Killed Sejanus with the help of Macro, former head of Roman vigiles/ police, via a letter to the senate where Sejanus was cleverly summoned with praise.
  • Brought Caligula, son of Germanicus, to Capri. Played with his mind, while grooming him to be a possible successor. Named Caligula and very young grandson Gemellus as joint successors.

Caligula (boot straps)

  • son of celebrated general Germanicus, grandson of general Drusus, raised for his first 7 years in various military camps.
  • Traumatically witnessed the murder of his father, exile and imprisonment of family. Grew up in confinement, brought to Capri and supposedly made to participate in whimsical activities by Tiberius, besides being groomed to succeed.
  • Sidelined Gemellus, making him adopted son and heir instead.
  • A good ruler for the first 7 months
    • commissioned good public works
    • pardoned many of Tiberius’s political exiles, cancelled treason trials.
    • restarted the games
    • initially very popular as the restored son of Germanicus.
  • Went through a 3 month “brain fever” which changed his personality.
  • In paranoia Eliminated allies such as the head of the praetorian guard Macro, even young Gemellus. Macro had attempted to ally himself with Gemellus when it appeared that Caligula might die of fever.
  • He immersed himself in desultory decadent orgies. Started incest with his sisters (probably at the prodding of the eldest Agrippina). His married sister Drusilla became pregnant by him, but died.
  • The remainder plotted to kill him, but were caught and exiled.Agrippina
  • Ordered treason trials to replenish treasury and carry on decadence. That failed, so he increased taxes.
  • Killed off his cousin Ptolmey of Mauretania
  • To recover popularity, ordered an invasion of Britannia, but the soldiers resisted and he changed his mind - and supposedly paraded fake captives.
  • The senate conspired with the Praetorian Guard to kill him.

Claudius

  • brother of Germanicus, uncle of Caligula, succeeded as emperor after securing support of the Praetorian Guard and foiling Roman Senatorial Republic plans. He was underestimated by opponents, and wasa competent emperor. He expanded the empire into Brittannia and added Eastern provinces. Had a troubled family life, where his ambitious wife Messalina cuckolded him and eliminated rivals before being killed. In her stead, he married her rival and his neice, Agrippina sister of Caligula.

Nero

  • son of Agrippina, step son of Claudius came to power. He expanded and consolidated the empire. Got his mother overbearing mother Agrippina murdered. Became more vain. Became unpopular after the great fire of Rome. A military coup and adversarial senate let to his suicide.

Marcus Aurelius

  • the philosopher emperor, who together with his co-emperor Lucius Verus held the empire firmly together against Germanic and Parthian attacks, a rebellion by an eastern general. But in an idiotic move, made his unworthy natural son Commodus his successor - rather than adopting someone competent like his immediate predecessors.

Hadrian

  • gave up hard-to-defend Mezopotamia, put down pesky revolts, first emperor to extensively tour the provinces, donating money for local construction projects (including the famous wall in Britannia).

Julian the apostate

  • the last pagan emperor of Rome, likely murdered by a Christian.
  • A friend of the great Sallustius.
  • Of him, Libanius said: “I have mentioned representations (of Julian); many cities have set him beside the images of the gods and honour him as they do the gods. Already a blessing has been besought of him in prayer, and it was not in vain. To such an extent has he literally ascended to the gods and received a share of their power from him themselves.”